View source for Finance:Canadian corporate law

{{Corporate law|by country}}
'''Canadian corporate law''' concerns the operation of corporations in {{wipe|Canada}}, which can be established under either federal or provincial authority.

Federal incorporation of for-profit corporations is governed by '''Corporations Canada''' under the ''Canada Business Corporations Act''. All of the Canadian provinces and territories also have laws permitting (and governing) the incorporation of corporations within their area of jurisdiction. Often, the choice of whether to incorporate federally or provincially will be based on many business considerations, such as scope of business and the desire for application of particular rules which may be available under one corporate statute but not another.

==History==

Prior to Canadian Confederation, companies were organized through several procedures:

:* through contract as a [[Social:Partnership|partnership]] or unincorporated company
:* through royal charter, as was done for the Hudson's Bay Company
:* through an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as for the Canada Company
:* by an Act of the local legislature
:* formation as a joint stock company without limited liability under the laws of the applicable colony (first introduced in Lower Canada in 1849 for limited purposes,<ref>{{cite book|title = ''An Act to Authorize the Formation of Joint Stock Companies in Lower Canada for the Constructions of Macadamized Roads, and of Bridges and Other Works of Like Nature'', SC 1849, c. 56|year = 1849|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MLxRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA349}}</ref> extended to other types of business in the Province of Canada in 1850<ref>{{cite book|title = ''An Act to provide for the formation of Incorporated Joint Stock Companies, for Manufacturing, Mining, Mechanical or Chemical purposes'', SC 1850, c. 28|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CFQ1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1201|author1 = Canada|year = 1850}}</ref>)

Before 1862, [[Finance:Limited liability|limited liability]] was the exception, being conferred on specific companies through royal charter or special Act. When it was introduced into UK company law by the ''Companies Act 1862'' as a matter of general application, the Canadian colonies introduced legislation to enable the same locally.<ref>{{cite book|title = ''An Act to Authorize the Granting of Charters of Incorporation to Manufacturing, Mining and other Companies'', SC 1864, c. 23|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AHCuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA181|author1 = Canada|year = 1864}}</ref>

Upon Confederation, s. 92(11) of the ''Constitution Act, 1867'' gave provinces jurisdiction over "Incorporation of Companies with Provincial Objects." The judicial construction of this phrase has been the subject of several significant cases in the courts, and most notably at the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council:

:* In 1881, in ''Citizen's Insurance Co. v. Parsons'', it was held that the Parliament of Canada had authority to incorporate companies with objects of greater scope.<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=The Citizens Insurance Company of Canada and The Queen Insurance Company v Parsons|link = Citizen's Insurance Co. v. Parsons|court=UKPC|year=1881|num=49|parallelcite=[1881] 7 A.C. 96|date=26 November 1881|courtname=P.C.|juris=Canada|format = 1}}</ref>
:* In 1914, in ''John Deere'', it was held that the provinces could not interfere with a federally incorporated company by requiring them to be registered locally in order to conduct business.<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants= The John Deere Plow Company Limited v Theodore F. Wharton and others|link = |court=UKPC|year=1914|num=27|parallelcite= [1915] AC 330|date=2 November 1914|courtname=P.C.|juris=British Columbia|format = 1}}</ref>
:* In 1916, in ''Bonanza Creek'', it was held that "provincial objects" did not restrict a company's operations to the province of incorporation,<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=The Bonanza Creek Gold Mining Company Limited v The King and another|link=|court=UKPC|year=1916|num=11|format=1|parallelcite= [1916] 1 AC 566|date=24 February 1916|courtname=P.C.|juris=Canada}}, setting aside {{cite CanLII|litigants=Bonanza Creek Gold Mining Co. v. The King|link=|year=1915|court=scc|num=63|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=50 SCR 534|date=1915-02-02|courtname=|juris=}}</ref> so long as it was licensed or registered to operate in another jurisdiction, and its incorporating Act allowed for that to occur.

The first Federal and Provincial Acts generally provided for incorporation through letters patent, but the procedure was excluded federally for certain classes of company (such as railways and banks), which still had to be incorporated by special Act of Parliament. It was in this manner that the [[Company:Canadian Pacific Railway|Canadian Pacific Railway]] was originally formed.

Current Acts (such as the ''Canada Business Corporations Act'') generally provide for formation by articles of incorporation, but Prince Edward Island still retains the letters patent procedure and Nova Scotia provides for incorporation by [[Finance:Memorandum of association|memorandum of association]].

== <!-- Moved from Corporations Canada -->Corporations Canada ==
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Corporations Canada
| headquarters = Ottawa, Ontario
| parent_department = Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada
| keydocument1 = ''Canada Business Corporations Act''
| website = [https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cd-dgc.nsf/eng/home ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cd-dgc.nsf/]
}}'''Corporations Canada''' is Canada's federal corporate regulator, operating under Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. It is responsible for administering laws regarding the incorporation of Canadian businesses as well as "corporate laws governing federal companies, except for financial intermediaries." (Financial institutions are incorporated by the [[Finance:Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].)<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=Industry Canada|date=2007-07-11|title=Frequently asked questions – Corporations Canada - Corporations Canada|url=http://corporationscanada.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cd-dgc.nsf/eng/h_cs02193.html|access-date=2021-05-21|website=corporationscanada.ic.gc.ca}}</ref>

It has the authority to [[Social:Dissolution (law)|dissolve]] a corporation that has not filed its annual returns. Corporations Canada is responsible for the administering the following laws:<ref name=":02" />

* ''Canada Business Corporations Act''
* ''Canada Cooperatives Act''
* ''Boards of Trade Act''
* ''Canada Not-for-Profit Corporations Act''

==Corporate governance==

===Board of directors===

The articles of incorporation can provide for different classes of shares<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 49| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-49.html}}</ref> (which may carry the right to elect separate directors).<ref name = "S109">{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 109| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-109.html}}</ref> Like most of the Commonwealth and Europe, the "one share, one vote" principle prevails in public companies, but cumulative voting can occur where the articles of incorporation so provide.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 107| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-107.html}}</ref>

Shareholders must elect directors at each annual meeting, and, where the articles are silent, directors remain in office until the annual meeting after their election.<ref name = "S106">{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 106| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-106.html}}</ref> after incorporation (at which time the initial directors are simply registered).<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 6| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-6.html}}</ref> There can be staggered boards, but any director's term is limited to three annual meetings.<ref name = "S106"/> Directors elected by a particular class cannot be removed without consent of that class.<ref name = "S109"/> All changes in directors have to be filed with the registrar.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 113| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-113.html}}</ref>

Where a company's securities are traded publicly on the Toronto Stock Exchange, from 31 December 2012, it is required to:<ref name = "McMillan2012">{{cite web|author1 = John Conway|author2 = Ryan Walker|title = New director election requirements for TSX companies|url = http://www.mcmillan.ca/Files/147842_new%20director.pdf|publisher = McMillan LLP|date = October 2012}}</ref><ref name = "TSX2012">{{cite web|title = Amendments to Part IV of the Toronto Stock Exchange ("TSX") Company Manual|url = http://tmx.complinet.com/en/display/display_main.html?rbid=2072&element_id=821|publisher = Toronto Stock Exchange|date = 4 October 2012}}</ref>

:* elect its directors individually, as opposed to electing a [[Social:Slate (elections)|slate]],
:* hold annual elections, as opposed elections for multi-year and/or staggered terms,
:* disclose annually whether it has adopted a majority voting policy for uncontested director elections, and if not, explain why, and
:* after each meeting at which directors have been elected, notify the TSX if a director has received a majority of "withhold" votes (if it has not adopted such a policy), and promptly issue a press release disclosing the voting results.

