View source for Medicine:School-Based Family Counseling

'''School-Based Family Counseling''' (SBFC) is an integrated approach to [[Social:Mental health|mental health]] intervention that focuses on both school and [[Social:Family|family]] in order to help children overcome personal problems and succeed at school.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Carter|first1=M.|last2=Evans|first2=W.|title=Urban school-based family counseling: Role definition, practice applications, and training implications|journal=Journal of Counseling and Development|date=1997|volume=75|issue=5|pages=366–374|doi=10.1002/j.1556-6676.1997.tb02352.x}}</ref> SBFC is practiced by a wide variety of mental health professionals, including: psychologists, social workers, school counselors, psychiatrists, and marriage and family therapists, as well as [[Social:Special education|special education]] teachers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Casey|first1=J.|last2=Buchan|first2=G.|title=Family approaches to school psychology: Brief strategic family intervention|journal=School Psychology International|date=1991|volume=12|issue=4|pages=349–353|doi=10.1177/0143034391124006|s2cid=142990962}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dicocco|first1=B.|last2=Chalfin|first2=S.|last3=Olson|first3=J.|title=Systemic family therapy goes to school|journal=Social Work in Education|date=1987|volume=9|issue=4|pages=209–221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=K.|title=Structural-strategic family counseling: a case study in elementary school counseling|journal=Professional School Counseling|date=2001|volume=4|issue=3|pages=180–186}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pittman|first1=F.|last2=Langsley|first2=D.|last3=Deyoung|first3=C.|title=Work and school phobias: A family approach to treatment|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|date=1968|volume=124|issue=11|pages=1535–1541|doi=10.1176/ajp.124.11.1535|pmid=5647018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rotter|first1=J.|last2=Boveja|first2=M.|title=Family therapists and school counselors: a collaborative endeavor|journal=The Family Journal|date=1999|volume=7|issue=3|pages=276–279|doi=10.1177/1066480799073012|s2cid=143834899}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dawson|first1=N.|last2=McHugh|first2=B.|title=Learning to talk to parents|journal=British Journal of Special Education|date=1987|volume=14|issue=3|pages=119–121|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8578.1987.tb00305.x}}</ref> What they all share in common is the belief that children who are struggling in school can be best helped by interventions that link [[Social:Family|family]] and school.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Fine|editor1-first=M.|editor2-last=Carlson|editor2-first=C.|title=Family-school intervention: A systems perspective.|date=1965|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=L.|title=Integrating school and family counseling: Practical solutions|date=2002|publisher=American Counseling Association|location=Alexandria, VA.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Boyd-Franklin|first1=L.|last2=Hafer|first2=B.|title=Reaching out in family therapy.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781572306752|url-access=registration|date=2000|publisher=The Guilford Press|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sherman|first1=R.|last2=Shumsky|first2=A.|last3=Roundtree|first3=Y.|title=Enlarging the therapeutic circle.|date=1994|publisher=Brunner/Mazel|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Walsh|editor1-first=W.|editor2-last=Williams|editor2-first=G.|title=Schools and family therapy: Using systems theory and family therapy in the resolution of school problems.|date=1997|publisher=Charles C. Thomas|location=New York}}</ref>  SBFC is typically practiced at the school site, but may be based in a community [[Social:Mental health|mental health]] agency that works in close collaboration with schools.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicoll|first1=W.|editor1-last=Walsh|editor1-first=W.|editor2-last=Williams|editor2-first=G.|title=Schools and family therapy: Using systems theory and family therapy in the resolution of school problems.|date=1997|publisher=Charles C. Thomas|location=Springfield, Ill.|chapter=Ch. 9 A family counseling and consultation model for school counselors.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Klein|first1=E.|title=Forging partnerships to meet family needs|journal=School Administrator|date=2004|volume=61|issue=7|pages=40–45}}</ref>
==The Need for SBFC==

Family problems, such as marital discord, [[Social:Divorce|divorce]], financial difficulties, child abuse and neglect, life-threatening illness, sibling in a [[Organization:Gang|gang]], and poor parenting skills are associated with a wide variety of children's problems, e.g. [[Medicine:Juvenile delinquency|delinquency]], [[Medicine:Depression (mood)|depression]], [[Medicine:Suicide|suicide]] attempts, and substance abuse.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henderson|first1=A.|last2=Sager|first2=T.|last3=Horne|first3=A.|title=Mothers and sons: A look at the relationship between child behavior problems, marital satisfaction, maternal depression, and family cohesion|journal=The Family Journal|date=2003|volume=11|issue=1|pages=33–41|doi=10.1177/1066480702238469|s2cid=144996057}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=E.|last2=Hawton|first2=K.|last3=Rodham|first3=K.|title=In what ways are adolescents who engage in self-harm or experience thoughts of self-harm different in terms of help-seeking, communication and coping strategies?|journal=Journal of Adolescence|date=2005|volume=28|issue=4|pages=573–587|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.11.001|pmid=16022890}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=S.