View source for Medicine:Health politics

{{short description|Interdisciplinary study and analysis of health politics}}
[[File:Warren Medicare for All (36492682584).jpg|thumb|320x320px|Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders campaigning  for extended {{wipe|United States}} Medicare coverage in 2017. ]]
{{sociology}}

'''Health politics''' or '''politics of health''' is an [[Philosophy:Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field of study concerned with the analysis of [[Philosophy:Power (social and political)|social and political power]] over the health status of individuals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bambra|first1=Clare|last2=Fox|first2=Debbie|last3=Scott-Samuel|first3=Alex|date=2005-06-01|title=Towards a politics of health|url=https://academic.oup.com/heapro/article/20/2/187/827479|journal=Health Promotion International|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=187–193|doi=10.1093/heapro/dah608|pmid=15722364|issn=0957-4824|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greer|first1=Scott L.|last2=Bekker|first2=Marleen|last3=de Leeuw|first3=Evelyne|last4=Wismar|first4=Matthias|last5=Helderman|first5=Jan-Kees|last6=Ribeiro|first6=Sofia|last7=Stuckler|first7=David|date=2017|title=Policy, politics and public health|url=http://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/27/suppl_4/40/4430509/Policy-politics-and-public-health|journal=European Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=27|issue=suppl_4|pages=40–43|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckx152|pmid=29028231|issn=1101-1262|via=|doi-access=free|hdl=2066/178380|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Health politics, incorporating broad perspectives from [[Medicine:Medical sociology|medical sociology]] to international relations, is interested not only in the understanding of politics as government/ governance, but also politics as civil society and as a process of power contestation. It views this wider understanding of politics to take place throughout [[Biology:Level of analysis|levels of society]] - from the individual to the global. As such the politics of health is not constrained to a particular area of society, such as state government, but rather is a dynamic, ongoing social process that takes place ubiquitously throughout our levels of society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Navarro|first=Vicente|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54753157|title=The political and social contexts of health|date=2004|publisher=Baywood Publishers|isbn=0-89503-296-1|location=Amityville|oclc=54753157}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:Irish Famine Sculpture - Flickr - boulanger.IE.jpg|thumb|A memorial to the Great Famine (Ireland), a famine event in Ireland that faced elongated suffering from the UK's domestic policy failures at the time under the Prime Ministers Sir Robert Peel and Lord John Russell. ]]
Health politics is a joint discipline between public health and politics. Like many other interdisciplinary fields such as sociology, [[Philosophy:Phenomenology|phenomenology]] or [[Social:Public policy|public policy]], health politics incorporates approaches and [[Methodology|methodologies]] of other related fields of study such as [[Philosophy:Intersectionality|intersectionality]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gkiouleka|first1=Anna|last2=Huijts|first2=Tim|last3=Beckfield|first3=Jason|last4=Bambra|first4=Clare|date=2018|title=Understanding the micro and macro politics of health: Inequalities, intersectionality & institutions - A research agenda|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=200|pages=92–98|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.025|issn=1873-5347|pmid=29421476|doi-access=free}}</ref> It examines the political nature of health and [[Medicine:Health care|healthcare]] within the wider public health and medical contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ghilardi|first1=Giampaolo|last2=Campanozzi|first2=Laura Leondina|last3=Ciccozzi|first3=Massimo|last4=Ricci|first4=Giovanna|last5=Tambone|first5=Vittoradolfo|date=2020-04-25|title=The political nature of medicine|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=395|issue=10233|pages=1340–1341|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30168-9|issn=0140-6736|pmid=32334696|doi-access=free|hdl=11581/436713|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliver|first=Thomas R.|title=The Politics of Public Health Policy|date=2006|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=195–233|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123126|pmid=16533115|issn=0163-7525|doi-access=free}}</ref>

An early publication in the discipline of health politics was a 1977 article by P.J. Schmidt titled "National Blood Policy, 1977: a study in the politics of health"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=P. J.|date=1977|title=National Blood Policy, 1977: a study in the politics of health|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/337358/|journal=Progress in Hematology|volume=10|pages=151–172|issn=0079-6301|pmid=337358}}</ref> which focused on policy in the {{wipe|United States}}. Through his work in [[Biology:Biopolitics|biopolitics]], French philosopher [[Biography:Michel Foucault|Michel Foucault]] also offered insight into health politics through his 1979 essay "The politics of health in the eighteenth century" (English translation by Lynch, 2014).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foucault|first=Michel|date=2014|title=The politics of health in the eighteenth century|url=https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/foucault-studies/article/view/4654|journal=Foucault Studies|volume=|pages=113–127|doi=10.22439/fs.v0i18.4654|issn=1832-5203|via=|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Central contestations ==

