View source for Earth:West African Craton

{{short description|One of the five cratons of the Precambrian basement rock of Africa that make up the African Plate}}
{{Graphical timeline

| help=off

| title=[[Earth:Geologic time scale|The geological eons<br>and eras of the<br> West African Craton]]
 | title-colour={{period color|West African Craton}}

| from=-{{period start|Archean}}
 | to=-500

| width=6.8
 | annotations-width=0

| period2=Archean
 | period3 = Proterozoic
 | period3-text = [[Earth:Proterozoic|Protero<br>-zoic]]
 | period3-nudge-up = 0.75
 | period4 = 
 | period4-text = [[Earth:Phanerozoic|Phanero<br>-zoic]]
 | period4-nudge-up = 0.75
 | period2-right=0.58
 | period3-right=0.58
 | period4-right=0.58

| period5      =   Eoarchean
 | period5-text = [[Earth:Eoarchean|Eo]]
 | period6      =   Paleoarchean
 | period6-text = [[Earth:Paleoarchean|Paleo]]
 | period7      =   Mesoarchean
 | period7-text = [[Earth:Mesoarchean|Meso]]
 | period8      =   Neoarchean
 | period8-text = [[Earth:Neoarchean|Neo]]

| period5-left=0.58
 | period6-left=0.58
 | period7-left=0.58
 | period8-left=0.58

| period9      =   Paleoproterozoic
 | period9-text = [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleo]]
 | period10      =   Mesoproterozoic
 | period10-text = [[Earth:Mesoproterozoic|Meso]]
 | period11      =   Neoproterozoic
 | period11-text = [[Earth:Neoproterozoic|Neo]]

| period9-left=0.58
 | period10-left=0.58
 | period11-left=0.58

| period2-border-width=0.04
 | period3-border-width=0.04
 | period4-border-width=0.04
 | period5-border-width=0.04
 | period6-border-width=0.04
 | period7-border-width=0.04
 | period8-border-width=0.04
 | period9-border-width=0.04
 | period10-border-width=0.04
 | period11-border-width=0.04

<!--black vertical bars -->
 | bar1-colour=black
 | bar1-left = 0.575
 | bar1-right = 0.585

| bar2-colour=black
 | bar2-left=0.99
 | bar2-from=-{{period start|eoarchean}}

| caption=[[Cartesian coordinate system#Two dimensions|Scale]]: [[Earth:Geologic time scale|millions of years]]

}}
The '''West African Craton''' (WAC) is one of the five cratons of the [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]] basement rock of [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] that make up the [[Earth:African Plate|African Plate]], the others being the Kalahari craton, Congo craton, [[Earth:Saharan Metacraton|Saharan Metacraton]] and [[Earth:Tanzania Craton|Tanzania Craton]].<ref name=Jessell2015>Jessell M.W., Liégeois J-P. (2015). "100 years of research on the West African Craton". ''Journal of African Earth Sciences''. 112(B): 377–	381. {{doi|10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.10.008}}</ref> Cratons themselves are tectonically inactive, but can occur near active margins,<ref name=Ennih2008>Ennih N. & Liégeois J-P. (2008). ''The Boundaries of the West African Craton''. Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 297: 1–17. {{doi|10.1144/SP297.1}}</ref> with the WAC extending across 14 countries in Western Africa, coming together in the late Precambrian and early Palaeozoic eras to form the African continent. It consists of two [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] centers juxtaposed against multiple [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] domains made of greenstone belts, sedimentary basins, regional granitoid-tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) plutons, and large shear zones. The craton is overlain by [[Earth:Neoproterozoic|Neoproterozoic]] and younger sedimentary basins. The boundaries of the WAC are predominantly defined by a combination of [[Physics:Geophysics|geophysics]] and surface geology, with additional constraints by the [[Chemistry:Geochemistry|geochemistry]] of the region.<ref name=Jessell2015 /> At one time, volcanic action around the rim of the craton may have contributed to a major global warming event.<ref name=snowball>{{cite journal|title=Mantle insulation beneath the West African craton during the Precambrian-Cambrian transition|journal=Geology|volume=30|issue=9|pages=839|date=September 2002|bibcode=2002Geo....30..839D|last1=Doblas|first1=Miguel|last2=López-Ruiz|first2=José|last3=Cebriá|first3=José-María|last4=Youbi|first4=Nasrrddine|last5=Degroote|first5=Eugenio|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0839:MIBTWA>2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

==Location and geology==

[[File:West African Craton.svg|thumb|left|300px|West Africa]]

