View source for Engineering:15-minute city

{{Short description|Urban planning concept}}

The '''15-minute city''' ('''FMC''' or '''15mC''')<ref name="Pozoukidou 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Pozoukidou |first1=Georgia |last2=Angelidou |first2=Margarita |title=Urban Planning in the 15-Minute City: Revisited under Sustainable and Smart City Developments until 2030 |journal=Smart Cities |date=2022 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=1356–1375 |doi=10.3390/smartcities5040069 |doi-access=free |issn=2624-6511}}</ref><ref name="Transition Pathway">{{cite web |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |date=n.d. |title=The 15-minute City Transition Pathway (15mC) |publisher=Driving Urban Transitions Partnership, JPI Urban Europe |location=Vienna |url=https://dutpartnership.eu/the-15-minute-city-transition-pathway-15mc/ |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allam |first1=Zaheer |last2=Bibri |first2=Simon Elias |last3=Chabaud |first3=Didier |last4=Moreno |first4=Carlos |title=The ‘15-Minute City’ concept can shape a net-zero urban future |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |date=2022 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1057/s41599-022-01145-0 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moreno |first1=Carlos |last2=Allam |first2=Zaheer |last3=Chabaud |first3=Didier |last4=Gall |first4=Catherine |last5=Pratlong |first5=Florent |title=Introducing the “15-Minute City”: Sustainability, Resilience and Place Identity in Future Post-Pandemic Cities |journal=Smart Cities |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=93–111 |doi=10.3390/smartcities4010006 |doi-access=free}}</ref> is an [[Engineering:Urban planning|urban planning]] concept in which most daily necessities and services, such as work, shopping, education, healthcare, and leisure can be easily reached by a 15-minute walk or bike ride from any point in the city.<ref name="Weng 2019" /> This approach aims to reduce car dependency, promote healthy and sustainable living, and improve wellbeing and quality of life for city dwellers.<ref name="Patterson, Lance" /><ref name="Khavarian-Garmsir Jan 2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Khavarian-Garmsir |first1=Amir Reza |last2=Sharifi |first2=Ayyoob |last3=Sadeghi |first3=Ali |date=January 2023 |title=The 15-minute city: Urban planning and design efforts toward creating sustainable neighborhoods |journal=Cities |language=en |volume=132 |pages=104101 |doi=10.1016/j.cities.2022.104101 |s2cid=253614133 |issn=0264-2751}}</ref>

Implementing the 15-minute city concept requires a multi-disciplinary approach, involving transportation planning, urban design, and policymaking, to create well-designed public spaces, pedestrian-friendly streets, and [[Engineering:Mixed-use development|mixed-use development]]. This change in lifestyle may include remote working which reduces daily commuting and is supported by the recent widespread availability of [[Engineering:Information and communications technology|information and communications technology]] (ICT). The concept has been described as a "return to a local way of life".{{r|O'Sullivan 2020}}

The concept's roots can be traced to pre-modern urban planning traditions where walkability and community living were the primary focus before the advent of street networks and automobiles.<ref name="Khavarian-Garmsir Feb 2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Khavarian-Garmsir |first1=Amir Reza |last2=Sharifi |first2=Ayyoob |last3=Hajian Hossein Abadi |first3=Mohammad |last4=Moradi |first4=Zahra |date=20 February 2023 |title=From Garden City to 15-Minute City: A Historical Perspective and Critical Assessment |journal=Land |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=512 |doi=10.3390/land12020512 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-445X}}</ref> In recent times, it builds upon similar pedestrian-centered principles found in [[Engineering:New Urbanism|New Urbanism]], [[Engineering:Transit-oriented development|transit-oriented development]], and other similar proposals that promote walkability, mixed-use developments, and compact, livable communities.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /> Numerous models have been proposed about how the concept can be implemented, such as 15-minute cities being built from a series of smaller 5-minute neighborhoods, also known as [[Social:Complete communities|complete communities]] or walkable neighborhoods.<ref name="Weng 2019"/>