In October 2012, the TSX also issued a proposal to require majority voting at uncontested elections.<ref name = "McMillan2012"/><ref name = "TSX2012"/>

The larger pension plans and other investment funds have instituted practices relating to the behaviour that is expected of the companies they invest in. Publications in that regard include:

:* ''Proxy Voting Principles and Guidelines''<ref>{{cite web|title = Proxy Voting Principles and Guidelines|url = http://www.cppib.com/content/dam/cppib/How%20we%20invest/Responsible%20Investing/Proxy%20Voting/Proxy_Voting_Principles_and_Guidelines.pdf|publisher = Canada Pension Plan Investment Board|date = 14 February 2013}}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
:* ''2013 Best Practices for Proxy Circular Disclosure''<ref>{{cite web|title = 2013 Best Practices for Proxy Circular Disclosure|url = http://www.ccgg.ca/site/ccgg/assets/pdf/2013_best_practices.pdf|publisher = Canadian Coalition for Good Governance|access-date = 2013-12-11|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140630133136/http://www.ccgg.ca/site/ccgg/assets/pdf/2013_best_practices.pdf|archive-date = 2014-06-30}}</ref>
:* ''Proxy Voting by Canadian Mutual Funds 2006–2009''<ref>{{cite web|author1 = L O'Neill|author2 =  J Cook|title = Proxy Voting by Canadian Mutual Funds 2006–2009|url = http://www.share.ca/files/SHARE_Mutual_Fund_Voting_Report_2010.pdf|publisher = SHARE|location = Vancouver|date = September 2010}}</ref>

On September 29, 2016 the Financial Post reported that a "Bill introduced in Parliament would vanquish 'zombie' directors who fail to win majority shareholder votes"<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://financialpost.com/news/fp-street/bill-introduced-in-parliament-would-vanquish-zombie-directors-who-fail-to-win-majority-shareholder-votes|title=Bill introduced in Parliament would vanquish 'zombie' directors who fail to win majority shareholder votes|newspaper=Financial Post|date=29 September 2016 |last1=Shecter |first1=Barbara }}</ref>

===Board structure===

Directors set their own remuneration.<ref>{{cite web|title = CBCA, s. 125| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-125.html}}</ref> They have a fiduciary duty to not put their own interests first when setting it. Some case law exists where decisions about remuneration were not reached fairly, or where directors' fees are unusually high, thus attracting oppression remedy claims under the various corporate statutes. Otherwise the remuneration committee should be composed of independent directors. There is no [[Finance:Say on pay|say on pay]] rule in the CBCA. However, a large number of Canadian companies have been having say on pay votes, as a result of shareholder proposals to change company constitutions in order to introduce them.

For publicly traded companies, the [[Company:Canadian Securities Administrators|Canadian Securities Administrators]] have issued various National Instruments that have been implemented to varying degrees by the provincial and territorial securities regulators in order to assure better-functioning boards. They include:

:* ''51-102: Continuous Disclosure Obligations''<ref>[http://www.osc.gov.on.ca/documents/en/Securities-Category5/rule_20111031_51-102_unofficial-consolidation-post-ifrs.pdf ''51-102: Continuous Disclosure Obligations'']</ref>
:* ''52-109: Certification of Disclosure in Issuers' Annual and Interim Filings''<ref>[http://www.osc.gov.on.ca/documents/en/Securities-Category5/rule_20101210_52-109_unofficial-consolidated-post-ifrs.pdf ''52-109: Certification of Disclosure in Issuers' Annual and Interim Filings'']</ref>
:* ''52-110: Audit Committees''<ref>[http://www.osc.gov.on.ca/documents/en/Securities-Category5/rule_20101210_52-110_unofficial-consolidated.pdf ''52-110: Audit Committees'']</ref>
:* ''58-101: Disclosure of Corporate Governance Practices'',<ref>[http://www.osc.gov.on.ca/documents/en/Securities-Category5/rule_20050617_58-101_disc-corp-gov-pract.pdf ''58-101: Disclosure of Corporate Governance Practices'']</ref> the Canadian implementation of the practices recommended by the UK Cadbury Report, made mandatory by the Toronto Stock Exchange for listed companies.<ref>[http://tmx.complinet.com/en/display/display_main.html?rbid=2072&element_id=256 ''TSX Company Manual'', s. 472]</ref>

===Shareholder rights===

Under s. 140(1) of the ''CBCA'', all shareholders have the right to vote.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 140| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-140.html}}</ref> Shareholders holding the same class of shares must be treated equally, and so, for instance, no voting ceilings are allowed.<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Jacobsen v. United Canso Oil & Gas Ltd.|link=|year=1980|court=abqb|num=1150|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=|date=1980-06-12|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>

With 5% of the voting rights, known as a ''requisition'', shareholders may require directors to call a meeting.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 143| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-143.html}}</ref> Uniquely, under s. 137 of the ''CBCA'':<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 137| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-137.html}}</ref>

:* a beneficial holder of shares may submit a proposal (which may include nominations to the board of directors), even though she is not a registered owner of shares.  This means a broad group of people who sit behind investment dealers or other intermediaries in the investment chain are now enfranchised.
:* any shareholder can make a proposal, a brief statement of which must be included with notices of meetings, but it can be refused if it "does not relate in a significant way to the business or affairs of the corporation," or "the rights conferred by this section are being abused to secure publicity" and under s. 137(8) the only way to challenge this is by application to a court. The proposal also has to not have been submitted within the last 5 years, if the last time it got less than 3%, 6% or 10% of the votes (depending on how often it had previously been submitted).<ref>{{cite web|title = ''Canada Business Corporations Regulations, 2001'' (SOR/2001-512), s. 51| date=15 January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2001-512/section-51.html}}</ref> Before 2001 there was a prohibition on proposals for economic, political, racial, religious or social causes, but this has since been repealed.
:* careful preparation is required in order to succeed in getting a proposal approved at a shareholders' meeting, especially where it calls for the replacement of the existing board<ref>{{cite web|title = The Mechanics of an Ambush|url = http://www.goodmans.ca/docs%5CAmbush.pdf|date = April 2010|publisher = Goodmans LLP}}</ref>
:* otherwise, the directors determine what goes on the meeting and proxy solicitation agenda<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 149| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-149.html}}</ref>

While a starting point of Canadian companies is that directors "manage or supervise the management of, the business and affairs of a corporation",<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 102| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-102.html}}</ref> shareholders may unanimously agree to do a corporate act, regardless of what directors think.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 146| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-146.html}}</ref> Shareholders can amend the articles with a three-quarters majority vote.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 173| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-173.html}}</ref>

Political donations by corporations (and trade unions) have been prohibited since the ''Federal Accountability Act'' repealed s. 404.1 of the ''Canada Elections Act'' in 2006.