The craton appears to have formed when three [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] cratons fused: Leo-Man-Ghana, Taoudeni and Reguibat. <br>The first two docked around 2.1 Ga (billion years ago), and the Reguibat Craton docked with the craton around 2 Ga. The roots of the combined craton extend to a depth of over {{cvt|300|km}} in the sub-continental lithospheric mantle.<ref>{{cite journal
 |doi=10.1130/GES00179.1
 |journal=Geosphere
 |title=The lithospheric architecture of Africa: Seismic tomography, mantle petrology, and tectonic evolution
 |volume=5
 |author=G.C. Begg1, W.L. Griffin, L.M. Natapov, Suzanne Y. O'Reilly, S.P. Grand, C.J. O'Neill, J.M.A. Hronsky, Y. Poudjom Djomani, C.J. Swain, T. Deen and P. Bowden
 |issue=1
 |pages=23–50
 |year=2009
 |bibcode=2009Geosp...5...23B
 |doi-access=free
 }}</ref> The WAC stretches from the Little Atlas mountains of Morocco to the Gulf of Guinea, and is bounded by mobile belts of much younger rocks to the north, east and west. The oldest rocks were [[Earth:Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] 2.9 to 2.5 billion years ago. In the Sahara it is mostly covered by more recent sediments from the [[Earth:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]] Eon. Further south, younger volcanic and sedimentary rocks outcrop in Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone, surrounded by even younger sediments laid down in the [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fortunecity.com/oasis/skegness/394/geology.htm |title=African geology |author=Peter Evans |publisher=Fortune City |access-date=2009-03-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206113542/http://fortunecity.com/oasis/skegness/394/geology.htm |archive-date=February 6, 2009 }}</ref>

The WAC is made of two distinct regions north and south of each other;  the Reguibat shield and the Man shield respectively. Both of these regions are mainly made of rocks that are either [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] or [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] in age,<ref name=Jessell2015 /> with western [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] nuclei,<ref name=Ennih2008 /> and rock types are separated by major shear zones.<ref name=Mark2016 /> The fold belts surrounding the WAC were folded and metamorphosed during the Pan-African and/or the Variscan orogenies.<ref name=Gouiza2018 />

The WAC underlies the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo and Benin.

===Metamorphism and evolution===

The metamorphic record of the craton is characteristic of [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] plate tectonics. A definitive evolution of the area has not been determined as a result of conflicting interpretation of the relationship between low-grade greenstone belts and high-grade [[Earth:Gneiss|gneiss]]ic terranes dominated by TTG suites.<ref name=Block2015>Block S., Ganne J., Baratoux L., Zeh A., Parra-Avila L.A., Jessell M., Ailleres L., Siebenaller L. (2015). Petrological and geochronological constraints on lower crustexhumation during Paleoproterozoic (Eburnean) orogeny,NW Ghana, West African Craton. Journal of Metamorphic Geology. 33: 463-494. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmg.12129</ref> The three major, widely accepted tectonothermal events for the WAC; the 3.5 to 2.9 Ga Pre-Leonean and Leonean Orogeny, the 2.9 to 2.8 Ga Liberian Orogeny, and the 2.15-1.8 Ga Eburnean Orogeny.<ref name=Mark2016 /> A definitive answer has strong implications on the [[Earth:Geodynamics|geodynamic]] processes controlling the craton stabilization and maturation after the [[Earth:Archean|Archean]]-[[Earth:Proterozoic|Proterozoic]] transition. Limited geochronological data indicate a prolonged period of metamorphic overprint, lasting approximately 70-million-years, with the support of [[Physics:Samarium–neodymium dating|Sm-Nd]] garnet-whole-rock isochron age data and [[Physics:Uranium–lead dating|U-Pb]] and [[Physics:Lead–lead dating|Pb-Pb]] crystallization ages of zircon, monazite, and titanite.<ref name=Block2015 />

Overprinting relationships in the area indicate copper [[Earth:Mineralization (geology)|mineralization]] is associated with the first deformation event in the WAC, with gold mineralization occurring during subsequent [[Earth:Structural geology|deformation]] events via reactivation of [[Biology:Magma|magma]]tic and [[Earth:Hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal]] fluids.<ref name=Jessell2015 />