|last2=Davis-Kean|first2=P.|last3=Eccles|first3=J.|title=Parents, peers and problem behavior: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of relationship perceptions and characteristics on the development of adolescent problem behavior|journal=Developmental Psychology|date=2005|volume=41|issue=2|pages=401–413|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.41.2.401|pmid=15769195}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henry|first1=C.|last2=Robinson|first2=L.|last3=Wilson|first3=S.|title=Adolescent perceptions of their family system, parents' behavior, self-esteem, and family life|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse|date=2004|volume=13|issue=2|pages=29–59|doi=10.1300/j029v13n02_02|s2cid=145124398}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hacker |first1=K.|last2=Suglia |first2=S. |last3=Fried |first3=L. |last4=Rappaport |first4=N. |last5=Cabal |first5=H. |title=Developmental differences in risk factors for suicide attempts between ninth and eleventh graders|journal=Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior|date=2006|volume=36|issue=2|pages=154–166 |doi=10.1521/suli.2006.36.2.154|pmid=16704321|s2cid=26362152|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/42b354ad686586900a1e0f789f27300fcbb085b8}}</ref> These family problems can have a negative effect on children's learning and school behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Crespi|first1=T.|last2=Gustafson|first2=A.|last3=Borges|first3=S.|title=Group counseling in the schools: Considerations for child and family issues|journal=Journal of Applied and School Psychology|date=2006|volume=22|issue=1|pages=67–85|doi=10.1300/j370v22n01_04|s2cid=144937660}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lagana|first1=M.|title=Protective factors for inner-city adolescents at risk of school dropout: Family factors and social support|journal=Children & Schools|date=2004|volume=26|issue=4|pages=211–220|doi=10.1093/cs/26.4.211}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ponsford|first1=K.|last2=Lapadat|first2=J.|title=Academically capable students who are failing in high school: Perceptions about achievement|journal=Canadian Journal of Counselling|date=2001|volume=35|issue=2|pages=137–156}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sun|first1=Y.|last2=Li|first2=Y.|title=Children's well-being during parents' marital disruption process: A pooled time-series analysis|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|date=2002|volume=64|issue=2|pages=472–488|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00472.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heard|first1=H.|title=Fathers, mothers, and family structure: Family trajectories, parent gender, and adolescent schooling|journal=Journal of Marriage and the Family|date=2007|volume=69|issue=2|pages=435–450|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00375.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abdelnoor|first1=A.|last2=Hollins|first2=S.|title=The effect of childhood bereavement on secondary school performance|journal=Educational Psychology in Practice|date=2004|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–54|doi=10.1080/0266736042000180401|s2cid=145571348}}</ref> However, there is research showing that healthy families that cope effectively with their problems help children succeed at school.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lambert|first1=S.|last2=Cashwell|first2=C.|title=Preteens talking to parents: Perceived communication and school-based aggression|journal=The Family Journal|date=2004|volume=12|issue=2|pages=122–128|doi=10.1177/1066480703261953|s2cid=4801041|url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Cashwell_Pre-teens_2004.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zimmer-Gembeck|first1=M.|last2=Locke|first2=E.|title=The socialization of adolescent coping behaviours: Relationships with families and teachers|journal=Journal of Adolescence|date=2007|volume=30|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.03.001|pmid=16837040}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steward|first1=R.|last2=Jo|first2=H.|last3=Murray|first3=D.|last4=Fitzgerald|first4=W.|last5=Neil|first5=D.|last6=Fear|first6=F.|last7=Hill|first7=M.|title=Psychological adjustment and coping styles of urban African American high school students|journal= Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development|date=1998|volume=26|issue=2|pages=70–82|doi=10.1002/j.2161-1912.1998.tb00188.x}}</ref>
Traditionally trained school counselors and school psychologists may lack the family counseling training necessary to help students who are experiencing problems at home.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=R.|last2=Zake|first2=J.|title=Family systems therapy and school psychology: Implications for training and practice|journal=Psychology in the Schools|date=1984|volume=21|issue=2|pages=204–210|doi=10.1002/1520-6807(198404)21:2<204::aid-pits2310210212>3.0.co;2-z}}</ref> If school personnel recommend that a parent seek counseling from a community agency for family problems, the parent and family may not go because of the [[Social:Social stigma|stigma]] associated with therapy or because of restrictions imposed by [[Medicine:Managed care|managed care]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vogel|first1=D.|last2=Wade|first2=G.|last3=Hackler|first3=H.|title=Perceived public stigma and the willingness to seek counseling:The mediating roles of self-stigma and attitudes toward counseling|journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology|date=2007|volume=54|issue=1|pages=40–50|doi=10.1037/0022-0167.54.1.40|citeseerx=10.1.1.657.3589}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Crespi|first1=T.|last2=Hughes|first2=T.|title=School-based mental health services for adolescents: School psychology in contemporary society|journal=Journal of Applied School Psychology|date=2004|volume=20|issue=1|pages=67–78|doi=10.1300/j370v20n01_05|s2cid=146784646}}</ref>
