View source for Engineering:Autonomous building

{{short description|Building designed to be independent from public infrastructure}}
{{Anti-consumerism|Theories}}

An '''autonomous building''' is a building designed to be operated independently from [[Physics:Infrastructure|infrastructural]] support services such as the [[Physics:Electric power|electric power]] grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, [[Earth:Sewage treatment|sewage treatment]] systems, [[Earth:Storm drain|storm drain]]s, communication services, and in some cases, public roads.

Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of [[Engineering:Green building|green building]], not independence per se (see below). [[Physics:Off-the-grid|Off-grid]] buildings often rely very little on [[Social:Civil service|civil services]] and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, Off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised.

As of 2018, most research and published articles concerning autonomous building focus on residential homes.

In 2002, British architects Brenda and Robert Vale said that

<blockquote>It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste...These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a "house with no bills" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller.<ref>{{cite book |last= Vale |first= Brenda and Robert |title= The New Autonomous House|year= 2000|publisher= Thames & Hudson Ltd|location= London |isbn=0-500-34176-1 }}</ref></blockquote>

==History==
In the 1970s, groups of activists and [[Engineering:Engineer|engineers]] were inspired by the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. In the {{wipe|United States}} a group calling themselves the [[Organization:New Alchemy Institute|New Alchemists]] were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of "bioshelter" projects, the most famous of which was [[Engineering:The Ark (Prince Edward Island)|The Ark]] bioshelter community for Prince Edward Island. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind-based water pumping and electricity and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, fish tanks raising [[Biology:Tilapia|tilapia]] for [[Biology:Protein|protein]], a greenhouse watered with fish water, and a closed-loop sewage reclamation system that [[Physics:Recycling|recycled human waste]] into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks. As of January 2010, the successor organization to the New Alchemists has a web page up as the "New Alchemy Institute".<ref>[http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/newalchemy.html "New Alchemy Institute"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818015757/http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/newalchemy.html |date=2006-08-18 }} (Website). ''The Green Center''. Retrieved on 2010-01-10.</ref> The PEI Ark has been abandoned and partially renovated several times.

[[Image:PHOENIXBATH.jpg|thumb|The bathroom of an Earthship, featuring a recycled bottle wall]]

The 1990s saw the development of [[Engineering:Earthship|Earthship]]s, similar in intent to the Ark project, but organized as a for-profit venture, with construction details published in a series of 3 books by Mike Reynolds. The building material is [[Engineering:Tire|tire]]s filled with [[Chemistry:Soil|earth]]. This makes a wall that has large amounts of [[Physics:Thermal mass|thermal mass]] (see [[Earth:Earth sheltering|earth sheltering]]). [[Engineering:Berm|Berm]]s are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally [[Earth:Blackwater (waste)|black water]] is recycled again for more plant watering. The [[Engineering:Cistern|cistern]]s are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from [[Physics:Solar energy|solar power]].

1990s architects such as William McDonough and Ken Yeang applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building ([[Company:ING Group|ING's]] [[Place:Amsterdam|Amsterdam]] headquarters) in the Netherlands was constructed to be autonomous and artistic as well.

==Advantages==

As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages.

Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs.

Autonomous buildings are usually [[Physics:Efficient energy use|energy-efficient]] in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation.

An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible [[Engineering:Green building|green building]]. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of [[Earth:Sustainability|sustainability]] through the use of [[Engineering:Renewable energy|renewable energy]] and other renewable resources, producing no more [[Chemistry:Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas]]es than they consume, and other measures.

==Disadvantages==
First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is relatively easy. In contrast, running an efficient, reliable food source can be a chore.

Living within an autonomous shelter may also require sacrifices in lifestyle or social opportunities. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous homes could require alterations of residents' behavior. Some may not welcome the extra chores. The Vails described some clients' experiences as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy.

An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the [[Earth:Climate|climate]] and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient windowing, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and [[Engineering:Maintenance (technical)|maintenance]], and also have an effect on the [[Social:Psychology|psychology]] of the space.

==Systems==
This section includes some minimal descriptions of methods, to give some feel for such a building's practicality, provide indexes to further information, and give a sense of modern trends.

===Water===
[[File:Ceres rainwater tank 2 Pengo.jpg|thumb|right|A domestic rainwater harvesting system]]
[[Image:Unterirdische Zisterne.jpg|thumb|right|A concrete under-floor cistern being installed.]]

There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective.