=== Apolitical study of health and healthcare ===
A key issue that health politics engages with is the apolitical nature of health within academia, health professions, and wider society.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliver|first=Thomas R.|date=2006-04-01|title=The politics of public health policy|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|volume=27|issue=1|pages=195–233|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123126|pmid=16533115|issn=0163-7525|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ghilardi|first1=Giampaolo|last2=Campanozzi|first2=Laura Leondina|last3=Ciccozzi|first3=Massimo|last4=Ricci|first4=Giovanna|last5=Tambone|first5=Vittoradolfo|date=2020-04-25|title=The political nature of medicine|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30168-9/abstract|journal=The Lancet|language=English|volume=395|issue=10233|pages=1340–1341|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30168-9|issn=0140-6736|pmid=32334696|s2cid=216095807|hdl=11581/436713|hdl-access=free}}</ref> As an interdisciplinary area of study, it is seen as underresearched with literature focusing on the social and cultural determinants of health at the lack of political ones.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navarro|first=Vicente|title=What We Mean by Social Determinants of Health|date=2009|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45131149|journal=International Journal of Health Services|volume=39|issue=3|pages=423–441|doi=10.2190/HS.39.3.a|jstor=45131149|pmid=19771949|s2cid=29669253|issn=0020-7314}}</ref>

By integrating analysis on [[Philosophy:Power (social and political)|social power]] and politics within health and healthcare systems, a better understanding of barriers in health inequality and [[Medicine:Health equity|inequity]] can be gained.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gore|first1=Radhika|last2=Parker|first2=Richard|date=2019-04-03|title=Analysing power and politics in health policies and systems|journal=Global Public Health|volume=14|issue=4|pages=481–488|doi=10.1080/17441692.2019.1575446|issn=1744-1692|pmid=30773135|s2cid=73471859|doi-access=free}}</ref>

It critiques public health for professionalizing health and [[Medicine:Health system|healthcare systems]] to an extent that it removes it from public engagement, depoliticizing it in the process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Burden|first1=Barry C.|last2=Fletcher|first2=Jason M.|last3=Herd|first3=Pamela|last4=Jones|first4=Bradley M.|last5=Moynihan|first5=Donald P.|date=2016|title=How Different Forms of Health Matter to Political Participation|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=79|issue=1|pages=166–178|doi=10.1086/687536|issn=0022-3816|pmc=5831556|pmid=29503463}}</ref> This then transfers power away from the public body and into the medical profession and industry such that they can 'determine what health is and therefore, how political it is (or, more usually, is not)'.<ref name=":0" /> Combining political science with the study of public health, health politics aims to understand the unique interplay of politics within this policy domain to locate the politics of health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Daniel|date=2012-06-15|title=Is Health Politics Different?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=287–311|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050409-113009|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref>

"Among professionals in public health, the [[Social:Political system|political system]] is commonly viewed as a subway's third rail: avoid touching it, lest you get burned. Yet it is this third rail that provides power to the train, and achieving public health goals depends on a sustained, constructive engagement between public health and political systems."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Edward L.|date=2016|title=Politics and Public Health—Engaging the Third Rail|journal=Journal of Public Health Management and Practice|volume=22|issue=5|pages=436–441|doi=10.1097/PHH.0000000000000446|pmid=27479306|pmc=4974059}}</ref>