SBFC reduces the [[Social:Social stigma|stigma]] associated with therapy by emphasizing that counseling for family members has an educational goal: helping the student to succeed at school. Parents, [[Social:Legal guardian|guardians]], and family members are approached as partners with the SBFC professional, all working together to promote school success. The SBFC professional is an [[Social:Advocate|advocate]] for the child, the [[Social:Family|family]], and the school.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soriano|first1=M.|last2=Hong|first2=G.|title=School-based family services: Administrative leadership for a caring model of effective education|journal=Journal for a Just and Caring Education|date=1997|volume=3|issue=2|pages=180–191}}</ref>
Some of the problems SBFC approaches have been used to address are:[[Social:Bullying|bullying]] and cyber-bullying,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murray-Harvey|first1=R.|last2=Slee|first2=P.|title=School and home relationships and their impact on school bullying|journal=School Psychology International|date=2010|volume=31|issue=3|pages=271–295|doi=10.1177/0143034310366206|s2cid=143506318|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/23e1498d07711df74aa9f6e10647a528428cc236}}</ref> [[Medicine:Depression (mood)|depression]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woods|first1=B.|title=Kiwi ACE - an indicated preventive depression programme in schools.|date=2001|publisher=Ministry of Education, New Zealand.|location=New Zealand}}</ref> marital problems,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Migrant Family Resilience Project|title=Making strong couples programme|date=2012|publisher=University of Auckland|location=Auckland, New Zealand}}</ref> [[Social:School violence|school violence]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marcheti-Mercer|first1=M.|title=The value of using a school-based family counseling approach following an incident of school violence|journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling|date=2008|volume=1}}</ref> grief and loss,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fitzgerald|first1=H.|title=Grief at school: Resource manual.|date=2000|publisher=American Hospice Foundation|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> [[Biology:Injury|trauma]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wasserstein|first1=S.|last2=La Greca|first2=A.|title=Hurricane Andrew: Parent conflict as a moderator of children's adjustment|journal=Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences|date=1998|volume=20|issue=2|pages=212–224|doi=10.1177/07399863980202005|s2cid=145713418}}</ref> life-threatening illness,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stanco|first1=C.|last2=Taub|first2=D.|title=A counseling group for children of cancer patients|journal=Journal for Specialists in Group Work|date=2002|volume=27|issue=1|pages=43–58|doi=10.1080/714860179|s2cid=219643434|url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/D_Taub_Counseling_2002.pdf}}</ref> school crises,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morrison|first1=J.|last2=Russo|first2=C.|last3=Ilg|first3=T.|title=School-based crisis intervention: Its effectiveness and role in broader crisis intervention plans|journal=International Journal of Educational Reform|date=2006|volume=15|issue=3|pages=331–343|doi=10.1177/105678790601500303|s2cid=167149306}}</ref> learning disorders,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shechtman|first1=Z.|last2=Gilat|first2=I.|title=The effectiveness of counseling groups in reducing stress of parents of children with learning disabilities|journal=Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice|date=2005|volume=9|issue=4|pages=275–286|doi=10.1037/1089-2699.9.4.275}}</ref> immigrant families,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Everts|first1=H.|title=Applying principles of school-based family counseling to preventive intervention with migrant and refugee families.|date=2007|publisher=Paper presented at the Fifth Oxford Symposium in SBFC|location=University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong}}</ref> [[Medicine:Suicide|suicide]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Talbott|first1=L.|last2=Bartlett|first2=M.|title=Youth suicide postvention: Support for survivors and recommendations for school personnel|journal=Alabama Counseling Association Journal|date=2012|volume=38|issue=2|pages=104–119}}</ref> and school suspension.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gordon|first1=A.|title=School exclusions in England: Children's voices and adult solutions|journal=Educational Studies|date=2001|volume=27|issue=1|pages=69–85|doi=10.1080/03055690020002143|s2cid=145538462}}</ref>
Some examples of large SBFC programs are: "The Copper River Project" in Copper River District Alaskan schools;<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morotti|first1=A.|title=The Copper River Project: Laying the foundation for school-based family counseling with Alaska's indigenous populations|journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling|date=2010|volume=2}}</ref> and "Place2Be" - a SBFC program based in over 200 British schools.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adams-Langley|first1=S.|title=Place2BE in the inner city: A school-based mental health service.|date=2012|publisher=Paper presented at the Oxford Symposium in School-Based Family Counseling|location=Brasenose College, Oxford University}}</ref>