===Directors' duties===

The laws in the various jurisdictions governing the duties of directors generally follow that laid out in s. 122 of the ''CBCA'':

{{quote|
'''122'''. (1) Every director and officer of a corporation in exercising their powers and discharging their duties shall
::(a) act honestly and in good faith with a view to the best interests of the corporation; and
::(b) exercise the care, diligence and skill that a reasonably prudent person would exercise in comparable circumstances.
:(2) Every director and officer of a corporation shall comply with this Act, the regulations, articles, by-laws and any unanimous shareholder agreement.
:(3) Subject to subsection 146(5), no provision in a contract, the articles, the by-laws or a resolution relieves a director or officer from the duty to act in accordance with this Act or the regulations or relieves them from liability for a breach thereof.}}

Extensive jurisprudence in the Canadian courts have expanded on the matter:

:* In ''Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise''<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise|link=Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise|year=2004|court=scc|num=68|format=|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[2004] 3 SCR 461|date=2004-10-29|courtname=|juris=}}</ref> it was held that the duty is not merely owed to the corporation itself, but also to corporate stakeholders, namely "shareholders, employees, suppliers, creditors, consumers, governments and the environment.: This duty is not mandatory. The main directors' duties under Canadian corporate law is the duty of care, and then avoiding conflicts of interest, which include primarily of engaging in undisclosed self-dealing, taking unauthorized corporate opportunities, competing with the company, and being enriched in a takeover bid.
:* A director has to meet a minimum standard of care, regardless of how clever or incompetent he is. It has also been implied by the case law, that if directors have special skills or qualifications, this will raise the standard expected further above the minimum.<ref>''Re Standard Trustco Ltd (1992)'', 6 B.L.R. (2d) 241 (O.S.C.)</ref> In ''UPM-Kymmene Corp v UPM-Kymmene Miramichi Inc''<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=UPM-Kymmene Corp. v. UPM-Kymmene Miramichi Inc|link=|year=2002|court=onsc|num=49507|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=|date=2002-06-20|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref> the board approved a large pay package for the chair and major shareholder, Mr Berg, after a seven-minute meeting of the compensation committee, and a 30-minute discussion on the full board. This was not long enough to consider the issues, properly inform themselves about the package, especially given their own compensation consultants, and the former compensation committee, had expressed serious concerns. Neither was this an issue of "business judgment" because that can logically only apply where some real judgment has in fact been exercised, where the board has "been scrupulous in its deliberations and demonstrated diligence in arriving at decisions."

Within the general duty to avoid conflicts of interest there is a duty for directors and officers to disclose self-dealing.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 120| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-120.html}}</ref> A director has to disclose a material interest in any transaction the company enters into. The same strict standard as in the UK applies to this day, so even having a close friendship with someone that benefits from a company contract counts. They must state any conflict of interest that may result from the conclusion of a contract with a third party, and if they do not respect this obligation any shareholder or interested person may ask for the annulment of the decision taken. If a breach of duty has already taken place, the Canadian rules on ''ex post'' shareholder approval provide that a shareholder resolution does not affect the invalidity of a transaction and the liability of the director, but it may be taken into account when the court decides whether or not to let a derivative action continue by a minority shareholder. The position on taking corporate opportunities begins with the case of ''Cook v Deeks'', where directors must have authorization by independent directors before they try to make any profit out of their office, when the company itself could possibly have an interest in the same deal.

More modern cases show some differences in the strictness of the courts' approach:

:* In ''Peso Silver Mines Ltd. (N.P.L.) v. Cropper''<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Peso Silver Mines Ltd. v. Cropper|link=Peso Silver Mines Ltd. (N.P.L.) v. Cropper|year=1966|court=scc|num=75|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[1966] SCR 673|date=1966-06-20|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref> the board, after getting advice, turned down mining claims because it lacked funds. A director, Mr Cropper, formed a company and bought them. Later, the company sued him. The Supreme Court of Canada held that there had been no breach in this case, since the company had positively decided not to take that opportunity, and just because the director found out about the opportunity whilst in his office did not mean the opportunity had to be turned over to the company.
:* Another leading case is ''Canadian Aero Service Ltd. v. O'Malley''<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Canadian Aero Service Ltd. v. O'Malley|link=Canadian Aero Service Ltd. v. O'Malley|year=1973|court=scc|num=23|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[1974] SCR 592|date=1973-06-29|courtname=|juris=}}</ref> where two directors, Mr O'Malley and Mr Zarzacki worked for a mapping and exploring business, and got involved in a project to map Guyana. They resigned, started a new company, Terra Surveys, and bid for a government tender to continue the work. The Supreme Court of Canada held that the proper questions to ask were whether the opportunity was closely connected to the company, and what relationship the directors had to the opportunity.

'''Tripartite Fiduciary Duty and the Principle of Fair Treatment'''

{{quote| A detailed examination of the Court's language [in ''BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders''] reveals that the duty of directors in Canada to 'act honestly and in good faith with a view to the best interests of the corporation' is an implied three-part fiduciary duty, which operationalizes the principle of fair treatment.<ref name="Rojas2014">{{cite journal |last=Rojas |first=Claudio R. |year=2014 |title=An Indeterminate Theory of Canadian Corporate Law |journal=University of British Columbia Law Review |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=59–128 |ssrn=2391775}}</ref>}}

==Corporate litigation==

In addition to being initiated by the corporation, litigation can be exercised through either derivative actions or the oppression remedy (the latter available federally and in all provinces other than Prince Edward Island). The two types of action are not mutually exclusive,<ref>{{cite web|author1 = T. Mark Pontin|author2 = Tracey M. Cohen|author3 = Graeme Cooper|title = Distinguishing Oppression Claims and Derivative Actions|url = http://www.fasken.com/files/Publication/9f6e9808-d5d0-4c18-bf65-0c3b0f128332/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/8cf188a6-678d-4107-993d-1ffa93f80f24/53611_2_CohenPontin.pdf|publisher = Fasken Martineau|date = June 2011|access-date = 2 July 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131215012512/http://www.fasken.com/files/Publication/9f6e9808-d5d0-4c18-bf65-0c3b0f128332/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/8cf188a6-678d-4107-993d-1ffa93f80f24/53611_2_CohenPontin.pdf|archive-date = 2013-12-15}}</ref> and the differences between them were noted in 1991:

{{quote|A derivative action is commonly said to arise where it is the corporation that is injured by the alleged wrongdoing. The "corporation" will be injured when all shareholders are affected equally, with none experiencing any special harm. By contrast, in a personal (or "direct") action, the harm has a differential impact on shareholders, whether the difference arises amongst members of different classes of shareholders or as between members of a single class. It has also been said that in a derivative action, the injury to shareholders is only indirect; that is, it arises only because the corporation is injured, and not otherwise.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Jeffrey MacIntosh|title = The Oppression Remedy: Personal or Derivative|year = 1991|journal = Canadian Bar Review|volume = 70|issue = 1|pages = 30{{endash}}31}}</ref>}}

Access to derivative actions and the oppression remedy is available to any complainant, which in the case of the ''CBCA'' includes current and former shareholders, current and former directors and officers, the Director, and "any other person who, in the discretion of a court, is a proper person to make an application under this Part."<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 238| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-238.html}}</ref> In that regard, it can include a creditor of the corporation,<ref>{{cite journal |author= J.S. Ziegel|year= 1993|title= Creditors as Corporate Stakeholders: The Quiet Revolution - An Anglo Canadian Perspective|journal= University of Toronto Law Journal|volume= 43|issue= 3|pages= 511–531|doi= 10.2307/825717|jstor= 825717}}</ref><ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=First Edmonton Place Ltd. v. 315888 Alta. Ltd.|link=|year=1989|court=abca|num=222|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=[1990] 2 WWR 670 |date=|courtname=auto|juris=}} (where a landlord was not paid by a company for rent, after the landlord gave it money as an inducement to rent the property. That money was paid out by the directors to the themselves. This counted as 'oppression'.)</ref> but not every creditor will qualify.<ref>{{cite web|author = Frank Roberts|title = Creditor's use of the oppression remedy|url = http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=30298&custom_att_2=direct|publisher = McGill University|year = 2000|access-date = 2 July 2013}}</ref> The court has discretion to dismiss an action where it is found to be frivolous, vexatious, or bound to be unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Re Marc-Jay Investments Inc. and Levy et al.|link=|year=1974|court=onsc|num=786|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=5 OR (2d) 235  |date=|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>

Shareholders can also bring claims based on breaches for personal rights directly, such as having one's right to vote obstructed.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 145| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-145.html}}</ref>

===Derivative actions===

Derivative actions may be pursued by a complainant if:

#fourteen days' notice is given to the directors,
#the complainant is acting in good faith, and 
#it appears to be in the interests of the corporation or its subsidiary that the action be brought, prosecuted, defended or discontinued.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 239| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-239.html}}</ref>

===Oppression remedy===

Canadian legislation provides for a broad approach to the oppression remedy. In ''Peoples Department Stores Inc. (Trustee of) v. Wise'', the Supreme Court of Canada noted:

{{quote|
48.&nbsp;... The oppression remedy of s. 241(2)(c) of the ''CBCA'' and the similar provisions of provincial legislation regarding corporations grant the broadest rights to creditors of any common law jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite journal|author = D. Thomson|title = Directors, Creditors and Insolvency: A Fiduciary Duty or a Duty Not to Oppress?|url = http://utflr.law.utoronto.ca/sites/utflr.law.utoronto.ca/files/media/UTLFR/utflr58/06_58UTorontoFacLRev31%282000%29.pdf|year = 2000|volume = 58|journal = University of Toronto Faculty of Law Review|issue = 1|page = 48}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>  One commentator describes the oppression remedy as "the broadest, most comprehensive and most open-ended shareholder remedy in the common law world."<ref>{{cite book|last = Beck|first = Stanley M.|chapter = Minority Shareholders' Rights in the 1980s|title = Corporate Law in the 80s, Special Lectures of the Law Society of Upper Canada|location = Don Mills|publisher = Richard De Boo|year = 1982|page = 312|isbn = 0-88820110-9}}</ref>
}}

In ''BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders'', the Supreme Court of Canada stated that, in assessing a claim of oppression, a court must answer two questions:<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 68</ref>

:* Does the evidence support the reasonable expectation asserted by the claimant?  and
:* Does the evidence establish that the reasonable expectation was violated by conduct falling within the terms "oppression", "unfair prejudice" or "unfair disregard" of a relevant interest?

Where conflicting interests arise, it falls to the directors of the corporation to resolve them in accordance with their fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of the corporation. There are no absolute rules and no principle that one set of interests should prevail over another.<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 81-84</ref> This is defined as a "tripartite fiduciary duty", composed of (1) an overarching duty to the corporation, which contains two component duties — (2) a duty to protect shareholder interests from harm, and (3) a procedural duty of "fair treatment" for relevant stakeholder interests. This tripartite structure encapsulates the duty of directors to act in the "best interests of the corporation, viewed as a good corporate citizen".<ref name="Rojas2014"/> Following ''BCE'', the Court of Appeal of British Columbia noted that "breach of fiduciary duty ... 'may assist in characterizing particular conduct as tending as well to be 'oppressive', 'unfair', or 'prejudicial'".<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Icahn Partners LP v Lions Gate Entertainment Corp.|link=|year=2011|court=bcca|num=228|format=|pinpoint=par. 71|parallelcite=333 DLR(4th) 257|date=2011-05-10}}</ref> More recently, scholarly literature has clarified the connection between the oppression remedy and the fiduciary duty in Canadian law:

{{quote|84. Upholding the reasonable expectations of corporate constituents is the cornerstone of the oppression remedy. Establishing a breach of the tripartite fiduciary duty has the effect of raising a presumption of conduct contrary to the reasonable expectations of a complainant.<ref name = "Rojas2014"/>}}

Under the business judgment rule, deference should be accorded to the business decisions of directors acting in good faith in performing the functions they were elected to perform,<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 99-100</ref> but such deference is not absolute.<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=L&B Electric Ltd. v. Oickle|link=|year=2006|court=nsca|num=41|format=|pinpoint=|parallelcite=242 NSR (2d) 356 |date=|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>

The remedy can extend to a wide variety of scenarios:

:* It can be potentially used by any stakeholder to deal with any type of unfair conduct by a corporation<ref>{{cite web|title = The Oppression Remedy in Canada|url = http://www.mcmillan.ca/94283|publisher = McMillan LLP|date = July 2009|access-date = 2 July 2013}}</ref>
:* It can cover an affiliate not incorporated under the same Act<ref>{{cite web|author1 = Robert D. Chapman|author2 = Edward P. Kerwin|title = CBCA Oppression Remedy Extends to Non-CBCA Affiliate|url = http://mccarthy.ca/article_detail.aspx?id=4128|publisher = McCarthy Tétrault|date = 28 August 2008|access-date = 2 July 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131213031711/http://mccarthy.ca/article_detail.aspx?id=4128|archive-date = 2013-12-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Manufacturers Life Insurance Company v. AFG Industries Ltd.|link=|year=2008|court=onsc|num=873|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=44 BLR (4th) 277 |date=2008-01-17|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>
:* It has been used to enforce unpaid judgments against the corporation's directors, where the corporation had been subject to [[Finance:Asset stripping|asset stripping]]<ref>{{cite web|author = Mark A. Wiffen|title = Getting blood from a stone – enforcing unpaid corporate judgments against directors |url = http://www.mcmillan.ca/getting-blood-from-a-stone--enforcing-unpaid-corporate-judgments-against-directors|publisher = McMillan LLP|year = 2011|access-date = 2 July 2013}}</ref>
:* It has also been used in conjunction with other remedies {{emdash}} including the threatened winding up of a company by the court {{emdash}} in order to resolve shareholder disputes in closely held companies.<ref>{{cite web|author = Stephen Antle|title = Oppression, just and equitable winding-up and the family company|url = http://www.blg.com/en/newsandpublications/documents/publication348_EN.pdf|publisher = Borden Ladner Gervais|access-date = 3 July 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131215035746/http://www.blg.com/en/newsandpublications/documents/publication348_EN.pdf|archive-date = 2013-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Safarik v. Ocean Fisheries Ltd.|link=|year=1995|court=bcca|num=6269|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=22 BLR (2d) 1; 12 BCLR (3d) 342|date=1995-09-20|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>
:* The Crown has employed the oppression remedy in its status as a creditor under the ''Income Tax Act'', in order to set aside dividend payments that rendered a corporation unable to pay its tax liability.<ref name="Van Duzer">{{cite journal|author = J. Anthony Van Duzer|title = Who May Claim Relief from Oppression: The Complainant in Canadian Corporate Law|url = http://www.rdo-olr.uottawa.ca/index2.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=dd_download&fid=273&Itemid=842|journal = Ottawa Law Review|volume = 25|issue = 3|page = 476|year = 1993|access-date = 4 July 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131216171425/http://www.rdo-olr.uottawa.ca/index2.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=dd_download&fid=273&Itemid=842|archive-date = 2013-12-16}}</ref><ref>''R. v. Sands Motor Hotel Ltd'', (1984) 36 Sask. R. 45 (Q.B.)</ref>
:* Where a company has made excessive salary payments to a controlling shareholder, a judgment creditor has been permitted to be a complainant.<ref name = "Van Duzer"/><ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Prime Computer of Canada Ltd. v. Jeffrey|link=|year=1991|court=onsc|num=7157|format=canlii|pinpoint=|parallelcite=6 OR (3d) 733|date=1991-12-13|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>
:* A wrongfully dismissed employee can make a claim in order to thwart a corporation from conducting asset stripping in order to make itself judgment proof.<ref name = "Van Duzer"/><ref>''Tavares v. Deskin Inc.'', [1993] O.J. No. 195 (Gen. Div.)</ref>

The court's discretion is not unlimited, as the Court of Appeal of Newfoundland and Labrador observed in 2003:<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Pelley v. Pelley|link=|year=2003|court=nlca|num=6|format=|pinpoint=par. 37|parallelcite=221 Nfld & PEIR 1  |date=2003-01-22|courtname=auto|juris=}}</ref>

:* The result of the exercise of the discretion contained in subsection 371(3)<ref>of ''NLCA'', equivalent to ''CBCA'', s. 241(3)</ref> must be the rectification of the oppressive conduct.  If it has some other result the remedy would be one which is not authorized by law.
:* Any rectification of a matter complained of can only be made with respect to the person's interest as a shareholder, creditor, director or officer.
:* Persons who are shareholders, officers and directors of companies may have other personal interests which are intimately connected to a transaction.  However, it is only their interests as shareholder, officer or director as such which are protected by section 371 of the Act.<ref>''NLCA''</ref> The provisions of that section cannot be used to protect or to advance directly or indirectly their other personal interests.
:* The law is clear that when determining whether there has been oppression of a minority shareholder, the court must determine what the reasonable expectations of that person were according to the arrangements which existed between the principals.
:* They must be expectations which could be said to have been, or ought to have been, considered as part of the compact of the shareholders.
:* The determination of reasonable expectations will also[...] have an important bearing upon the decision as to what is a just remedy in a particular case.
:* The remedy must not be unjust to the others involved.

==Takeover bids==

In takeover situations, Canada gives shareholders no straightforward right to extinguish a frustrating measure. However, ordinary directors' duties regarding conflicts of interest apply.

Rules governing takeover bids come from various sources:

:* provisions in the incorporating statutes,
:* rules found in the provincial and territorial securities laws (where the corporation's shares are publicly traded), and
:* special requirements of the listing exchange (either the Toronto Stock Exchange or the TSX Venture Exchange).

Relatively little litigation has taken place in this matter in the Canadian courts.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Christopher C. Nicholls|title = Lock-Ups, Squeeze-Outs, and Canadian Takeover Bid Law: A Curious Interplay of Public and Private Interests|url = http://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/userfiles/other/4160146-1224868704_Nicholls.pdf|journal = McGill Law Journal|volume = 51|issue = 2|pages = 407{{endash}}427}}</ref> The current régime (which has been described as being quite lax in comparison to that in the United States)<ref>{{cite news|author = Julius Melnitzer|title = Canadian firms easy targets for takeovers|url = http://business.financialpost.com/2012/02/08/canadian-firms-easy-targets-for-takeovers/|newspaper = Financial Post|date = 8 February 2012}}</ref> came into effect in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title = Revised Canadian Take-Over Bid and Issuer Bid Regime|url = http://www.dwpv.com/~/media/Files/PDF/Revised_Canadian_Take-Over_Bid_and_Issuer_Bid_Regime.ashx|publisher = Davies Ward Phillips & Vineberg|date = February 2008}}</ref> The [[Company:Canadian Securities Administrators|Canadian Securities Administrators]] issued proposals in 2013 on tightening early warning requirements in their rules,<ref>{{cite web|title = CSA Proposes Changes to Early Warning Requirements|url = http://www.dwpv.com/en/Resources/Publications/2013/CSA-Proposes-Changes-to-Early-Warning-Requirements|publisher = Davies Ward Phillips & Vineberg|date = 14 March 2013}}</ref> while in Quebec the ''Autorité des marchés financiers'' issued a proposal favouring an alternative approach concerning all take-over bid defensive tactics.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Competing Visions of the CSA and AMF on Shareholder Rights Plans and Take-over Bid Defensive Tactics|url = http://www.davis.ca/en/publication/csa-and-amf-on-shareholder-rights-plans-and-takeover-bid-defensive-tactics/|publisher = Davis LLP|date = 22 April 2013|access-date = 17 December 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131217221433/http://www.davis.ca/en/publication/csa-and-amf-on-shareholder-rights-plans-and-takeover-bid-defensive-tactics/|archive-date = 17 December 2013}}</ref>

==Corporate reorganizations==

Canadian corporate law offers a variety of options in which to conduct reorganizations, depending on whether the context concerns [[Social:Mergers and acquisitions|mergers and acquisitions]] or [[Finance:Insolvency|insolvency]].

===''Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act''===

A unique feature of Canadian law is found in the ''Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act'', which provides a scheme for allowing insolvent corporations, which owe in excess of $5 million to their creditors, a method for restructuring their business and financial affairs.