[[Earth:Greywater|Greywater]] systems reuse drained wash water to flush [[Engineering:Toilet|toilet]]s or to water lawns and gardens. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump, and secondary [[Engineering:Plumbing|plumbing]]. Some builders are installing waterless urinals and even [[Engineering:Composting toilet|composting toilet]]s that eliminate water usage in sewage disposal.

The classic solution with minimal life-style changes is using a [[Earth:Water well|well]]. Once [[Engineering:Drilling|drilled]], a well-foot requires substantial power. However, advanced well-foots can reduce power usage by twofold or more from older models. Well water can be contaminated in some areas. The [[Earth:Sono arsenic filter|Sono arsenic filter]] eliminates unhealthy [[Chemistry:Arsenic|arsenic]] in well water.

However drilling a well is an uncertain activity, with aquifers depleted in some areas. It can also be expensive.

In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use [[Engineering:Rainwater harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], with supplementary water deliveries in a [[Earth:Drought|drought]]. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment. If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutconsensus/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912052010/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutconsensus/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 12, 2004|title=WHO &#124; Nutrient minerals in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-water: Consensus of the meeting<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref>

Most [[Earth:Desert|desert]] and temperate climates get at least {{convert|250|mm|in}} of rain per year. This means that a typical one-story [[Engineering:House|house]] with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the driest areas, it might require a [[Engineering:Cistern|cistern]] of {{convert|30|m3|USgal}}. Many areas average {{convert|13|mm|in}} of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as {{convert|10|m3|USgal}}.

In many areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough for drinking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uaf.edu/ces/publications/freepubs/HCM-01557.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517155419/http://www.uaf.edu/ces/publications/freepubs/HCM-01557.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Cistern Design, University of Alaska, referenced 2007-12-27|archive-date=May 17, 2008}}</ref> To reduce dirt and bad tastes, systems use a metal collecting-roof and a "roof cleaner" tank that diverts the first 40 liters. Cistern water is usually [[Chemistry:Water chlorination|chlorinated]], though [[Chemistry:Reverse osmosis|reverse osmosis]] systems provide even better quality drinking water.

In the classic Roman house ("Domus"), household water was provided from a cistern (the "impluvium"), which was a decorative feature of the atrium, the house's main public space. It was fed by downspout tiles from the inward-facing roof-opening (the "compluvium"). Often water lilies were grown in it to purify the water. Wealthy households often supplemented the rain with a small fountain fed from a city's cistern. The impluvium always had an overflow drain so it could not flood the house.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Becker|first1=Jefferey|title=The Roman House (Domus)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/roman-domestic-architecture-domus|website=Khan Academy|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vitruvius|translator-last1=Morgan|translator-first1=Morris Hickey|title=The Ten Books of Architecture|date=1914|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=6.3|url=http://academics.triton.edu/faculty/fheitzman/Vitruvius__the_Ten_Books_on_Architecture.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://academics.triton.edu/faculty/fheitzman/Vitruvius__the_Ten_Books_on_Architecture.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref>

Modern cisterns are usually large plastic tanks. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level.

Reducing autonomy reduces the size and expense of cisterns. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below {{convert|10|USgal|L}} per person per day, so that in a [[Earth:Drought|drought]] a month of water can be delivered inexpensively via truck. Self-delivery is often possible by installing fabric water tanks that fit the bed of a pick-up truck.

It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a [[Physics:Heat pump|heat pump]] or [[Biology:HVAC|air conditioning]] system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years may decrease the efficiency of the HVAC system.

[[Chemistry:Solar still|Solar still]]s can efficiently produce drinking water from ditch water or cistern water, especially high-efficiency multiple effect humidification designs, which separate the evaporator(s) and condenser(s).

New technologies, like [[Chemistry:Reverse osmosis|reverse osmosis]] can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. [[Chemistry:Watermaker|Watermaker]]s are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and [[Earth:Brine|brine]]. [[Earth:Atmospheric water generator|Atmospheric water generator]]s extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.

===Sewage===

====Resource====

[[Image:Nature Loo Waterless Composting Toilet Pedestal.jpg|thumb|right|A composting toilet]]
[[Engineering:Composting toilet|Composting toilet]]s use bacteria to decompose human [[Biology:Feces|feces]] into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste. Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "humanure" for growing food.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure|last= Jenkins|first=J.C. |year= 2005|publisher= Joseph Jenkins, Inc.; 3rd edition|location=Grove City, PA |isbn= 978-0-9644258-3-5|pages=255 |url=http://www.humanurehandbook.com |access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref> The risk is microbial and viral contamination, as well as heavy metal toxicity. In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months. To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.<ref>See [[Engineering:Composting toilet|composting toilet]] for references.</ref>

Some home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that absorb nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor- and color-free [[Earth:Reclaimed water|reclaimed water]] can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large aquarium.