==Origins==
The earliest pioneer of SBFC was Alfred Adler, the Austrian psychiatrist who developed 30 guidance clinics attached to schools in [[Place:Vienna|Vienna]] in the 1920s. Through these guidance clinics Adler and his colleagues counseled parents and teachers (often both together in large meetings where both groups were present) on how to help children overcome problems at home and school. This Adlerian home-school approach to counseling was strength-based with its emphasis on helping children develop Social Interest.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adler|first1=A.|title=The education of children|date=1930|publisher=Gateway|location=Chicago, Ill.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=A.|title=A doctor remakes education|journal=Survey|date=1927|volume=58|pages=490–501}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ansbacher|first1=H.|last2=Ansbacher|first2=R.|title=The individual psychology of Alfred Adler.|date=1956|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=New York}}</ref>

==Later Developments==
With the advent of [[Social:World War II|World War II]], the Vienna guidance clinics closed. The psychiatrist Rudolf Dreikurs, who worked with Adler, emigrated to the USA in the 1930s and popularized the Adlerian approach to home-school intervention through books like: Children the Challenge (for parents), Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom (for teachers), and Discipline Without Tears (for parents and teachers).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dreikurs|first1=R.|title=Children the challenge.|date=1958|publisher=Norton|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dreikurs|first1=R.|title=Maintaining sanity in the classroom.|date=1968|publisher=Harper and Row|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dreikurs|first1=R.|last2=Cassel|first2=P.|title=Discipline without tears.|date=1965|publisher=Harper and Row|location=New York}}</ref> In the USA, during the 1950s, 60's, and 70's the mental health professions developed somewhat independently of each other with the result that children having difficulty at school would typically be seen by a [[Organization:School counselor|school counselor]] or school psychologist. Children having difficulty at home would typically be seen by a community-based mental health professional. Beginning in the 1970s the [[Social:Mental health|mental health]] literature begins to show an increasing emphasis on linking home and school interventions. By 2000 there existed a substantial literature on the integration of family and school counseling approaches.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gerrard|first1=B.|title=School-based family counseling: Overview, trends, and recommendations for future research|journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling|date=2008|volume=1|pages=1–30}}</ref>

==Strengths of SBFC==

SBFC is a strength-based approach to counseling that emphasizes working with parents and [[Social:Legal guardian|guardians]] as partners. It emphasizes integrating intervention (remedial) and [[Risk|prevention]] approaches at school and in the family. This emphasis on working collaboratively with parents and guardians in order to help their children succeed in school is appealing to families because of its educational focus. It allows for counselors to hold interventions with students to connect school preparation with future career options is critical for the ever-developing technological work economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Patricia J.|date=2002-08-01|title=Transforming School Counseling: A National Perspective|journal=Theory into Practice|volume=41|issue=3|pages=148–153|doi=10.1207/s15430421tip4103_2|s2cid=144182676|issn=0040-5841}}</ref> SBFC is  also a culturally sensitive counseling approach because it reduces the stigma associated with the mental health professions. This approach is practiced by many different mental health professionals and educators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soriano|first1=M.|last2=Hong|first2=G.|title=School-based family services: Administrative leadership for a caring model of effective education|journal=Journal for a Just and Caring Education|date=1997|volume=3|issue=2|pages=180–191}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Carter|first1=M.|last2=Evans|first2=W.|title=Urban school-based family counseling: Role definition, practice applications, and training implications|journal=Journal of Counseling and Development|date=1997|volume=75|issue=5|pages=366–374|doi=10.1002/j.1556-6676.1997.tb02352.x}}</ref>

==Evidence-based Support for SBFC==

Evidence-based support for the effectiveness of SBFC comes from numerous randomized control group studies employing combined school and family interventions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Billingham |first1=S. |title=Evaluation research design for Families and Schools Together program (FAST). |date=1993 |publisher=Department of Psychology, DePaul University. |location=Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Chicago, Il}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crozier |first1=M. |last2=Rokutani |first2=L. |last3=Russet |first3=J. |last4=Godwin |first4=E. |last5=Banks |first5=G. |title=A multisite program evaluation of families and schools together (FAST) Continued evidence of a successful multifamily community based prevention program. |journal=The School Community Journal |date=2010 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=187–207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kratochwill |first1=T. |last2=McDonald |first2=L. |last3=Levin |first3=J. |last4=Scaliad |first4=P. |last5=Coovere |first5=G. |title=). Families and schools together: An experimental study of multi-family support