The concept gained significant traction in recent years after Paris mayor Anne Hidalgo included a plan to implement the 15-minute city concept during her 2020 re-election campaign.<ref name="Willsher 2020">{{Cite news |last=Willsher |first=Kim |date=2020-02-07 |title=Paris mayor unveils '15-minute city' plan in re-election campaign |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/07/paris-mayor-unveils-15-minute-city-plan-in-re-election-campaign |access-date=2021-03-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Since then, a number of cities worldwide have adopted the same goal and many researchers have used the 15-minute model as a spatial analysis tool to evaluate accessibility levels within the urban fabric.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /><ref name="Weng 2019" /><ref name="Boukouras 2022" /> 
In early 2023, conspiracy theories emerged that described 15-minute cities as instruments of government repression.{{r|Hsu 2023|Paddison 2023|McCarthy 2023}}

== History ==
[[File:Early Days, COVID-19, Cafe, Paris.jpg|thumb|right|The 15-minute city was influenced by cities such as [[Place:Paris|Paris]], in which a range of amenities tend to be within walking distance]]

The 15-minute city concept is derived from [[History:History|historical]] ideas about [[Biology:Proxemics|proximity]] and [[Engineering:Walkability|walkability]], such as Clarence Perry's controversial [[Engineering:Neighbourhood unit|neighborhood unit]]. As an inspiration for the 15-minute city, Carlos Moreno, an advisor to Anne Hidalgo, cited [[Biography:Jane Jacobs|Jane Jacobs]]'s model presented in ''The Death and Life of Great American Cities''.<ref name="Moreno Oct 2020">{{Cite web |last=Moreno |first=Carlos |title=The 15-minute city |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/carlos_moreno_the_15_minute_city/transcript |access-date=2021-03-27 |website=TED.com |date=10 October 2020 |language=en |type=video with transcript}}</ref><ref name="Moreno 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Moreno |first1=Carlos |last2=Allam |first2=Zaheer |last3=Chabaud |first3=Didier |last4=Gall |first4=Catherine |last5=Pratlong |first5=Florent |date=2021 |title=Introducing the '15-Minute City': Sustainability, Resilience and Place Identity in Future Post-Pandemic Cities |journal=Smart Cities |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=93–111 |doi=10.3390/smartcities4010006 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Talen 2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Talen |first1=Emily |last2=Menozzi |first2=Sunny |last3=Schaefer |first3=Chloe |date=2015 |title=What is a 'Great Neighborhood'? An Analysis of APA's Top-Rated Places |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2015.1067573 |journal=Journal of the American Planning Association |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=121–141 |doi=10.1080/01944363.2015.1067573 |issn=0194-4363 |s2cid=153694519}}</ref>

The ongoing [[Earth:Climate crisis|climate crisis]] and global COVID-19 pandemic have prompted a heightened focus on the 15-minute city concept.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /> In July 2020, the [[Organization:C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group|C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group]] published a framework for cities to "build back better" using the 15-minute concept, referring specifically to plans implemented in Milan, [[Place:Madrid|Madrid]], [[Place:Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], and Seattle after [[Medicine:COVID-19|COVID-19]] outbreaks.<ref name="How to build back better">{{Cite web |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |date=July 2020 |title=How to build back better with a 15-minute city |url=https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/How-to-build-back-better-with-a-15-minute-city?language=en_US |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=C40 Knowledge Hub |publisher=C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group}}</ref> Their report highlights the importance of inclusive community engagement through mechanisms like [[Finance:Participatory budgeting|participatory budgeting]] and adjusting city plans and [[Physics:Infrastructure|infrastructure]] to encourage dense, complete, overall communities.<ref name="How to build back better" />

A manifesto published in [[Place:Barcelona|Barcelona]] in April 2020 proposed radical change in the organization of cities in the wake of COVID-19, and was signed by 160 academics and 300 architects. The proposal has four key elements: reorganization of mobility, (re) naturalization of the city, de-commodification of housing, and de-growth.<ref name="Argemí 2020">{{Cite news |last=Argemí |first=Anna |date=2020-05-07 |title=Por una Barcelona menos mercantilizada y más humana |trans-title=For a less commercialized and more humane Barcelona |work=El País |department=Alterconsumismo |language=es |url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html |access-date=2021-05-11}}</ref><ref name="Maiztegui 2020">{{Cite news |last=Maiztegui |first=Belén |date=2020-06-18 |title=Manifiesto por la reorganización de la ciudad tras el COVID-19 |trans-title=Manifesto for the reorganization of the city after COVID-19 |website=ArchDaily |language=es |url=https://www.archdaily.cl/cl/941897/manifiesto-por-la-reorganizacion-de-la-ciudad-tras-el-covid-19 |access-date=2023-03-16}}</ref><ref name="Paolini 2020">{{Cite web |last=Paolini |first=Massimo |date=2020-05-18 |title=The manifesto for the reorganisation of the City after COVID-19 |website=Degrowth.info |language=en-GB |url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/ |access-date=2021-05-01}}</ref>