Here, public health's problems and issues are explicitly political as the world's health bodies and organizations are supported by national governments - making their solutions equally as political as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gore|first1=Radhika|last2=Parker|first2=Richard|date=2019|title=Analysing power and politics in health policies and systems|journal=Global Public Health|volume=14|issue=4|pages=481–488|doi=10.1080/17441692.2019.1575446|issn=1744-1706|pmid=30773135|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bambra|first1=Clare|last2=Smith|first2=Katherine E.|last3=Pearce|first3=Jamie|date=2019|title=Scaling up: The politics of health and place|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=232|pages=36–42|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.04.036|issn=1873-5347|pmid=31054402|doi-access=free}}</ref> "If public health is the field that diagnoses and strives to cure social ills, then understanding political causes and cures for health problems should be an intrinsic part of the field."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greer|first1=Scott L.|last2=Bekker|first2=Marleen|last3=de Leeuw|first3=Evelyne|last4=Wismar|first4=Matthias|last5=Helderman|first5=Jan-Kees|last6=Ribeiro|first6=Sofia|last7=Stuckler|first7=David|date=2017-10-01|title=Policy, politics and public health|url=http://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/27/suppl_4/40/4430509/Policy-politics-and-public-health|journal=European Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=27|issue=suppl_4|pages=40–43|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckx152|pmid=29028231|issn=1101-1262|doi-access=free|hdl=2066/178380|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Concepts ==
=== Medical and health professionals as political agents ===
The delivery, planning, and research into health and healthcare, within the modern age of nation-states, is a highly state-orientated enterprise. The bureaucracy in its provision and regulation throughout countries across the world is often one of the most highly centralized activities of government and political actors. More than other areas in society, health politics intersects numerous socially, morally, and culturally crucial as well as sensitive issues that societies face that shape the health and well-being of everyone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Daniel|date=2012-06-15|title=Is Health Politics Different?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=287–311|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050409-113009|s2cid=145343654 |issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of this, medical and health professionals can be seen as political agents as a bridge between medical science and society.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Working Party of the Royal College of Physicians|date=2005|title=Doctors in society. Medical professionalism in a changing world|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16408403/|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=5|issue=6 Suppl 1|pages=S5–40|issn=1470-2118|pmid=16408403}}</ref> How this agency takes place, through conformity or [[Social:Deviance (sociology)|deviance]] (e.g. protesting against government policy), creates unique health politics landscapes and provides a perspective of looking at political power beyond the state.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rose|first1=Nikolas|last2=Miller|first2=Peter|date=1992|title=Political Power beyond the State: Problematics of Government|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/591464|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=43|issue=2|pages=173–205|doi=10.2307/591464|jstor=591464|issn=0007-1315}}</ref>

===Political determinants of health===
The political determinants of health (PDOH) are a conceptual framework that visualizes and frames the political factors that shape and control the health and wellbeing of people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mackenbach|first=J. P.|date=2014-02-01|title=Political determinants of health|journal=The European Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=2|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckt183|pmid=24465018|issn=1101-1262|doi-access=free}}</ref> This places a sociological lens upon areas like [[Medicine:Medicine|medicine]] - treating it as a [[Social:Social science|social science]] as much as an [[Applied science|applied science]] to understand its political nature.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Viens|first=A. M.|date=2019-09-01|title=Neo-Liberalism, Austerity and the Political Determinants of Health|journal=Health Care Analysis|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=147–152|doi=10.1007/s10728-019-00377-7|pmid=31297702|s2cid=195878311|issn=1573-3394|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Here, it is predominantly a critique of the social determinants of health in its perceived failure to incorporate political factors within its framework or its having a limited conceptualization of what politics can entail.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishori|first=Ranit|date=2019|title=The Social Determinants of Health? Time to Focus on the Political Determinants of Health!|url=https://journals.lww.com/lww-medicalcare/Citation/2019/07000/The_Social_Determinants_of_Health__Time_to_Focus.1.aspx|journal=Medical Care|language=en-US|volume=57|issue=7|pages=491–493|doi=10.1097/MLR.0000000000001131|pmid=31107399|s2cid=159038344|issn=0025-7079}}</ref> PDOH outlines that politics is not merely an institutional process, of government acting upon an individual. Rather, politics is a multifaceted contestation of [[Philosophy:Power (social and political)|social power]] (e.g. the ability to enact change upon someone else) that takes place throughout the social determinants of health.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dawes|first=Daniel E.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1112138636|title=The political determinants of health|date=2020|others=David R. Williams|isbn=978-1-4214-3789-7|location=Baltimore, Maryland|oclc=1112138636}}</ref> Although government agencies and policy are important, seeing political contestation and politics as power operating across [[Biology:Level of analysis|levels of analysis]] offers to seek out the cause of the causes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kickbusch|first=I.|date=2015-01-08|title=The political determinants of health--10 years on|url=https://www.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmj.h81|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=350|issue=jan08 2|pages=h81|doi=10.1136/bmj.h81|pmid=25569203|s2cid=42695432|issn=1756-1833}}</ref>