groups for children at risk. |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=2009 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=245–65 |doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2009.03.001 |pmid=19480887 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=L. |last2=Billingham |first2=S. |last3=Conrad |first3=T. |last4=Morgan |first4=A. |last5=Nancy |first5=O. |last6=Payton |first6=E. |title=Families and Schools Together FAST Integrating community development with clinical strategies. |journal=Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services |date=1997 |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=140–155|doi=10.1606/1044-3894.754 |s2cid=72437620 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lochman |first1=J. |last2=Wells |first2=K. |title=The coping power program for preadolescent aggressive boys and their parents: outcome effects at the 1-year follow-up. |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |date=2004 |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=571–8 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.72.4.571 |pmid=15301641 |s2cid=11187027 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0853c03f216709374eef72882de4f44bad352480 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group |title=Fast track randomized controlled trial to prevent externalizing psychiatric disorders: Findings from grades 3 to 9. |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |date=2007 |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=1250–1262 |doi=10.1097/chi.0b013e31813e5d39 |pmid=17885566 |pmc=2754206 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=J. |last2=Reid |first2=J. |last3=Fetrow |first3=R. |title=An elementary school-based prevention program targeting modifiable antecedents of youth delinquency and violence: Linking the interests of families and teachers (LIFT) |journal=Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |date=2000 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=165–176|doi=10.1177/106342660000800304 |s2cid=145685425 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/beb09777b85c0085e5b96f1ca09e27fcb84456b7 }}</ref> This research indicates positive effects at post and follow up tests for problem behaviors at home and at school, and also for Latino, African American, Native American, and Thai children and families as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=L. |last2=Moberg |first2=D. |last3=Brown |first3=R. |last4=Rodriguez-Espiricueta |first4=I. |last5=Flores |first5=N. |last6=Burke |first6=M. |last7=Coover |first7=G. |title=After school multi family groups A randomized controlled trial involving low income, urban, Latino children. |journal=Children & Schools |date=2006 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=25–34|doi=10.1093/cs/28.1.25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kratchowill |first1=T. |last2=McDonald |first2=L. |last3=Levin |first3=J. |last4=Bear-Tibbetts |first4=H. |last5=Demaray |first5=M. |title=Families and Schools Together an experimental analysis of a parent-mediated multi-family group program for American Indian children. |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=2004 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=359–383|doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2004.08.001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flay |first1=B. |last2=Graumlich |first2=S. |last3=Segawa |first3=E. |last4=Burns |first4=J. |last5=Amuwo |first5=S. |last6=Bell |first6=C. |last7=Campbell |first7=R. |last8=Cowell |first8=J. |last9=Cooksey |first9=J. |last10=Dancy |first10=B. |last11=Hedecker |first11=D. |last12=Jagers |first12=R. |last13=Levy |first13=S. |last14=Paikoff |first14=R. |last15=Punwani |first15=I. |last16=Weisberg |first16=R. |title=The ABAN AYA youth project: Effects of comprehensive prevention programs on high-risk behaviors among inner city African American youth, a randomized trial. |journal=Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine |date=2004 |volume=158 |issue=4 |pages=377–84 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.158.4.377 |pmid=15066879 |pmc=2386246 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Apisitwasana |first1=N. |last2=Perngparn |first2=U. |last3=Cottler |first3=L. |title=Effectiveness of school- and family-based interventions to prevent gaming addiction among grades 4–5 students in Bangkok, Thailand. |journal=Psychology Research and Behavior Management |date=2018 |volume=11 |pages=103–115 |doi=10.2147/PRBM.S145868 |pmid=29695939 |pmc=5903839 }}</ref> The challenges of working with low income families are well known in the mental health literature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCollum |first1=Pam |title=Obstacles to Immigrant Parent participation in Schools |journal=IDRA Newsletter |date=November–December 1996 |url=https://www.idra.org/resource-center/obstacles-to-immigrant-parent-participation-in-schools/ |accessdate=15 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tatiana |first1=Joseph |last2=Vélez |first2=William |last3=Antrop-González |first3=René |title=The Experiences of Low-Income Latina/o Families in an Urban Voucher, Parochial School |journal=Journal of Latinos and Education |date=2017 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=143–155|doi=10.1080/15348431.2016.1205992 |s2cid=151732354 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Posey-Maddox |first1=Linn |last2=Haley-Lock |first2=Anna |title=One Size Does Not Fit All: Understanding Parent Engagement in the Contexts of Work, Family, and Public Schooling |journal=Urban Education |date=2020 |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=671–698|doi=10.1177/0042085916660348 |s2cid=147885393 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matthews |first1=Alison |last2=McPherson-Berg |first2=Sherry L |last3=Quinton |first3=Adalcy |last4=Rotunda |first4=Robert S. |last5=Morote |first5=Elsa-Sofia |title=he School-Parent Relationship across Different Income Levels |journal=Journal for Leadership and Instruction |date=2017 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=15–21}}</ref>