== Research models ==
The 15-minute city is a proposal for developing a polycentric city, where density is made pleasant, one's proximity is vibrant, and social intensity (a large number of productive, intricately linked social ties) is real.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /><ref name="Whittle 2020">{{Cite news |last1=Whittle |first1=Natalie |date=17 July 2020 |title=Welcome to the 15-minute city |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/c1a53744-90d5-4560-9e3f-17ce06aba69a |access-date=2021-03-27 |url-access=}}</ref><ref name="Sisson 2023">{{Cite web |last=Sisson |first=Patrick |date=February 21, 2023 |title=What is a 15-minute city? |url=https://citymonitor.ai/community/neighbourhoods/what-is-a-15-minute-city |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=City Monitor |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Yeung 2021">{{Cite web |last=Yeung |first=Peter |date=4 January 2021 |title=How '15-minute cities' will change the way we socialise |url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20201214-how-15-minute-cities-will-change-the-way-we-socialise |access-date=2021-03-27 |website=Worklife |publisher=BBC |language=en}}</ref> The key element of the model has been described by Carlos Moreno as "chrono-urbanism" or a refocus of interest on time value rather than time cost.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /><ref name="Moreno Feb 2020">{{Cite web |last=Moreno |first=Carlos |date=February 21, 2020 |title=Urban proximity and the love for places Chrono-urbanism, Chronotopia, Topophilia By Carlos Moreno |url=https://www.moreno-web.net/urban-proximity-and-the-love-for-places-chrono-urbanism-chronotopia-topophilia-by-carlos-moreno/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=Carlos Moreno |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Moreno and the 15-minute city ===
Urbanist Carlos Moreno's 2021 article introduced the 15-minute city concept as a way to ensure that urban residents can fulfill six essential functions within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their dwellings: living, working, commerce, healthcare, education and entertainment.{{r|Moreno 2021}} The framework of this model has four components; density, proximity, diversity and digitalization.<ref name="Moreno 2021" />

Moreno cites the work of Nikos Salingaros, who theorizes that an optimal density for urban development exists which would encourage local solutions to local problems.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /><ref name="Salingaros p100">{{cite book |first=N.A. |last=Salingaros |chapter=Compact city replaces sprawl |chapter-url= |title=Crossover: Architecture, Urbanism, Technology |publisher=010 Publishers |series=Delft School of Design series on architecture and urbanism |date=2006 |isbn=978-90-6450-609-3 |pages=100–115 |oclc=83567232}}</ref> The authors discuss proximity in terms of both space and time, arguing that a 15-minute city would reduce the space and time necessary for activity.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /> Diversity in this 15-minute city model refers to [[Engineering:Mixed-use development|mixed-use development]] and multicultural neighborhoods, both of which Moreno and others argue would improve the urban experience and boost community participation in the planning process. Digitalization is a key aspect of the 15-minute city derived from smart cities. Moreno and others argue that a [[Fourth Industrial Revolution]] has reduced the need for commuting because of access to technology like [[Videotelephony|virtual communication]] and [[Finance:Online shopping|online shopping]]. They conclude by stating that these four components, when implemented at scale, would form an accessible city with a high quality of life.<ref name="Moreno 2021" />

=== Larson and the 20-minute city ===
Kent Larson described the concept of a 20-minute city in a 2012 [[Software:TED (conference)|TED talk]],<ref name="Larson 2012">{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/kent_larson_brilliant_designs_to_fit_more_people_in_every_city?language=en |first=Kent |last=Larson |title=Brilliant designs to fit more people in every city |access-date=July 21, 2021 |website=TED.com |date=9 September 2012 |type=video}}</ref> and his City Science Group at the [[Organization:MIT Media Lab|MIT Media Lab]] has developed a neighborhood simulation platform<ref name="CityScope">{{cite web |author1=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |title=Theme {{!}} CityScope |url=https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/cityscope/overview/ |website=MIT Media Lab |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Architecture + Planning |access-date=16 March 2023 |date=n.d.}}</ref> to integrate the necessary design, technology, and policy interventions into "compact urban cells". In his "On Cities" masterclass for the Norman Foster Foundation,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.normanfosterfoundation.org/the-norman-foster-foundation-presents-on-cities-masterclass-series/ |title=The Norman Foster Foundation presents 'On Cities' Masterclass Series |newspaper=Norman Foster Foundation |date=21 April 2021}}</ref> Larson proposed that the planet is becoming a network of cities, and that successful cities in the future will evolve into a network of high-performance, resilient, entrepreneurial communities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QsU9DTS2rM |title=Kent Larson on Resilient Communities and Sustainability - 'On Cities' Masterclass Series |date=April 21, 2021 |publisher=Norman Foster Foundation |access-date=April 21, 2021 |type=video |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{Time needed|date=February 2023}}