====Constraints====

The [[Earth:Metamorphic rock|metamorphic rock]] of the WAC include, but are not limited to, high-grade amphibolite facies [[Earth:Amphibolite|amphibolite]], [[Earth:Gneiss|gneiss]], paragneiss [[Chemistry:Schist|schist]], calc-silicate rock, and migmatites. Portions of the region have also been metamorphosed to the greenschist facies,<ref name=Ennih2008 /> generally termed a [[Earth:Greenstone belt|greenstone belt]] in an [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] terrane.<ref name=Ganne2011>Ganne J., De Andrade V., Weinberg R.F., Vidal O., Dubacq B., Kagambega N., Naba S., Baratoux L., Jessell M., Allibon J. (2011). Modern-style plate subduction preserved in the Palaeoproterozoic West African craton. Nature: Geoscience. 5: 60-65. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1321</ref> The timing of the facies is constrained by the in-situ [[Physics:Uranium–lead dating|U-Pb dating]], with garnet composition providing constraints for [[Earth:Metamorphism|prograde]] evolution at the [[Earth:Blueschist|blueschist]]-amphibolite facies transition.<ref name=Block2015 /> The tectonic environment is constrained by a combination of [[Physics:Geophysics|geophysics]], surface geology, [[Chemistry:Geochemistry|geochemistry]], and metallogenesis.<ref name=Jessell2016>Jessell M.W., Begg G.C., Miller M.S. (2016). The geophysical signatures of the West African Craton. Precambrian Research. 274: 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2015.08.010</ref>

==Wanderings==
[[File:Cratons West Gondwana.svg|thumb|right|Approximate location of [[Earth:Mesoproterozoic|Mesoproterozoic]] (older than 1.3&nbsp;Ga) cratons in South America and Africa (the Saharan Metacraton is not shown).]]
The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago.<ref name="USGS1997">{{cite web | year=1997 | title=Age of the Earth
 | url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html | publisher=U.S. Geological Survey | access-date=2006-01-10}}</ref> As it cooled, the [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]], consisting of the [[Earth:Crust (geology)|crust]] and the rigid uppermost part of the [[Earth:Earth's mantle|mantle]], solidified. The lithosphere rides on the [[Earth:Asthenosphere|asthenosphere]], which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into [[Earth:Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]], which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100&nbsp;mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Read HH |author2=Watson Janet |title=Introduction to Geology |place=New York |publisher=Halsted |year=1975 |pages=13–15}}</ref>

It is difficult to reconstruct the early wanderings of the West African Craton, but around 1.13–1.071 billion years ago it seems to have been one of the cratons that came together to form [[Earth:Rodinia|Rodinia]], a [[Earth:Supercontinent|supercontinent]]. At that time, the Congo Craton lay to the west of the [[Earth:Amazonian Craton|Amazonian Craton]], and the West African Craton lay to the south where both were rotated about 180° and retain this relative configuration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.palaeos.com/Earth/Geography/Rodinia.htm|title=Rodinia|publisher=Palaeos (Toby White)|access-date=2009-03-15|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218101232/http://palaeos.com/Earth/Geography/Rodinia.htm|archive-date=2009-02-18}}</ref>

Around 750 million years ago Rodinia rifted apart into three continents: Proto-Laurasia, the Congo craton and Proto-Gondwana.<ref>{{aut|Torsvik, T.H.}}; '''2003''': ''The Rodinia Jigsaw Puzzle'', [[Science]] '''300''', pp. 1379-1381.</ref> The West African Craton may then have combined with other cratons to form [[Earth:Pannotia|Pannotia]], a hypothetical [[Earth:Supercontinent|supercontinent]] that existed from the Pan-African orogeny about 600 million years ago to the end of the [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]] about 539 million years ago.<ref name="palaeos">{{cite web | url = http://www.palaeos.com/Earth/Geography/Pannotia.html | title = Pannotia | work = Palaeos | access-date = 2006-03-12 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060313171408/http://www.palaeos.com/Earth/Geography/Pannotia.html | archive-date = 2006-03-13 }}</ref> Later it became part of [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]],<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=University of Leeds|url=http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eargah/Gond.html|title=Geophysical computer model|access-date=21 Oct 2008}}</ref> and later still part of [[Earth:Pangaea|Pangaea]], the [[Earth:Supercontinent|supercontinent]] that existed during the [[Earth:Paleozoic|Paleozoic]] and [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]] eras about between 335 and 175 million years ago, before North and South America separated from Eurasia and Africa and the continents started to drift towards current configurations.<ref>Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, Third Ed., 1989, by Kent C. Condie, Pergamon Press</ref>