Electric [[Engineering:Incinerating toilet|incinerating toilet]]s turn excrement into a small amount of ash. They are cool to the touch, have no water and no pipes, and require an air vent in a wall. They are used in remote areas where use of septic tanks is limited, usually to reduce nutrient loads in lakes.

[[Organization:NASA|NASA]]'s [[Biology:Bioreactor|bioreactor]] is an extremely advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the crewed [[Astronomy:Mars|Mars]] mission. Another method is NASA's [[Biology:Urine|urine]]-to-water distillation system.

A big disadvantage of complex biological sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system biota may starve to death.

====Waste====

Sewage handling is essential for public health. Many [[Disease|disease]]s are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems.

The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a [[Engineering:Septic tank|septic tank]]. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary [[Earth:Sewage treatment|sewage treatment]]. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by [[Physics:Anaerobic digestion|anaerobic digestion]], and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.

Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing non-digestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended.

However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices.

Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices.

Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste.

Traditional methods of sewage handling include pit toilets, [[Engineering:Latrine|latrine]]s, and [[Engineering:Outhouse|outhouse]]s. These can be safe, inexpensive and practical. They are still used in many regions.

===Storm drains===

Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point.

Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with [[Earth:Stormwater|stormwater]]. In some cities, such as the [[History:Victorian era|Victorian era]] London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.

Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways. If a water-absorbing swale for each yard is combined with permeable [[Chemistry:Concrete|concrete]] streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than $800 per house (1970s) by eliminating storm drains.<ref>Swales replacing drains: Paul Hawken, [[Biography:Amory Lovins|Amory Lovins]] and Hunter Lovins, "Natural Capitalism," ch. 5, p. 83. The cited development is Village Homes, Davis, California, built in the 1970s by Michael and Judy Corbett</ref> One way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping. Additionally, a [[Biology:Green roof|green roof]] captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof.

===Electricity===
[[File:Green Building by Terry Farrel and Partners 394640345.jpg|thumb|right|Wind turbine on the roof in Manchester, UK]]
[[Image:Solar panels on house roof.jpg|thumb|right|A PV-solar system]]


Using a solar roof, [[Physics:Solar cell|solar cell]]s can provide electric power. Solar roofs can be more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas. At a sufficient angle, solar cells are cleaned by run-off rain water and therefore have almost no life-style impact.

Many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself or large battery storage systems are necessary to achieve electric self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramirez Camargo|first1=Luis|last2=Nitsch|first2=Felix|last3=Gruber|first3=Katharina|last4=Dorner|first4=Wolfgang|date=2018-10-15|title=Electricity self-sufficiency of single-family houses in Germany and the Czech Republic|journal=Applied Energy|language=en|volume=228|pages=902–915|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.118|issn=0306-2619|doi-access=free}}</ref> In stormy or windy climates, [[Physics:Wind turbine|wind turbine]]s can replace or significantly supplement solar power.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramirez Camargo|first1=Luis|last2=Nitsch|first2=Felix|last3=Gruber|first3=Katharina|last4=Valdes|first4=Javier|last5=Wuth|first5=Jane|last6=Dorner|first6=Wolfgang|date=January 2019|title=Potential Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Self-Sufficient Residential Use in Germany and the Czech Republic|journal=Energies|language=en|volume=12|issue=21|pages=4185|doi=10.3390/en12214185|doi-access=free}}</ref> The average autonomous house needs only one [[Engineering:Small wind turbine|small wind turbine]], 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100-foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service.

The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. Turbine location is critical: just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, many areas lack enough wind to make a turbine pay for itself. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33-foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site survey.<ref name="Gipe">Paul Gipe, "Wind Power for Home and Business"</ref>

Some sites have access to a stream with a change in elevation. These sites can use [[Engineering:Micro hydro|small hydropower systems]] to generate electricity. If the difference in elevation is above 30 metres (100 feet), and the stream runs in all seasons, this can provide continuous power with a small, inexpensive installation. Lower changes of elevation require larger installations or dams, and can be less efficient. Clogging at the turbine intake can be a practical problem. The usual solution is a small pool and waterfall (a penstock) to carry away floating debris. Another solution is to utilize a turbine that resists debris, such as a Gorlov helical turbine or Ossberger turbine.