=== Weng and the 15-minute walkable neighborhood ===
In a 2019 article using [[Place:Shanghai|Shanghai]] as a [[Case study|case study]], Weng and his colleagues proposed the 15-minute walkable neighborhood with a focus on health, and specifically non-communicable diseases.<ref name="Weng 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Weng |first1=Min |last2=Ding |first2=Ning |last3=Li |first3=Jing |last4=Jin |first4=Xianfeng |last5=Xiao |first5=He |last6=He |first6=Zhiming |last7=Su |first7=Shiliang |date=2019 |title=The 15-minute walkable neighborhoods: Measurement, social inequalities and implications for building healthy communities in urban China |journal=Journal of Transport & Health |language=en |volume=13 |pages=259–273 |doi=10.1016/j.jth.2019.05.005 |issn=2214-1405 |s2cid=189992564}}</ref> The authors suggest that the 15-minute walkable neighborhood is a way to improve the health of residents, and they document existing disparities in [[Engineering:Walkability|walkability]] within Shanghai. They found that rural areas, on average, are significantly less walkable, and areas with low walkability tend to have a higher proportion of children.<ref name="Weng 2019" /> Compared to Moreno et al., the authors focused more on the health benefits of walking and differences in walkability and usage across age groups.<ref name="Moreno 2021" /><ref name="Weng 2019" />

=== Da Silva and the 20-minute city ===
In their 2019 article, Da Silva et al. cite Tempe, Arizona, as a case study of an urban space where all needs could be met within 20 minutes by walking, biking, or transit. The authors found that Tempe is highly accessible, especially by bike, but that accessibility varies with geographic area. Compared to Moreno et al., the authors focused more on accessibility within the built environment.<ref name="Capasso Da Silva 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Capasso Da Silva |first1=Denise |last2=King |first2=David A. |last3=Lemar |first3=Shea |date=2019 |title=Accessibility in Practice: 20-Minute City as a Sustainability Planning Goal |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=129 |doi=10.3390/su12010129 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Implementations ==

=== Africa ===
[[Place:Lagos|Lagos]], Nigeria, converted schools that were closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic into food markets to prevent panic buying. The program also decreased commute times and shored up food supplies within communities.<ref name="Akinfenwa 2020">{{Cite web |last=Akinfenwa |first=Gbenga |date=2020-03-29 |title=Covid-19: Lagos creates makeshift food markets in schools |url=https://guardian.ng/features/agro-care/covid-19-lagos-creates-makeshift-food-markets-in-schools/ |access-date=2021-04-29 |website=The Guardian (Nigeria) |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Asia ===
In 2019, [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]]'s Land Transport Authority proposed a master plan that included the goals of "20-minute towns" and a "45-minute city" by 2040.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Land Transport Master Plan 2040: Bringing Singapore Together |date=n.d. |publisher=Land Transport Authority, Government of Singapore |url=https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/who_we_are/our_work/land_transport_master_plan_2040.html |access-date=2023-03-16}}</ref>

[[Place:Israel|Israel]] has embraced the concept of a 15-minute city in new residential developments. According to Orli Ronen, the head of the Urban Innovation and Sustainability Lab at the Porter School for Environmental Studies at [[Organization:Tel Aviv University|Tel Aviv University]], [[Place:Tel Aviv|Tel Aviv]], Haifa, Beersheba, and central [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] have been effective in delivering on the concept at least in part in new developments, but only Tel Aviv has been relatively successful.<ref name="Nagler 2022">{{cite news |last1=Nagler |first1=Danielle |title=The 15-minute city could save you from needing a car, but will Israel run with it? |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-15-minute-city-could-save-you-from-needing-a-car-but-will-israel-run-with-it/ |access-date=16 March 2023 |work=The Times of Israel |date=30 September 2022}}</ref>