Under the ''CCAA'', the court has broad discretion in administering any issues that may arise.<ref>{{Cite web | author = John Sandrelli | title = Jurisdiction of the court in CCAA proceedings: Inherent jurisdiction vs statutory discretion | url = http://www.fmc-law.com/upload/en/publications/20052006/2634262_Jursidiction_of_the_Court_in_CCA.pdf | publisher = Fraser Milner Casgrain | date = September 15–16, 2005 | access-date = 2011-09-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120329040843/http://www.fmc-law.com/upload/en/publications/20052006/2634262_Jursidiction_of_the_Court_in_CCA.pdf | archive-date = 2012-03-29 }}</ref> As the Act says,

{{quote| ...the court, on the application of any person interested in the matter, may ... make any order that it considers appropriate in the circumstances.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CCAA, S. 11 | date = November 2019| url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-36/page-5.html}}</ref>}}

This has allowed for very creative applications for resolving difficult scenarios, including:
:* the packaging and orderly resolution of holdings of [[Finance:Asset-backed commercial paper|asset-backed commercial paper]] by multiple investors, which can include the release of claims against third parties who are themselves solvent and not creditors of the debtor company<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Metcalfe & Mansfield Alternative Investments II Corp., (Re)|link=|year=2008|source=onca|num=587|pinpoint=|parallelcite=92 OR (3d) 513; 296 DLR (4th) 135|date=2008-08-18|courtname=|juris=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author1=Philippe H. Bélanger |author2=Geoff R. Hall |author3=Kevin P. McElcheran |author4=Mason Poplaw |title=Creativity in the Courts: Use of the CCAA to Address Asset-Backed Commercial Paper Crisis |url=http://www.mccarthy.ca/article_detail.aspx?id=4176 |publisher=McCarthy Tétrault |date=2008-11-04 |access-date=2011-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703092603/http://mccarthy.ca/article_detail.aspx?id=4176 |archive-date=2011-07-03 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| author = Michael Schafler| title = Court Approves Restructuring Plan for Failed Asset-Backed Commercial Paper| url = http://www.fmc-law.com/upload/en/publications/2008/Michael%20Schafler%20.pdf| publisher = Fraser Milner Casgrain| date = September 2008| access-date = 2012-09-11}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
:* dealing with [[Social:Limited partnership|limited partnership]]s managed by an insolvent general partner<ref>{{Cite web| author = Geoffrey Thompson |title = Limited Partnerships and the CCAA | url = http://www.blg.com/en/home/publications/Documents/publication1362_EN.pdf | publisher = Borden Ladner Gervais | date = July 2009 | access-date = 2011-09-12}}</ref>
:* arranging for disposal of the company through a [[Finance:Stalking horse offer|stalking horse offer]]<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Michael Fitch |author2=Kibben Jackson |title=Face the Music: The A&B Sound CCAA Proceeding - A Stalking Horse of a Different Colour |url=http://www.fasken.com/files/Publication/9861dcb5-1cad-473f-82ce-efe1024322da/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/8031485e-659d-45a0-9934-f0cd643d5f37/Face%20the%20Music.pdf |publisher=Fraser Milner Casgrain |access-date=2011-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331014800/http://www.fasken.com/files/Publication/9861dcb5-1cad-473f-82ce-efe1024322da/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/8031485e-659d-45a0-9934-f0cd643d5f37/Face%20the%20Music.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-31 }}</ref>
:* providing a more effective way for arranging merger and acquisition transactions involving distressed companies<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Sean F. Collins |author2=James D. Gage |author3=Warren Milman |author4=Roger Taplin |title = Mergers & Acquisitions in a More Uncertain World: Using the ''Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act'' | url = http://www.mccarthy.ca/article_detail.aspx?id=4299 | publisher = McCarthy Tétrault | date = 2012-07-25 | access-date = 2012-08-13}}</ref>
:* administering the [[Finance:Liquidation|liquidation]] of the company<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Peter B. Farkas |author2=John Sandrelli |author3=Jordan Schultz |title=The Role of Liquidating CCAAs |url=http://www.fmc-law.com/upload/en/publications/2010/0410_The_Role_Of_Liqudating_CCAAs.pdf |publisher=Fraser Milner Casgrain |access-date=2011-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329040851/http://www.fmc-law.com/upload/en/publications/2010/0410_The_Role_Of_Liqudating_CCAAs.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-29 }}</ref>
:* declining to approve [[Finance:Debt restructuring|restructuring plans]], either because they are poorly conceived<ref>{{Cite web| author1= Michael MacNaughton| author2= Geoffrey Thompson |title = Restructuring without a plan | url = http://www.blg.com/en/home/publications/Documents/publication1093_EN.pdf | publisher = Borden Ladner Gervais | access-date = 2011-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| author = Jassmine Girgis |title = Restructuring under the CCAA: Should A Debtor Always Be Allowed to Proceed? | url = http://ablawg.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/blog_jg_budgetwaste_abqb_jan2010.pdf | publisher = ABlawg.ca | access-date = 2010-01-28}}</ref> or contrary to the best interests of the parties concerned<ref>{{Cite web| author = Roger Jaipargas |title = Court Declines to Approve Sale of Assets as Part of Proposal Proceedings | url = http://www.blg.com/en/home/publications/Documents/publication_1653.pdf | publisher = Borden Ladner Gervais | date = July 2010 | access-date = 2011-09-12}}</ref>

===Plans of arrangement===

The various Canadian statutes also allow for plans of arrangement to be devised for companies that are solvent. In that regard, the ''CBCA'' defines arrangements as including:<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 192| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-192.html}}</ref>

:* an amendment to the articles of a corporation;
:* an amalgamation of two or more corporations;
:* an amalgamation of a body corporate with a corporation that results in an amalgamated corporation subject to this Act;
:* a division of the business carried on by a corporation;
:* a transfer of all or substantially all the property of a corporation to another body corporate in exchange for property, money or securities of the body corporate;
:* an exchange of securities of a corporation for property, money or other securities of the corporation or property, money or securities of another body corporate;
:* a [[Finance:Listing|going-private transaction]] or a squeeze-out transaction in relation to a corporation;
:* a liquidation and dissolution of a corporation; and
:* any combination of the foregoing.