. However, SBFC programs such as the Center for Child & Family Development SBFC program,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Carter |first2=Michael |last3=Deborah |first3=Ribera |title=School-based Family Counseling: A Practitioner's Guide |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |page=14}}</ref> the Families and Schools Together (Fast) program,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kratochwill |first1=T. |last2=McDonald |first2=L. |last3=Levin |first3=J. |last4=Scalia |first4=P. |last5=Coover |first5=G. |title=Families and schools together: An experimental study of multi-family support groups for children at risk. |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=2009 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=245–265 |doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2009.03.001|pmid=19480887 }}</ref> and the Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) program <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=J. |last2=Reid |first2=J. |last3=Fetrow |first3=R. |title=An Elementary School-Based Prevention Program Targeting Modifiable Antecedents of Youth Delinquency and Violence: Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) |journal=Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |date=2000 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=165–176|doi=10.1177/106342660000800304 |s2cid=145685425 }}</ref> were designed precisely to engage these families. There are several randomized control group studies demonstrating the effectiveness of SBFC with low income families.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group |title=Fast track randomized controlled trial to prevent externalizing psychiatric disorders: Findings from grades 3 to 9. |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |date=2007 |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=1250–1262|doi=10.1097/chi.0b013e31813e5d39 |pmid=17885566 |pmc=2754206 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crozier |first1=M. |last2=Rokutani |first2=L. |last3=Russett |first3=J. |last4=Godwin |first4=E. |last5=Banks |first5=G. |title=A multisite program evaluation of families and schools together (FAST): Continued evidence of a successful multifamily community-based prevention program. |journal=The School Community Journal |date=2010 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=187–207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=J. |last2=Reid |first2=J. |last3=Fetrow |first3=R. |title=An Elementary School-Based Prevention Program Targeting Modifiable Antecedents of Youth Delinquency and Violence: Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) |journal=Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |date=2000 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=165–176|doi=10.1177/106342660000800304 |s2cid=145685425 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flay |first1=B. |last2=Graumlich |first2=S. |last3=Segawa |first3=E. |last4=Burns |first4=J. |last5=Amuwo |first5=S. |last6=Bell |first6=C. |last7=Campbell |first7=R. |last8=Cowell |first8=J. |last9=Cooksey |first9=J. |last10=Dancy |first10=B. |last11=Hedeker |first11=D. |last12=Jagers |first12=R. |last13=Levy |first13=S. |last14=Paikoff |first14=R. |last15=Punwani |first15=I. |last16=Weisberg |first16=R. |title=Effects of 2 prevention programs on high-risk behaviors among African American youth: A randomized trial. |journal=Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine |date=2004 |volume=158 |issue=4 |pages=377–384|doi=10.1001/archpedi.158.4.377 |pmid=15066879 |pmc=2386246 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=L. |last2=Billingham |first2=S. |last3=Conrad |first3=T. |last4=Morgan |first4=A. |last5=Payton |first5=E. |title=Families and Schools Together (FAST): integrating community development with clinical strategy |journal=Billingham |date=1997 |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=140–155}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kratochwill |first1=T.R. |last2=McDonald |first2=L. |last3=Levin |first3=J. |last4=Young Bear-Tibbetts |first4=H. |last5=Demaray |first5=M. K. |title=Families and schools together: an experimental analysis of a parent-mediated multi-family group program for American Indian children |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=2004 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=359−383|doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2004.08.001 }}</ref>

==SBFC Challenges and Solutions in Low-Income Communities==
The SBFC approach focuses on reducing family and school problems (such as school violence, trauma, and other challenges experienced by immigrants and low-income families) and increasing family and school resources in order to strengthen child well-being.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Carter |first2=Michael |last3=Ribera |first3=Deborah |title=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK}}</ref> An important part of SBFC is eliciting the support of the family.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Soriano |first2=Marcel |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. |title=School-based family counseling: The revolutionary paradigm. |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK}}</ref> This section describes common challenges experienced by school mental health professionals when working with low income communities and how SBFC is designed to address these challenges.