==== China ====
The 2016 Master Plan for Shanghai called for "15-minute community life circles", where residents could complete all of their daily activities within 15 minutes of walking. The community life circle has been implemented in other {{wipe|China}} cities, like Baoding and Guangzhou.<ref name="Lulu 2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Lulu |first1=H. O. U. |last2=Yungang |first2=L. I. U. |date=2017 |title=Life Circle Construction in China under the Idea of Collaborative Governance: A Comparative Study of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/geogrevjapanb/90/1/90_900103/_article |journal=Geographical Review of Japan Series B |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=2–16 |doi=10.4157/geogrevjapanb.90.2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The ''Standard for urban residential area planning and design'' (GB 50180–2018), a national standard that came into effect in 2018, stipulates four levels of residential areas: 15-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, 10-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, 5-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, and a neighborhood block. Among them, "15-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood" means "residential area divided according to the principle that residents can meet their material, living and cultural demand by walking for 15 minutes; usually surrounded by urban trunk roads or site boundaries, with a population of 50,000 to 100,000 people (about 17,000 to 32,000 households) and complete supporting facilities."

Chengdu, to combat urban sprawl, commissioned the "Great City" plan, where development on the edges of the city would be dense enough to support all necessary services within a 15-minute walk.<ref name="Steadman 2021">{{Cite magazine |last=Steadman |first=Ian |title=Chengdu plans a prototype 'Great City' as a model for China's suburbs |language=en-GB |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/china-great-city |access-date=2021-04-29 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
[[File: Bike lane, Avenue du Maréchal-Franchet-d'Espérey, Paris 25 March 2017.jpg|thumb|right|Example of bike lane in Paris]]

Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo introduced the 15-minute city concept in her 2020 re-election campaign and began implementing it during the [[Medicine:COVID-19|COVID-19]] pandemic. For example, school playgrounds were converted to parks after hours, while the Place de la Bastille and other squares have been revamped with trees and bicycle lanes.<ref name="O'Sullivan 2020">{{Cite news |last1=O'Sullivan |first1=Feargus |last2=Bliss |first2=Laura |date=2020-11-12 |title=The 15-Minute City—No Cars Required—Is Urban Planning's New Utopia |language=en |work=Bloomberg |department=Businessweek |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-11-12/paris-s-15-minute-city-could-be-coming-to-an-urban-area-near-you |access-date=2021-03-29}}</ref>

Cagliari, a city on the Italian [[Earth:Island|island]] of Sardinia, began a strategic plan to revitalize the city and improve walkability.<ref name="Balletto 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Balletto |first1=Ginevra |last2=Ladu |first2=Mara |last3=Milesi |first3=Alessandra |last4=Borruso |first4=Giuseppe |date=2021 |title=A Methodological Approach on Disused Public Properties in the 15-Minute City Perspective |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=593 |doi=10.3390/su13020593 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The city actively solicited public feedback through a participatory planning process, as described in the Moreno model. A unique aspect of the plan calls for re-purposing public spaces and buildings that were no longer being used, relating to the general model of urban intensification.<ref name="Balletto 2021" />

In Utrecht, the fourth-largest city in the Netherlands, 100% of people can reach all city necessities in a 15 minute bike ride, and 94% in a 10 minute bike ride.<ref>Knap, E., Ulak, M. B., Geurs, K. T., Mulders, A., & van der Drift, S. (2023). A composite X-minute city cycling accessibility metric and its role in assessing spatial and socioeconomic inequalities–A case study in Utrecht, the Netherlands. Journal of Urban Mobility, 3, 100043. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667091722000310</ref> The local municipality has plans to improve this further by 2040.<ref>https://omgevingsvisie.utrecht.nl/de-koers/ruimtelijke-strategie-utrecht-2040/</ref>

=== North America ===
In 2012, {{wipe|Portland, Oregon}}, developed a plan for complete neighborhoods within the city, which are aimed at supporting youth, providing affordable housing, and promoting community-driven development and commerce in historically under-served neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Portland Plan |url=https://www.portlandonline.com/portlandplan/ |access-date=2021-03-29 |website=www.portlandonline.com}}</ref><ref name="Pozoukidou 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Pozoukidou |first1=Georgia |last2=Chatziyiannaki |first2=Zoi |date=2021-01-18 |title=15-Minute City: Decomposing the New Urban Planning Eutopia |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=928 |issn=2071-1050 |doi=10.3390/su13020928 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Similar to the Weng et al. model, the Portland plan emphasizes walking and cycling as ways to increase overall health and stresses the importance of the availability of affordable healthy food.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /> The Portland plan calls for a high degree of transparency and community engagement during the planning process, which is similar to the diversity component of the Moreno et al. model.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" />