During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expenses can be eliminated by attaching the building to the [[Engineering:Distributed generation|electric power grid]] and operating the power system with [[Finance:Net metering|net metering]]. Utility permission is required, but such cooperative generation is legally mandated in some areas (for example, California).<ref name="Gipe"/>

A grid-based building is less autonomous, but more economical and sustainable with fewer lifestyle sacrifices. In rural areas the grid's cost and impacts can be reduced by using [[Engineering:Single-wire earth return|single-wire earth return]] systems (for example, the MALT-system).

In areas that lack access to the grid, battery size can be reduced with a generator to recharge the batteries during energy droughts such as extended fogs. Auxiliary generators are usually run from [[Chemistry:Propane|propane]], [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]], or sometimes [[Chemistry:Diesel fuel|diesel]]. An hour of charging usually provides a day of operation. Modern residential chargers permit the user to set the charging times, so the generator is quiet at night. Some generators automatically test themselves once per week.<ref>[http://www.eaton.com Eaton power]; see the specifications and manuals. Referenced 2007-12-27</ref><ref>[http://www.KohlerSmartPower.com Kohler Generators]; see the specifications and manuals. Referenced 2007-12-27</ref>

Recent advances in [[Physics:Magnetic levitation|passively stable magnetic bearings]] may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Research groups like Canada's Ballard Power Systems are also working to develop a "regenerative fuel cell", a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed.

Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called [[Earth:Telluric current|telluric current]]. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical.

Microbial fuel cells and [[Physics:Thermoelectric generator|thermoelectric generator]]s<ref>{{cite web|title=Biolite Portable Stoves|url=https://www.bioliteenergy.com/collections/stoves|website=bioliteenergy.com|publisher=Biolite|access-date=12 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Firebee:Charge your USB Device!|url=http://firebeecharger.com/|website=firebeecharger.com|publisher=Firebee|access-date=12 May 2018}}</ref> allow electricity to be generated from biomass. The plant can be dried, chopped and converted or burned as a whole, or it can be left alive so that waste saps from the plant can be converted by bacteria.

===Heating===
[[Image:Active Solar Water Heater Diagram.svg|thumb|right|150px|Schematic of an active solar heating system]]

Most autonomous buildings are designed to use insulation, thermal mass and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples of these are [[Engineering:Trombe wall|trombe wall]]s and other technologies as skylights.

[[Engineering:Passive solar building design|Passive solar heating]] can heat most buildings in even the mild and chilly climates. In colder climates, extra construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact.

The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the solar collectors must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the [[Earth:Northern Hemisphere|Northern Hemisphere]], north in the [[Earth:Southern Hemisphere|Southern Hemisphere]]), and the building must incorporate [[Physics:Thermal mass|thermal mass]] to keep it warm in the night.

A recent, somewhat experimental solar heating system "[[Physics:Annualized geo solar|Annualized geo solar]] heating" is practical even in regions that get little or no sunlight in winter.<ref name="Stephens">Stephens, Don. September 2005. [http://www.greenershelter.com/TokyoPaper.pdf "'Annualized Geo-Solar Heating' as a Sustainable Residential-scale Solution for Temperate Climates with Less than Ideal Daily Heating Season Solar Availability."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031115210/http://www.greenershelter.com/TokyoPaper.pdf |date=2006-10-31 }} ("Requested Paper for the Global Sustainable Building Conference 2005, Tokyo, Japan"). Greenershelter.org website. Retrieved on 2007-09-16.</ref> It uses the ground beneath a building for thermal mass. Precipitation can carry away the heat, so the ground is shielded with {{nowrap|6 m}} skirts of plastic insulation. The thermal mass of this system is sufficiently inexpensive and large that it can store enough summer heat to warm a building for the whole winter, and enough winter cold to cool the building in summer.

In annualized geo solar systems, the solar collector is often separate from (and hotter or colder than) the living space. The building may actually be constructed from [[Physics:Thermal insulation|insulation]], for example, [[Engineering:Straw-bale construction|straw-bale construction]]. Some buildings have been aerodynamically designed so that convection via ducts and interior spaces eliminates any need for electric fans.