=== Challenge: Developing Parent Support ===

SBFC requires family members' participation. This can be a challenge for those students whose family members are not available to go to workshops and trainings either because they cannot take time out of work or because they do not support or relate to the principles of the SBFC approach.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Obstacles to Immigrant Parent Participation in Schools|url=https://www.idra.org/resource-center/obstacles-to-immigrant-parent-participation-in-schools/|website=IDRA|access-date=2020-04-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leventhal|first1=Tama|last2=Brooks-Gunn|first2=Jeanne|date=2004|title=A Randomized Study of Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Children's Educational Outcomes.|journal=Developmental Psychology|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=488–507|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.488|pmid=15238038|issn=1939-0599}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Low-Income Communities {{!}} Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA|url=https://adaa.org/low-income-communities|website=adaa.org|access-date=2020-04-30}}</ref> Students seeking counseling to navigate difficulties of the immigrant family experience often have family members who work long hours and cannot give time to the trainings of the SBFC method of counseling.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Obstacles to Immigrant Parent Participation in Schools|url=https://www.idra.org/resource-center/obstacles-to-immigrant-parent-participation-in-schools/|website=IDRA|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref> Immigrant families rarely have the time, or the language literacy, to help their children navigate school institutions which can create a disconnect between school counseling programs and immigrant households.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Obstacles to Immigrant Parent Participation in Schools|url=https://www.idra.org/resource-center/obstacles-to-immigrant-parent-participation-in-schools/|website=IDRA|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref> The processes of acculturation and assimilation are slow and delicate; their complications extend to a lack of understanding of the Western practice of multicultural progressive school counseling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brilliant|first=Judith Jay|title=Issues in Counseling Immigrant College Students|date=2010-10-29|journal=Community College Journal of Research & Practice|volume=24|issue=7|pages=577–586|language=en|doi=10.1080/10668920050139721|s2cid=144329144}}</ref> People in immigrant households may have different traumas and experiences that make them feel lost, depressed, stuck with regard to life choices, and alienated from all formal institutions of mainstream society, including schools.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brilliant|first=Judith Jay|title=Issues in Counseling Immigrant College Students|date=2010-10-29|journal=Community College Journal of Research & Practice|volume=24|issue=7|pages=577–586|language=en|doi=10.1080/10668920050139721|s2cid=144329144}}</ref> School counseling is often stigmatized by immigrant families because school counselors often approach immigrant students with English-only career tests and one-size-fits-all resource guides.<ref>Rowland, Karen D.; Davis, Terah (2014/11/00). "Counseling Immigrant Students in the Schools". ''Georgia School Counselors Association Journal''. '''21''' (1)</ref> Immigrants students are often subject to ethnic stereotypes by school counselors; for example<sub>,</sub> Hispanics are considered physical laborers and not scholars and Asian immigrant students are held to higher academic standards and considered intelligent<ref>Rowland, Karen D.; Davis, Terah (2014/11/00). "Counseling Immigrant Students in the Schools". ''Georgia School Counselors Association Journal''. '''21''' (1)</ref> Common ethnic stereotypes assumed by school counselors undermine the intended impact of the SBFC approach.<ref>Rowland, Karen D.; Davis, Terah (2014/11/00). "Counseling Immigrant Students in the Schools". ''Georgia School Counselors Association Journal''. '''21''' (1)</ref>

'''SBFC Solutions'''
SBFC addresses these challenges in a number of ways. First, school transformation is a fundamental SBFC premise. Schools must change to accommodate the needs of parents and families and to avoid marginalization of immigrant and low-income parents  Strickland, 2020).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. |title=School-based family counseling: The revolutionary paradigm. |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strickland |first1=M. |last2=Lyutykh |first2=E. |title=Community, diversity, and marginalization: An ecological construction of immigrant parenting within the U.S. neoliberal home and school contexts. |journal=Journal of the American Educational Studies Association |date=2020 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=286–305|doi=10.1080/00131946.2020.1745806 |s2cid=216321722 }}</ref> A common SBFC approach to involve parent is for the SBFC practitioner to have flexible hours that (for example) would permit the SBFC practitioner to work from 12-8 pm on a weekday and work every second Saturday.