=== South America ===
In March 2021, [[Place:Bogotá|Bogotá]], Colombia, implemented 84 [[Kilometre|kilometers]] of bike lanes to encourage [[Medicine:Social distancing|social distancing]] during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref name="Jaramillo 2020">{{Cite news |last=Jaramillo |first=Andrea |date=2020-08-10 |title=Bogotá Is Building its Future Around Bikes |language=en |work=Bloomberg |department=CityLab |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-10/to-tame-traffic-bogot-bets-big-on-bike-lanes |access-date=2021-04-29}}</ref> This expansion complemented the Ciclovía practice that originated in Colombia in 1974, where bicycles are given primary control of the streets.<ref name="Jaramillo 2020" /> The resulting bicycle lane network is the largest of its kind in the world.<ref name="Ciclovías Temporales">{{Cite web |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |title=Ciclovías Temporales, Bogotá, Colombia |date=28 October 2020 |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/ciclovías-temporales-bogotá-colombia |access-date=2021-04-29 |website=Newsroom |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
The city of [[Place:Melbourne|Melbourne]], {{wipe|Australia}}, developed Plan Melbourne 2017–2050 to accommodate growth and combat sprawl.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /><ref name="Plan Melbourne">{{Cite web |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |date=n.d. |title=Plan Melbourne 2017 - 2050 |url=https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne |access-date=2021-03-29 |publisher=Department of Transport and Planning, State Government of Victoria |language=en}}</ref> The plan contains multiple elements of the 15-minute city concept, including new bike lanes and the construction of "20-minute neighborhoods".<ref name="Sisson 2020">{{Cite news |last=Sisson |first=Patrick |date=2020-07-15 |title=How the '15-Minute City' Could Help Post-Pandemic Recovery |language=en |work=Bloomberg |department=CityLab |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/mayors-tout-the-15-minute-city-as-covid-recovery |access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-03-23 |title=20-minute neighbourhoods |url=https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods |access-date=2021-04-14 |publisher=Department of Transport and Planning, State Government of Victoria |language=en |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524060510/https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods |url-status=dead }}{{Verify source|date=March 2023}}</ref>

== Societal effects ==
The 15-minute city, with its emphasis on [[Engineering:Walkability|walkability]] and accessibility, has been put forward as a way to better serve groups of people that have historically been left out of planning, such as women, children, people with disabilities, people with lived experience of mental illness,<ref name="Patterson, Lance">{{Cite web |last=Patterson |first=Christopher |last2=Barrie |first2=Lance |title=Forget the conspiracies, 15-minute cities will free us to improve our mental health and wellbeing |url=http://theconversation.com/forget-the-conspiracies-15-minute-cities-will-free-us-to-improve-our-mental-health-and-wellbeing-200823 |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref> and the elderly.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" />

Social infrastructure is also emphasized in order to maximize urban functions such as schools, parks, and complementary activities for residents.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /> There is also a large focus on access to green space, which may promote positive environmental impacts such as increasing urban [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] and helping to protect the city from [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]].<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" /> Studies have found that increased access to green spaces can also have a positive impact on the mental and physical health of a city's inhabitants, reducing stress and negative emotions, increasing happiness, improving sleep, and promoting positive social interactions.<ref name="Douglas 2021">{{Cite web |last1=Douglas |first1=Kate |last2=Douglas |first2=Joe |date=24 March 2021 |title=Green spaces aren't just for nature – they boost our mental health too |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24933270-800-green-spaces-arent-just-for-nature-they-boost-our-mental-health-too/ |access-date=2021-09-09 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}</ref> Urban residents living near green spaces have also been found to exercise more, improving their physical and [[Social:Mental health|mental health]].<ref name="Douglas 2021" />

== Limitations ==
While the theory has many potential benefits, including reducing car dependence and promoting walkability in urban areas, it also has limitations.