Plans of arrangement have been employed in cross-border mergers to great success.<ref>{{cite web|author = Ken Pogrin|title = Canadian Plans of Arrangement: An Attractive Structure for the Cross-Border Merger|url = http://www.stikeman.com/newslett/MaOct06_2.htm|publisher = Stikeman Elliott|year = 2006|access-date = 2013-12-14|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116105607/http://www.stikeman.com/newslett/MaOct06_2.htm|archive-date = 2013-01-16}}</ref> They have also been used for [[Finance:Debt restructuring|debt restructuring]] in insolvency situations, which is a recent innovation in Canadian proceedings.<ref>{{cite journal|author1 = Sophie Melchers|author2 = François-David Paré|author3 = David Crandall|title = Debt restructuring under the Canada Business Corporations Act|url = http://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/files/debt-restructuring-under-the-canada-business-corporations-act-pdf-494kb-52242.pdf|journal = Corporate Litigation|volume = XI|issue = 4|year = 2011}}</ref>

The Supreme Court of Canada, in its ruling in ''BCE Inc. v. 1976 Debentureholders'', stated that, in seeking court approval of an arrangement, the onus is on the corporation to establish that

:* the statutory procedures have been met;
:* the application has been put forth in good faith; and
:* the arrangement is "fair and reasonable".<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 137</ref>

To approve a plan of arrangement as fair and reasonable, courts must be satisfied that

:* the arrangement has a valid business purpose, and
:* the objections of those whose legal rights are being arranged are being resolved in a fair and balanced way.<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 138</ref>

Courts should refrain from substituting their views of the "best" arrangement, but should not surrender their duty to scrutinize the arrangement. Only security holders whose legal rights stand to be affected by the proposal are envisioned.  It is a fact that the corporation is permitted to alter individual rights that places the matter beyond the power of the directors and creates the need for shareholder and court approval.  However, in some circumstances, interests that are not strictly legal could be considered.  The fact that a group whose legal rights are left intact faces a reduction in the trading value of its securities generally does not constitute a circumstance where non‑legal interests should be considered on an application for an arrangement.<ref>''BCE Inc.'', par. 149-155</ref>

The courts take their duty seriously in assessing such plans, as was evidenced in Ontario in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title = Ontario Court Comments on Common Forms of Fairness Opinions in Arrangement Transactions|url = http://www.osler.com/NewsResources/Ontario-Court-Comments-on-Common-Forms-of-Fairness-Opinions-in-Arrangement-Transactions/|publisher = Osler, Hoskin & Harcourt|date =April 7, 2014}}, discussing {{cite CanLII|litigants=(Re) Champion Iron Mines Limited|link=|year=2014|court=onsc|num=1988|format=|pinpoint=|parallelcite=|date=2014-03-28|courtname=|juris=}}</ref> In determining that a plan of arrangement was fair, no weight was given by the court to the fairness opinion obtained by the directors, as:

:* shareholders considering the fairness opinion did not have disclosure of the fees payable to the advisor to assess how much work was performed, and
:* it did not include any of the underlying [[Finance:Financial analysis|financial analysis]] performed by the advisor, so
:* it could not be considered to comply with procedural requirements for expert evidence.

However, such concern may not apply where a transaction is not being contested, in which case the opinion may considered as evidence that the board had "considered the fairness and reasonableness of the proposed transaction on the basis of objective criteria to the extent possible."<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=(Re) Bear Lake Gold Ltd.|link=|year=2014|court=onsc|num=3428|format=|pinpoint=par. 15|parallelcite=|date=2014-06-05|courtname=|juris=}}, discussed in {{cite web|author1 = Paul D. Davis|author2 = Brett G. Harrison|title = ''Bear Lake Gold Ltd.'' decision - Ontario Court Supports Existing Practice Regarding The Use Of Fairness Opinions In Plans Of Arrangement|url = http://www.mcmillan.ca/Files/173833_Bear%20Lake%20Gold%20Ltd.%20decision.pdf|date = June 2014|publisher = McMillan LLP}}</ref>

===Liquidation and dissolution===

[[Finance:Liquidation|Liquidation]] (also known as winding up) can occur in several ways:

:* under provisions of the incorporating statute, where the corporation is solvent,
:* under the ''Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act'', where it is insolvent or has committed an act of bankruptcy, or
:* under the ''Winding-Up and Restructuring Act'', where it is an insolvent financial institution or an insolvent corporation incorporated under provincial law (although the latter case is only rarely seen in recent times).<ref name="Welling2008">{{cite journal|last=Welling|first=Bruce L.|author2=Thomas G. W. Telfer|date=September 1, 2008|title=The Winding-Up and Restructuring Act: Realigning Insolvency's Orphan to the Modern Law Reform Process|journal=Banking & Finance Law Review|volume=24|page=233|ssrn=1309703}}</ref>

Liquidation under the incorporating statute can occur with or without an accompanying court order that provides for the orderly payment of debts and/or the dissolution of the corporation.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''CBCA'', s. 217| date=January 2020 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/section-217.html}}</ref> Under the ''BIA'', an insolvent corporation exits bankruptcy after the court approves its discharge<ref>{{cite web|title = ''BIA'', s. 172| date=November 2019 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-3/section-172.html}}</ref> (but it may not apply for discharge until its debts are paid in full).<ref>{{cite web|title = ''BIA'', s. 169| date=November 2019 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-3/section-169.html}}</ref>  Under the ''WURA'' the corporation is required to cease business.<ref>{{cite web|title = ''WURA'', s. 19| date=22 June 2016 |url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/W-11/section-19.html}}</ref>

Dissolution is a separate process, which may occur:

:* with or without liquidation (although liquidation under court order will extinguish all debts), or
:* where it is not in compliance with the incorporating statute.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*UK company law
*US corporate law
*Australian corporations law
*German company law
*French company law
*European company law
*List of acts of the Parliament of Canada
*[[Finance:Unlimited liability corporation|Unlimited liability corporation]]
* List of company registers
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite journal |last=Rojas |first=Claudio R. |year=2014 |title=An Indeterminate Theory of Canadian Corporate Law |journal=University of British Columbia Law Review |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=59–128 |ssrn=2391775}}
* {{cite book |last= Van Duzer|first= J. Anthony|title= The Law of Partnerships and Corporations|url= http://www.irwinlaw.com/store/product/606/the-law-of-partnerships-and-corporations-3d-ed|edition= 3rd|year= 2009|publisher= Irwin Law|location= Toronto|isbn= 978-1-55221177-9}}
* {{cite book |last= Welling|first= Bruce|title= Corporate Law in Canada: The Governing Principles|edition= 2nd|year= 1991|publisher= Butterworths|location= Toronto|isbn= 0-40989639-X}}
* {{cite book |last1= Welling|first1= Bruce|last2= Smith|first2= Lionel D.|last3= Rotman|first3= Leonard I.|title= Canadian Corporate Law : Cases, Notes and Materials|edition= 4th|year= 2010|publisher= LexisNexis|location= Toronto|isbn= 978-0-43346033-6}}
* {{cite book |last1= Palmer|first1= Earl E.|last2= Welling|first2= Bruce|title= Canadian company law : cases, notes and materials|edition= 3rd|year= 1986|publisher= Butterworths|location= Toronto|isbn= 0-40980510-6}}

==External links==
===Resources by jurisdiction===

The following list provides links relating to general Acts of incorporation, other than those relating to [[Finance:Cooperative|cooperative]]s, [[Finance:Financial institution|financial institution]]s and organizations incorporated by special Act:

{| class="wikitable"
|- 
! Jurisdiction
! For-profit corporations
! Not-for-profit corporations
! Registry or agent
! Corporate tax rates<br>(Standard/Small business)<ref>{{cite web|title = Corporation tax rates| date=27 November 2019 |url = http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/crprtns/rts-eng.html|publisher = Canada Revenue Agency}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Canada}}<br>(Federal incorporation)
| [http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-44/ ''Canada Business Corporations Act'' (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-44)]
| [http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-7.75/index.html ''Canada Not-for-profit Corporations Act'' (S.C. 2009, c. 23)]
| [https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cd-dgc.nsf/eng/home Corporations Canada]
| 15%/11%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|British Columbia}}
| [http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/02057_00 ''Business Corporations Act'' (SBC 2002, c. 57)]
| [http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/15018_01 ''Societies Act'' (SBC 2015, c. 18]
| [http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/organizational-structure/ministries-organizations/ministries/citizens-services/bc-registries-online-services BC Registry Services - Corporate Registry]
| 10%/2.5%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Alberta}}
| [http://www.qp.alberta.ca/1266.cfm?page=B09.cfm&leg_type=Acts&isbncln=9780779760664&display=html ''Business Corporations Act'' (RSA 2000, c. B-9)]
| [http://www.qp.alberta.ca/1266.cfm?page=c21.cfm&leg_type=Acts&isbncln=9780779752010&display=html ''Companies Act'' (RSA 2000, c. C-21)]
| [http://www.servicealberta.ca/Corporate_Registry.cfm Service Alberta - Corporate Registry]
| [https://www.albertacanada.com/business/overview/competitive-corporate-taxes.aspx 10%/3%]
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Saskatchewan}}
| [http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Statutes/Statutes/B10.pdf ''Business Corporations Act'' (RSS 1978, c. B-10)]
| [http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Statutes/Statutes/N-4.2.pdf ''Non-profit Corporations Act, 1995'' (SS 1995, c. N-4.2)]{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
| [https://www.isc.ca/CorporateRegistry/Pages/default.aspx Saskatchewan Corporate Registry]
| 12%/2%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Manitoba}}
| colspan = "2"|[http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/c225e.php ''Corporations Act'', (CCSM, c. C225)]
| [http://www.companiesoffice.gov.mb.ca/ Entrepreneurship Manitoba - Companies Office]
| 12%/0%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Ontario}}
| [http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90b16_e.htm ''Business Corporations Act'' (RSO 1990, c. B.16)]
| [https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90c38 ''Corporations Act, 2010'' (RSO 1990, c. C.38)]
| [https://archive.today/20130628041019/https://www.appmybizaccount.gov.on.ca/wps/portal/mba_pub/!ut/p/c4/LY6xDsIwDES_pUPXuCNioxUDEgKGIloW5ERWiEjtKElB_D0pIC-nu2f74AplGJ_OYnbC6GGAMaAl7_ixlqRVkJjRqzBr74xiYfXDtSeVJTgDl-WGR7YwEi_6dG73u-7WHQ_9duhhrJtJI7H1Lt3rRpiSzNFQ3Xz3U7ECRcyEek6upMXZsZFYXpdWbN8Fb_8RhGlavTZV9QGQV8tR/ ServiceOntario - Companies and Personal Property Security Branch]
| 11.5%/4.5%
|- valign=top
| {{flag|Quebec}}
| [http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=%2F%2FS_31_1%2FS31_1_A.htm ''Business Corporations Act'' (c S-31.1)]
| [http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/C_38/C38_A.html ''Companies Act'' (CQLR c C-38)] 
| [http://www.registreentreprises.gouv.qc.ca/en/demarrer/constituer-cie.aspx Registraire des Entreprises]
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20130523182600/http://www.revenuquebec.ca/en/entreprise/impot/societes/taux_imposition.aspx 11.9%/3.9%]
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|New Brunswick}}
| [http://laws.gnb.ca/en/showfulldoc/cs/B-9.1//20130626 ''Business Corporations Act'' (S.N.B. 1981, c. B-9.1)]
| [http://laws.gnb.ca/en/showfulldoc/cs/C-13//20130626 ''Companies Act'' (R.S.N.B. 1973, c. C-13)]
| [http://www.snb.ca/e/6000/6600e.asp Service New Brunswick - Corporate Registry]
| [http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/finance/taxes/corporate.html 12%/4.5%]
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Nova Scotia}}
| [http://nslegislature.ca/legc/statutes/companies.pdf''Companies Act'' (RSNS 1989, c. 81)]
| [http://nslegislature.ca/legc/statutes/societie.htm ''Societies Act'' (RSNS 1989, c. 435)]
| [http://www.gov.ns.ca/snsmr/access/business/registry-joint-stock-companies.asp Access Nova Scotia - Registry of Joint Stock Companies]
| 16%/3.5%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Prince Edward Island}}
| colspan = "2"|[http://www.gov.pe.ca/law/statutes/pdf/c-14.pdf ''Companies Act'' (RSPEI 1988, c. C-14)]
| [http://www.gov.pe.ca/jps/index.php3?number=44662 Department of Environment, Labour and Justice]
| 16%/1%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Newfoundland and Labrador}}
| colspan = "2"|[http://www.assembly.nl.ca/legislation/sr/statutes/c36.htm ''Corporations Act'' (RSNL 1990, c. C-36)]
| [http://www.servicenl.gov.nl.ca/registries/companies/corp_about.html Service NL - Registry of Companies]
| 14%/4%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Yukon}}
| [http://www.gov.yk.ca/legislation/acts/buco.pdf ''Business Corporations Act'' (RSY 2002, c. 20)]
| [http://www.gov.yk.ca/legislation/acts/societies.pdf ''Societies Act'' (RSY 2002, c. 206)]
| [http://www.community.gov.yk.ca/corp/ Department of Community Services - Corporate Affairs]
| 15%/4%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Northwest Territories}}
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20130626203126/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Business%20Corporations.pdf ''Business Corporations Act'' (SWNT 1996, c. 19)]
| [http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/pdf/ACTS/Societies.pdf ''Societies Act'' (RSNWT 1988, c. S-11)]
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20130713085221/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/CorporateRegistry/index.shtml Department of Justice - Corporate Registry]
| 11.5%/4%
|- valign="top"
| {{flag|Nunavut}}
| [http://www.justice.gov.nu.ca/apps/fetch/download.aspx?file=Consolidated+Law%2fCurrent%2f635034536796918678-894468018-consSNWT1996c19.pdf ''Business Corporations Act'' (SWNT 1996, c. 19, as modified)]{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
| [http://www.justice.gov.nu.ca/apps/fetch/download.aspx?file=Consolidated+Law%2fCurrent%2f634859934387966706-854409609-consRSNWT1988cS-11.pdf ''Societies Act'' (RSNWT 1988, c. S-11, as modified)]{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
| [http://nunavutlegalregistries.ca/cr_index_en.shtml Department of Justice - Corporate Registries]
| 12%/4%
|}


[[Category:Types of business entity]]

{{Sourceattribution|Canadian corporate law}}