PDOH is set within the social determinants of health, but acknowledges that political processes and contestation over power form a unique [[Philosophy:Social phenomenon|social phenomenon]] that require a distinct conceptualization to appreciate their impact upon health and healthcare.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKee|first=Martin|date=2017-06-20|title=Grenfell Tower fire: why we cannot ignore the political determinants of health|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j2966|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=357|pages=j2966|doi=10.1136/bmj.j2966|issn=1756-1833|pmid=28634211|s2cid=206915985}}</ref> Rather than stopping at social determinants like sexual orientation, educational level, or food insecurity it encourages an explicit exploration of the causes of these determinants such as [[Social:Neoliberalism|Neoliberal]] market failures,<ref name=":1" /> homophobia, or poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Public Health Institute of Western Massachusetts|date=2021|title=What Influences Health?|url=https://www.publichealthwm.org/what-health-equity/what-influences-health|access-date=2021-11-06|website=www.publichealthwm.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Navarro|first=Vincent|date=2008|title=Politics and health: a neglected area of research|url=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/18/4/354/477874|journal=European Journal of Public Health|volume=18|issue=4|pages=354–355|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckn040|pmid=18524802}}</ref>

== Perspectives ==
=== Comparative health politics ===
Comparative health politics takes influence from [[Social:Comparative politics|comparative politics]], a major sub-field of politics. It focuses on the interactions of health politics within a country or comparing countries, as opposed to international health politics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sparer|first=Michael S.|date=2011-02-01|title=Comparative Health Politics: The United States and the United Kingdom - Editor's Note|url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/jhppl/article/36/1/1/13356/Editor-s-Note|journal=Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–4|doi=10.1215/03616878-1191081|pmid=21638932|issn=0361-6878|via=|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Moran|first=Michael|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42072238|title=Governing the health care state : a comparative study of the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany|date=1999|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0-7190-4296-8|location=Manchester, UK|pages=|oclc=42072238}}</ref> This field of study explores how political culture, class relationships, to economic resources shape the implementation of health policy and wider social determinants of health, often taking the form of comparative case studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fox|first=Daniel M.|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400855803/html|title=Health Policies, Health Politics: The British and American Experience, 1911-1965|date=1986-12-31|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5580-3|location=Princeton|doi=10.1515/9781400855803}}</ref>

=== Global health politics ===
Global health politics is interested in the [[Earth:State (polity)|statal]] and extra-statal space of politics in health that takes place on a global level.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=McInnes|first1=Colin|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1022284075|title=The Oxford handbook of global health politics|last2=Lee|first2=Kelley|last3=Youde|first3=Jeremy|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-045680-1|location=Oxford|oclc=1022284075}}</ref> It views the space of nation-states as increasingly being blurred, such as through processes like [[Social:Globalization|globalization]], that makes the distinction of domestic and international health politics increasingly insensitive to shifting political contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stoeva|first=Preslava|date=2016|title=International Relations and the Global Politics of Health: A State of the Art?|url=https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/id/eprint/3917568/1/International%20Relations%20and%20the_GOLD%20VoR.pdf|journal=Global Health Governance|volume=10|issue=3|pages=97–109}}</ref>

=== LGBT health politics ===
LGBT or gender and sexual minorities (GSMs){{refn|group=lower-alpha|The terms used to describe the queer community are complex and has a politics of its own in terms of identity and recognition. Unless interacting with members of this community who can be asked what term is best, revert to using the most inclusive term.}}, through a complex history and ongoing discriminations, have a distinct sub-field within health politics. From the Stonewall riots to the politics involved around [[Biology:HIV|HIV]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Batza|first=Katie|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1027218496|title=Before AIDS : gay health politics in the 1970s|date=2018|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-9499-6|location=Philadelphia|oclc=1027218496}}</ref> GSMs' health status has been deeply influenced by the politics of any given time and [[Earth:Geopolitics|geopolitical]] location.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Epstein|first=Steven|date=2003|title=Sexualizing Governance and Medicalizing Identities: The Emergence of 'State-Centered' LGBT Health Politics in the United States|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1363460703006002001|journal=Sexualities|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=131–171|doi=10.1177/1363460703006002001|s2cid=145688250|issn=1363-4607|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Martos|first1=Alexander J.|last2=Wilson|first2=Patrick A.|last3=Meyer|first3=Ilan H.|date=2017-07-10|editor-last=Prestage|editor-first=Garrett|title=Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) health services in the United States: Origins, evolution, and contemporary landscape|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e0180544|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0180544|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5503273|pmid=28692659|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1280544M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kollman|first1=Kelly|last2=Waites|first2=Matthew|date=2009|title=The global politics of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender human rights: an introduction|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569770802674188|journal=Contemporary Politics|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.1080/13569770802674188|s2cid=143318027|issn=1356-9775|via=}}</ref>