==Snowball Earth==
{{main|Earth:Snowball Earth}}
[[File:Mahameru-volcano.jpeg|thumb|right|Volcanoes may have had a role in ending the global ice age of Snowball Earth.]]
Proponents of the Snowball Earth theory claim that sometime before 650 million years ago the Earth was going through an extremely cold period. The oceans were frozen to great depths, and snow covering reflected the heat from the sun through cloudless skies. Only simple forms of life could survive in locations such as deep oceanic hydrothermal vents.<ref>{{cite book  | author = Kirschvink, J.L. | year = 1992 | chapter = Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: The snowball Earth | title = The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study | pages = 51–52 | publisher = Cambridge University Press, Cambridge | editor = Schopf, JW |editor2=Klein, C. | chapter-url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~jkirschvink/pdfs/firstsnowball.pdf }}</ref> At the end of this period the edges of the West African craton became highly active, throwing up a ring of volcanoes. The thermal activity was caused by excessive [[Earth:Mantle (geology)|mantle]] heat that had built up below the craton, insulated by the [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]]. The volcanic eruptions created a [[Earth:Greenhouse effect|greenhouse effect]] on massive scale, melting the ice and releasing CO<sub>2</sub> into the atmosphere. The climate quickly switched to one much warmer than today, resulting in the [[Earth:Cambrian explosion|Cambrian explosion]] of life forms.<ref name=snowball/>

==Features==

During its wanderings, at different times covered by ice sheets, forests, marshes or arid desert, the surface of the West African Craton has been heavily eroded by ice, water and wind. In most places the original rocks are buried far below more recent volcanic and sedimentary deposits. The visible features are usually of comparatively recent origin.

===Little Atlas Range and Atlas Mountains===
[[File:Atlas-Mountains-Labeled-2.jpg|right|thumb|360px|Atlas Mountains in North Africa.]]
The Little Atlas range formed about 300 million years ago when [[Earth:Euramerica|Euramerica]] and [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]] ground against one another during the Alleghenian orogeny, a process that also formed the Appalachians in present-day [[Earth:North America|North America]]. More recently, in the [[Earth:Cenozoic|Cenozoic]] Era from 66 million to about 1.8 million year ago, the mountain chains that today compose the Atlas Mountains were lifted up as the European and African plates collided at the southern end of the Iberian peninsula. Erosion has reduced the Little Atlas range so that it is today lower than the High Atlas range to the north.<ref>http://einstein.uab.cat/c_geotectonica/WebAtlas/AtlasLitho.htm{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Potential field modelling of the Atlas [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]]</ref><ref>http://einstein.uab.cat/c_geotectonica/WebAtlas/MaterialAtlas/Ayarzaetal2005.pdf{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Crustal structure under the central High Atlas Mountains (Morocco) from geological and gravity data'', P. Ayarza, et al., 2005, Tectonophysics, 400, 67-84</ref>

===Saharan Basins===

South of the mountains, the West African Craton is relatively flat, mostly desert or dry [[Earth:Savanna|savanna]] apart from the areas near the Atlantic or Gulf of Guinea. However, below the surface there are ancient sedimentary basins such as the Taoudeni basin that may contain large reserves of oil and gas.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Wright | first =  J.B. | year = 1985 | title = Geology and mineral resources of West Africa | isbn = 978-0-04-556001-1 | publisher = Allen & Unwin | location = London }}</ref>

===Reguibat Shield===

The northern Reguibat shield covers parts of Algeria, Western Sahara,<ref name="Petrology">{{cite book|author=|title=Petrology and Geochemistry of Magmatic Suites of Rocks in the Continental and Oceanic Crusts|year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF3wAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291|publisher=ULB|pages=291|quote=The Reguibat Shield is distributed between Mauritania , Western Sahara and Algeria}}</ref><ref name="Lauri J. Pesonen, Johanna Salminen, Sten-Ake Elming, David A.D. Evans, Toni Veikkolainen">{{cite book|author=Lauri J. Pesonen, Johanna Salminen, Sten-Ake Elming, David A.D. Evans, Toni Veikkolainen|title=Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography of Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA426|year=2021|publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-818534-6|pages=426}}</ref> Morocco and Mauritania.<ref name=Jessell2015 /> It contains exposed [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] units to the east, and [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] to the west, including [[Earth:Kimberlite|kimberlite]]s<ref name=Ennih2008 /> making it a primary [[Chemistry:Diamond|diamond]] source with [[Chemistry:Gold|gold]] and [[Chemistry:Copper|copper]] deposits occurring in a sub-domain of the shield ([[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] Yetti).<ref name=Mark2016 /> It experienced at least one major cooling event during the [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]] and three minor cooling events from the [[Earth:Late Cretaceous|late Cretaceous]] to present day. Low temperature [[Physics:Thermochronology|thermochronology]] data indicates that the western side of the shield has an [[Chemistry:Igneous differentiation|igneous differentiation]] post-[[Earth:Triassic|Triassic]] thermal history, largely controlled by vertical movements of the crust via burial and exhumation processes.<ref name=Gouiza2018>Gouiza M., Bertotti G., Andriessen P.A.M. (2018). Mesozoic and Cenozoic thermal history of the Western Reguibat Shield (West African Craton). Terra Nova. 30(2): 135-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12318</ref>