A more modest "daily solar" design is practical. For example, for about a 15% premium in building costs, the [[Engineering:Passive house|Passivhaus]] building codes in Europe use high performance insulating windows, R-30 insulation, HRV ventilation, and a small thermal mass. With modest changes in the building's position, modern [[Chemistry:Krypton|krypton]]- or [[Chemistry:Argon|argon]]-insulated windows permit normal-looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising insulation or structural strength. If a small heater is available for the coldest nights, a slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required [[Physics:Thermal mass|thermal mass]]. Passivhaus building codes, in particular, bring unusually good interior air quality, because the buildings change the air several times per hour, passing it through a heat exchanger to keep heat inside.

In all systems, a small supplementary heater increases personal security and reduces lifestyle impacts for a small reduction of autonomy. The two most popular heaters for ultra-high-efficiency houses are a small [[Physics:Heat pump|heat pump]], which also provides [[Physics:Air conditioning|air conditioning]], or a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the [[Engineering:Water heating|water heater]]. Passivhaus designs usually integrate the heater with the ventilation system.

[[Earth:Earth sheltering|Earth sheltering]] and [[Biology:Windbreak|windbreak]]s can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from {{convert|4|C|F|abbr=on}} in North Dakota to {{convert|26|C|F|abbr=on}},<ref name="Stephens"/> in Southern Florida. Wind breaks reduce the amount of heat carried away from a building.

Rounded, aerodynamic buildings also lose less heat.

An increasing number of commercial buildings use a [[Physics:Combined cycle|combined cycle]] with [[Physics:Cogeneration|cogeneration]] to provide heating, often water heating, from the output of a natural gas [[Engineering:Reciprocating engine|reciprocating engine]], [[Engineering:Gas turbine|gas turbine]] or [[Physics:Stirling engine|stirling]] [[Engineering:Electric generator|electric generator]].<ref>[http://www.microturbine.com/_docs/WCEMC04.pdf Capstone Microturbine White-Paper (PDF) Retrieved on 2007-12-28.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813123637/http://www.microturbine.com/_docs/WCEMC04.pdf |date=August 13, 2007 }}</ref>

Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat and power from [[Chemistry:Diesel fuel|diesel fuel]] or [[Physics:Bottled gas|bottled gas]], regardless of their other heating mechanisms.

Electric heaters and electric stoves may provide pollution-free heat (depending on the power source), but use large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical autonomous design.

===Water heating===


Hot water heat recycling units recover heat from water drain lines. They increase a building's autonomy by decreasing the heat or fuel used to heat water. They are attractive because they have no lifestyle changes.

Current practical, comfortable domestic water-heating systems combine a solar preheating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy.

Solar water heaters can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. Pure solar heaters are especially useful for laundries, swimming pools and external baths, because these can be scheduled for use on sunny days.

The basic trick in a [[Engineering:Solar water heating|solar water heating]] system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are [[Physics:Vacuum|vacuum]]- insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight.

[[Physics:Cogeneration|Cogeneration]] systems produce hot water from [[Astronomy:Waste heat|waste heat]]. They usually get the heat from the exhaust of a generator or fuel cell.

Heat recycling, [[Physics:Cogeneration|cogeneration]] and solar pre-heating can save 50–75% of the gas otherwise used. Also, some combinations provide redundant reliability by having several sources of heat.
Some authorities advocate replacing [[Physics:Bottled gas|bottled gas]] or [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]] with [[Physics:Biogas|biogas]]. However, this is usually impractical unless live-stock are on-site. The wastes of a single family are usually insufficient to produce enough [[Chemistry:Methane|methane]] for anything more than small amounts of cooking.

===Cooling===

Annualized geo solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend {{convert|6|m|ft}} from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface.

Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs.

Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, perhaps with a [[Physics:Whole-house fan|whole-house fan]] and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky-facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky-facing radiators can cool below freezing.

If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the "dome effect." Many installations have reported that a reflective or light-colored dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some people have reported a temperature differential as high as {{nowrap|8 °C}} ({{nowrap|15 °F}}) between the inside of the dome and the outside. [[Biography:Buckminster Fuller|Buckminster Fuller]] discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his Dymaxion house and geodesic domes to use it.

Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an "absorptive chiller". The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space.

Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or [[Physics:Stirling engine|stirling engine]]s powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller.

A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's [[Earth:Diesel exhaust|diesel exhaust]] was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. NRG developed a hydronic [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]] gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator.

A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low-temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50&nbsp;°F (28&nbsp;°C), and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, it also partially sterilises to the air.