=== Marxist health politics ===
Using theories generated by [[Biography:Karl Marx|Karl Marx]] and [[Social:Marxist schools of thought|Marxist]] scholars, a Marxist health politics centers on [[Social:Class conflict|class conflict]] and the failures of capitalism and capitalistic processes and actors in the persistence of health inequalities and inequity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navarro|first=Vicente|title=Social Class, Political Power, and the State and Their Implications in Medicine|date=1977|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45140170|journal=International Journal of Health Services|volume=7|issue=2|pages=255–292|doi=10.2190/WPNY-UR3N-0DH9-JTA4|jstor=45140170|pmid=856745|s2cid=21195798|issn=0020-7314}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Collyer|first=Fran|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/903139893|title=The Palgrave handbook of social theory in health, illness, and medicine|date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-35562-1|location=Basingstoke|pages=405–423|oclc=903139893}}</ref>

"We have understanding only of inorganic capital and know nothing about [[Social:Human capital|human capital]]. In a wholly capitalist economy, where the loss of human life is considered only as a private loss for the family but as no economic loss for society, the economy of people becomes, of course, completely superfluous."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stampar|first=Andrija|date=2006-08-01|title=On Health Politics|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=96|issue=8|pages=1382–1385|doi=10.2105/AJPH.96.8.1382|issn=0090-0036|pmc=1522119|pmid=16864750}}</ref>

=== Political epidemiology ===
This interdisciplinary field takes influence from [[Social:Epidemiology|epidemiology]] in creating a scientific study of the political factors that influence and shape the health of human populations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Porta|first=Miquel|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/878109125|title=A dictionary of epidemiology|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Sander Greenland, Miguel Hernán, Isabel dos Santos Silva, John M. Last, International Epidemiological Association|isbn=978-0-19-939004-5|edition=6|location=Oxford|oclc=878109125}}</ref> It has a distinct leaning on natural science methodology through a [[Philosophy:Positivism|positivist]] approach, involving methodology like statistical analysis or case studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=S.|date=2009-11-01|title=Political epidemiology: Strengthening socio-political analysis for mass immunisation – lessons from the smallpox and polio programmes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690701727850|journal=Global Public Health|volume=4|issue=6|pages=546–560|doi=10.1080/17441690701727850|issn=1744-1692|pmid=19367477|pmc=9491142 |s2cid=33803095}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* Health economics
* [[Philosophy:Human rights|Human rights]]
* [[Medicine:Medicalization|Medicalization]]
* Medical-industrial complex
* [[Finance:Privatization|Privatization]] 
* Political science
* Public health
* [[Finance:Political economy|Political economy]]
* [[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] 
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

== References ==
<!--- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using<ref></ref> tags, these references will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Div col}}
* Bekker P. M. Marleen and all (2018). [https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/28/suppl_3/1/5149575 Public health and politics: how political science can help us move forward].
* Carme Borrell, Albert Espelt, Maica Rodríguez‐Sanz and Vicente Navarro (2007). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2652986/ Politics and health].
* Clare Bambra, Debbie Fox and Alex Scott-Samuel (2006). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2465757/ A politics of health glossary].
* {{cite book |last= Race|first= Kane|date= 2009|title= Pleasure Consuming Medicine: The Queer Politics of Drugs|url= https://www.dukeupress.edu/pleasure-consuming-medicine|location= Durham, NC|publisher= Duke University Press|page= |isbn= 9780822345015}}
* Radhika Gore and Richard Parker (2019). [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17441692.2019.1575446 Analysing power and politics in health policies and systems].
{{Div col end}}

== External links ==
* [https://read.dukeupress.edu/jhppl Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law]
* Journal of Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice
* [http://www.pohg.org.uk/ Politics of Health Group]


[[Category:Health care]]
[[Category:Medical sociology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Health politics}}