One limitation is the difficulty or impracticality of implementing the 15-minute city concept in established urban areas, where land use patterns and infrastructure are already in place. Additionally, the concept may not be feasible in areas with low population density or in low-income communities where transportation options are limited.<ref name="O'Sullivan 2020" />{{Attribution needed|date=May 2023}}

Another limitation is that the model is not universal – it is easier to implement in cities with less [[Earth:Urban sprawl|urban sprawl]], like those in Europe, than in cities with extensive sprawl, like those in Asia and North America.<ref name="O'Sullivan 2020" /> Noted exceptions include Chengdu, which utilized the 15-minute city concept to curb sprawl, and [[Place:Melbourne|Melbourne]], where Sally Capp, the Lord Mayor of Melbourne, stressed the importance of [[Engineering:Public transport|public transit]] in expanding the radius of the 15-minute city.{{r|Sisson 2020}}

Furthermore, when the concept is applied as a literal spatial analysis research tool, it then refers to the use of an [[Engineering:Isochrone map|isochrone]] to express the radius of an area considered local.<ref name="Boukouras 2022">{{Cite journal |last=Boukouras |first=Efstathios |year=2022 |title=The question of proximity. Demographic ageing places the 15-minute-city theory under stress |url=http://www.urbanisticainformazioni.it/IMG/pdf/ui306si_sessione_01.pdf |journal=Urbanistica Informazioni |volume=sessione_01 |issue=306 s.i |pages=21–24}}</ref> Isochrones have a long history of utilization in transportation planning and are constructed primarily using two variables: time and speed. However, the reliance on population-wide conventions, such as gait speed, to estimate the buffer zones of accessible areas may not accurately reflect the mobility capabilities of specific population groups, like the elderly. This may result in potential inaccuracies and fallacies in research models.<ref name="Boukouras 2022" />{{Attribution needed|date=May 2023}}

Georgia Pozoukidou and Zoi Chatziyiannaki write in the journal ''Sustainability'' that the creation of dense, walkable urban cores often leads to gentrification or displacement of lower-income residents to outlying neighborhoods due to rising property values; to counteract this, Pozoukidou and Chatziyiannaki argue for [[Finance:Affordable housing|affordable housing]] provisions to be integral to FMC policies.<ref name="Pozoukidou 2021" />

== Conspiracy theories ==
In 2023, unfounded conspiracy theories about the 15-minute concept began to flourish, which described the model as an instrument of government oppression.<ref name="Hsu 2023">{{Cite news |last=Hsu |first=Tiffany |date=2023-03-28 |title=He Wanted to Unclog Cities. Now He's 'Public Enemy No. 1.' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/28/technology/carlos-moreno-15-minute-cities-conspiracy-theories.html |access-date=2023-03-29 |issn=0362-4331 |url-access=limited}}</ref> These claims are often part of or linked to other conspiracy theories that assert that Western governments seek to oppress their populations, such as [[Social:QAnon|QAnon]], anti-vaccine theories or anti-5G misinformation.<ref name="Hsu 2023" /> Proponents of the 15-minute concept, including Carlos Moreno, have received death threats.<ref name="Hsu 2023" /> 

Some conspiracy theorists conflate the 15-minute concept with the British low-traffic neighbourhood approach, which includes license plate scanners in some implementations.<ref name="Hsu 2023" /> This has led conspiracy theorists to assert that the 15-minute model would fine residents for leaving their home districts,<ref name="France24 Flourish">{{Cite news |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |date=2023-02-15 |title=Conspiracy theories on '15-minute cities' flourish |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230215-conspiracy-theories-on-15-minute-cities-flourish |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=France 24 |agency=Agence France-Presse |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Elledge 2023">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/quickfire/2023/02/fifteen-minute-cities-will-be-back-conspiracy-theories-house-commons |website=New Statesman |date=February 2023 |first=John |last=Elledge |title=How have 15-minute cities become a conspiracy theory?}}</ref> or that it would confine people in "open-air prisons".<ref name="Hsu 2023" /> In a 2023 protest by some 2,000 demonstrators in Oxford, signs described 15-minute cities as "ghettos" and an instrument of "tyrannical control" by the [[Organization:World Economic Forum|World Economic Forum]].<ref name="Hsu 2023" />