If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a [[Physics:Heat pump|heat pump]].

===Food production===

Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security.<ref name="publications">[http://nature.my.cape.com/greencenter/pubonline.html Publications list of the New Alchemy Institute] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217004825/http://nature.my.cape.com/greencenter/pubonline.html |date=February 17, 2010 }}. Retrieved 2010-02-05.</ref>
Skilled, intensive gardening can support an adult from as little as 100 square meters of land per person,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pathtofreedom.com/urban-homestead#%23Urban%20Homestead%20at%20a%20Glance%23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204130925/http://www.pathtofreedom.com/urban-homestead#%23Urban%20Homestead%20at%20a%20Glance%23|url-status=dead|title=Path of Freedom|archive-date=February 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>How to Grow a Complete Diet in Less Than 1000 Square Feet Dave Duhon & Cindy Gebhard, 1984, 200 pp. Ecology Action GROW BIOINTENSIVE(R) Publications</ref>
possibly requiring the use of organic farming and [[Earth:Aeroponics|aeroponics]]. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include [[Engineering:Urban agriculture|urban gardening]] (indoors and outdoors). Indoor cultivation may be set up using hydroponics, while outdoor cultivation may be done using permaculture, forest gardening, [[Physics:No-till farming|no-till farming]], and do nothing farming.

Greenhouses are also sometimes included.<ref name="publications"/><ref>The PEI Ark was a greenhouse with fishponds and living quarters.</ref> Sometimes they are also outfitted with irrigation systems or [[Physics:Thermal energy storage|heat sink]] systems which can respectively irrigate the plants or help to store energy from the sun and redistribute it at night (when the greenhouses starts to cool down).<ref name="publications"/><ref>The PEI Ark used its fishponds as both thermal mass and water storage.</ref>

==See also==

{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|

* {{Annotated link |Arcology}}
* {{Annotated link |Appropriate technology}}
* {{Annotated link |Architectural engineering}}
* {{Annotated link |Biosphere}}
* {{Annotated link |Biosphere 2}}
* {{Annotated link |BIOS-3}}
* {{Annotated link |Building}}
* {{Annotated link |Brenda and Robert Vale}}
* {{Annotated link |Commercial modular construction}}
* {{Annotated link |Detention basin}}
* {{Annotated link |Earthship}}
* {{Annotated link |Ecovillage}}
* {{Annotated link |Environmental engineering}}
* {{Annotated link |Green building}}
* {{Annotated link |Hydrogen station}}
* {{Annotated link |In-situ resource utilization}}
* {{Annotated link |Microgeneration}}
* {{Annotated link |Passive house}}
* {{Annotated link |Quadruple glazing}}
* {{Annotated link |Renewable heat}}
* {{Annotated link |Street Farm}}
* {{Annotated link |Solar combisystem}}
* {{Annotated link |Vertical farming}}
* {{Annotated link |Zero-energy building}}
* {{Annotated link |Zero heating building}}
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* The [http://www.bfi.org Buckminster Fuller Institute] is still in existence. B. Fuller left thousands of pages of notes to the university where he last taught.
* There is a section on [https://web.archive.org/web/20020327082836/http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki?Autonomous_Houses Autonomous Houses] in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20020206042521/http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki Reality Sculptors] wiki, including links to a mailing list which frequently discusses autonomous design considerations.
* Designs for a geodesic dome version of an Autonomous House can be found at [https://web.archive.org/web/20020305092037/http://reality.sculptors.com/~salsbury/House/ reality.sculptors.com].
* "Wind Power for Home and Business" by Paul Gipe
* [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1906 An opinion piece by Brenda and Robert Vale]
*[http://www.cropthornehouse.co.uk/design The Cropthorne House] - notes on design and comparison with the Vales' Southwell House
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070307062524/http://www.stormbear.com/bagend2/index.php Bad End 2 - 21st Century Hobbit Hole] - precast concrete in home construction
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050804003446/http://www.off-grid.net/index.php Off-grid.net]
* [http://www.self-sufficiency-guide.com Self Sufficiency Guide]
*[http://www.new-self-sufficient-living.com/how-to-save-water.html Self Sufficient Living] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412042242/http://www.new-self-sufficient-living.com/how-to-save-water.html |date=2021-04-12 }}
*[http://www.greenspec.co.uk/ GreenSpec]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Autonomous Building}}
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]

{{Sourceattribution|Autonomous building}}