===Man Shield===

The southern Man shield covers the countries Ivory Coast, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea.<ref name=Jessell2015 /> In this shield, a large portion of the WAC consists of [[Earth:Paleoproterozoic|Paleoproterozoic]] Birimian continent.<ref name=Ennih2008 /> The Birimian units were initially produced in an immature [[Earth:Volcanic arc|volcanic arc]] setting, which was later metamorphosed during the Eburnean orogeny. The poor exposure of the [[Earth:Greenstone belt|greenstone belt]] in the area limits interpretations of a broad structural context. The limited [[Earth:Greenstone belt|greenstone belt]] exposure indicates a major [[Engineering:Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] event associated with granitoid [[Earth:Intrusive rock|intrusions]].<ref name=Ganne2011 />

The shield hosts world-class gold deposits, important [[Earth:Iron ore|iron ore]] concentrations, and the [[Earth:Mineralization (geology)|mineralization]] of aluminum ore, lead-zinc, [[Chemistry:Manganese|manganese]], [[Chemistry:Phosphate|phosphate]], and [[Chemistry:Uranium|uranium]]. A majority of the gold deposit formations occurred during the Eburnean orogeny, but a number of the remaining gold deposits formed before this orogeny during a period of oceanic arc-[[Earth:Back-arc basin|back-arc basin]] formation and [[Earth:Erosion|erosion]] during the [[Earth:Neoproterozoic|Neoproterozoic]] and [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]].<ref name=Mark2016 />

==Mining activity==

Within the West African Craton, there is a large amount of mining activity covering resources such as gold, copper, cobalt, silver, tin, and zinc.<ref>Yager et al. 2012, [https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2012/myb3-sum-2012-africa.pdf The Mineral Industries of Africa]</ref>

Artisanal mining activity in the craton dates back to the early 1960s which used quartz vein debris as a gold indicator.<ref name=Tshi2016>Tshibubudze A., and Hein K. (2016). Gold mineralization in the Essakane goldfield in Burkina Faso, West African Craton. Ore Geology Reviews. 78: 652-659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.10.030</ref> Placer gold is primarily exploited by the artisanal miners, with other deposit types being mined by open-pit or by excavation mining (surface mining or sub-surface mining).<ref name=Mark2016>Markwitz V., Hein K.A.A., Jessell M.W., Miller J. (2016). Metallogenic portfolio of the West African craton. Ore Geology Reviews. 78: 558-563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.10.024</ref> In 1985 the State of Burkina Faso created an official structure, known as Le Projet Orpaillage, for the management of gold mining and buying in the region. Metallurgical studies on the gold panning rejects were funded by the [[Organization:United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) and the Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BUMIGEB). The treatment of mine tailings collected from artisanal working gold was the principle operation conducted by the Compagnie d'Exploitation des Mines d'Or du Burkina (CEMOB), operating a heap leach plant which processed approximately 500 tonnes of gold panning rejects per day.<ref name=Tshi2016 />

===Mining in Sierra Leone===

Following the Mineral Act, organized mining began in 1927 with significant mineral discovery in the 1930s and 40s resulting in medium to moderately sized mines; iron ore, two extensive alluvial gold field deposits, placer gold, alluvial diamonds, and chromite deposits. Quarrying and mining provides a livelihood for greater than 250 thousand people in Sierra Leone alone, employing approximately 15% of its population, producing a significant amount of material to qualify as a resource-rich country. The mining of the WAC can establish a strong economy and government development support, helping the alleviation of poverty.<ref name=Jalloh2013>Jalloh A.B., Sasaki K., Thomas M.O., Jalloh Y. (2013). The Geology, Mineral Resources of Sierra Leone and how the Resources can be Used to Develop the Nation. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science. 6: 131-138 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2013.01.018</ref>

==See also==
* Geology of Ghana

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
*{{Cite journal|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/full/297/1/1|title=The boundaries of the West African Craton, with special reference to the basement of the Moroccan metacratonic Anti-Atlas belt|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|volume=297|issue=1|pages=1.1–17|author1=Nasser Ennih  |author2=Jean-Paul Liégeois |name-list-style=amp |year=2008|access-date=2009-03-16|doi=10.1144/SP297.1|bibcode=2008GSLSP.297....1E|s2cid=56229139 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:West African Craton}}
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]

{{Sourceattribution|West African Craton}}