Canadian media commentator [[Biography:Jordan Peterson|Jordan Peterson]] has described 15-minute cities as a "perversion", linking them to conspiracy theories about the "[[Finance:Great Reset#Conspiracy theories|Great Reset]]".<ref name="Hsu 2023" /> British Conservative Party MP Nick Fletcher called 15-minute cities an "international socialist concept" during a February 2023 debate in the UK Parliament.<ref name="Paddison 2023">{{Cite news |last=Paddison |first=Laura |date=February 27, 2023 |work=CNN |title=How '15-minute cities' turned into an international conspiracy theory |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/26/world/15-minute-cities-conspiracy-theory-climate-intl/index.html}}</ref> QAnon supporters have claimed a February 2023 derailment of a train carrying hazardous chemicals in East Palestine, Ohio was part of a deliberate plot to force rural residents into 15-minute cities in order to restrict their personal freedom.{{r|Hsu 2023}}<ref name="McCarthy 2023">{{cite web |last1=McCarthy |first1=Bill |title=Ohio train derailment fuels 15-minute city conspiracy theories |url=https://factcheck.afp.com/doc.afp.com.33BB7CC |website=AFP Fact Check |publisher=Agence France-Presse |access-date=4 May 2023 |date=14 March 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
*{{Annotated link|Accessibility (transport)}}
*{{Annotated link|Aging in place}}
*{{Annotated link|Active living}}
*{{Annotated link|Automotive city}}
*{{Annotated link|Bicycle-friendly}}
*{{Annotated link|Carfree city}}
*{{Annotated link|Co-benefits of climate change mitigation}}
*{{Annotated link|Compact city}}
*{{Annotated link|Cyclability}}
* Fused grid{{snd}} Type of urban planning design that aims to reconcile the urban grid and Radburn design housing
*{{Annotated link|Mixed-use development}}
*{{Annotated link|Most livable cities}}
*{{Annotated link|New Urbanism}}
*{{Annotated link|Obesity and walking}}
*{{Annotated link|Participatory budgeting}}
*{{Annotated link|Smart city}}
*{{Annotated link|Social influences on fitness behavior}}
*{{Annotated link|Street reclamation}}
*{{Annotated link|Transit-oriented development}}
*{{Annotated link|Transport divide}}
*{{Annotated link|Urban density}}
*{{Annotated link|Urban sprawl}}
*{{Annotated link|Urban vitality}}
*{{Annotated link|Walking city}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=La ville du quart d'heure : pour un nouveau chrono-urbanisme |url=https://www.latribune.fr/regions/smart-cities/la-tribune-de-carlos-moreno/la-ville-du-quart-d-heure-pour-un-nouveau-chrono-urbanisme-604358.html |website=La Tribune |date=5 October 2016 |access-date=17 February 2023}}
* {{Citation |last=Franqueville |first=Pierre |title=La bibliothèque dans la ville : du chrono-urbanisme à la chrono-bibliothéconomie |date=2014 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/books.pressesenssib.3284 |work=Ouvrir plus, ouvrir mieux |pages=75–85 |publisher=Presses de l’enssib |doi=10.4000/books.pressesenssib.3284 |isbn=9791091281393 |access-date=2023-02-13}}
* {{Cite news |last=Reid |first=Carlton |title=Every Street In Paris To Be Cycle-Friendly By 2024, Promises Mayor |website=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/carltonreid/2020/01/21/phasing-out-cars-key-to-paris-mayors-plans-for-15-minute-city/}}
* {{Cite news |date=February 7, 2020 |title=Paris mayor unveils '15-minute city' plan in re-election campaign |website=The Guardian |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/07/paris-mayor-unveils-15-minute-city-plan-in-re-election-campaign}}
*{{Cite web |title=My Portland Plan: What Makes a Neighborhood Complete? |url=https://www.portlandonline.com/portlandplan/?a=437441 |website=www.portlandonline.com}}.
* {{cite magazine |magazine=On Common Ground |url=https://www.nar.realtor/on-common-ground/transportation-in-the-15-minute-city |title=Transportation in the 15-Minute City {{!}} Making Pedestrians the Priority |publisher= National Association of Realtors |date=April 30, 2021 |access-date=May 4, 2023 |first=Joan |last=Mooney |quote="We want to design a place where you would like a car as an option", Duany told ''On Common Ground''. "We want your car to be an instrument of liberation, that’s elegant and comfortable and that gets you out into the country. You don’t want it to become a kind of wheelchair, just used for daily needs."}} 

[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]

{{Sourceattribution|15-minute city}}