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |last2=Ribera |first2=Deborah |last3=Carter |first3=Michael |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. |title=Family intervention: How to build collaboration between the family and school using conjoint family counseling. |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |page=110}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Velsor |first1=P. |last2=Orozco |first2=G. |title=Involving low-Income parents in the schools: Communitycentric strategies for school counselors. |journal=Professional School Counseling |date=2008 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=17–24}}</ref>  Further, many SBFC practitioners trained in working with families understand the need to address barriers. This may result in the SBFC practitioner visiting the family in the home to establish a relationship, explore barriers, and make a plan that works for moving forward based on the family’s needs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Joseph-Goldfarb |first1=Nancy |title=Parent Involvement in Schools: Views from School Social Workers. |url=https://sophia.stkate.edu/ msw_papers/344 |website=Sophia, the St. Catherine University repository website |publisher=St. Catherine University |accessdate=19 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Susan |last2=Tracy |first2=Elizabeth |title=). Revitalizing the Role of Home Visiting by School Social Workers. |journal=Children & Schools. |date=2004 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=197–208|doi=10.1093/cs/26.4.197 }}</ref> This SBFC flexibility makes it easier for working parents to meet with the SBFC practitioner.  In situations where it is impossible for the parents to meet with the SBFC practitioner, the SBFC practitioner will reach out to the parents using the phone, the internet (email and Zoom), and sending letters. Research on immigrant parents shows that they value schools reaching out to them if it is done in a respectful and culturally sensitive manner.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Auerbach |first1=S. |title=From moral supporters to struggling advocates: Reconceptualizing parent roles in education through the experience of working class families of color |journal=Urban Education |date=2007 |volume=42 |pages=250–283|doi=10.1177/0042085907300433 |s2cid=146624181 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Devine |first1=D. |title=Immigration and schooling in the Republic of Ireland. Making a difference? |date=2011 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=manchester, UK. |chapter=Pathways to immigrant parental involvement in schools.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Durand |first1=T. |last2=Perez |first2=N. |title=Continuity and variability in the parental involvement and advocacy beliefs of Latino families of young children: Finding the potential for a collective voice |journal=School Community Journal |date=2013 |volume=22 |pages=49–80}}</ref> Second, it is a hallmark of the SBFC approach to treat the parents/guardians with respect and as equal partners with the SBFC practitioner.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Soriano |first2=Marcel |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=School-based family counseling: The revolutionary paradigm |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK. |page=6}}</ref> (G&S, 2020, p.&nbsp;6). The family is viewed as a source of strength for children and that even in dysfunctional families there are family members willing to advocate for the educational success of a child. Assessing family strengths is basic to the SBFC approach.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=Developing an SBFC case conceptualization |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=59–60 |chapter=2}}</ref> Third, the parents/guardians are approached – not for therapy – but for consultation on how to 
help their child succeed at school. This educational approach, rather than a therapy approach, is very appealing to immigrant and low-income families who may not regard therapy as a solution and who are not comfortable with traditional Eurocentric approaches to therapy that emphasize individualism and assertiveness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Soriano |first2=Marcel |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=School-based family counseling: The revolutionary paradigm |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |page=7 |chapter=1}}</ref> Schools have a long history of marginalizing immigrant and low income parents,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strickland |first1=M. |last2=Lyutykh |first2=E. |title=Community, diversity, and marginalization: An ecological construction of immigrant parenting within the U.S. neoliberal home and school contexts |journal=Journal of the American Educational Studies Association |date=2020 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=286–305|doi=10.1080/00131946.2020.1745806 |s2cid=216321722 }}</ref> but approaches like SBFC that emphasize respect, caring, cultural humility, and reaching out to parents, can increase parent involvement in schools.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldsmith |first1=J. |last2=Robinson Kurpius |first2=S. |title=Fostering the academic success of their children: Voices of Mexican immigrant parents |journal=Journal of Educational Research |date=2018 |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=564–573|doi=10.1080/00220671.2017.1323717 |s2cid=149333897 }}</ref> School personnel trained in SBFC may be in the best position to implement SBFC because the focus in a school setting is on improving student functioning for success as opposed to addressing mental health issues which is frequently stigmatized in immigrant communities. Most parents are willing to attend counseling sessions at a school versus attending family therapy at a community health clinic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |last2=Ribera |first2=Deborah |last3=Carter |first3=Michael |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. |title=Family intervention: How to build collaboration between the family and school using conjoint family counseling |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |chapter=3}}</ref> Fourth, multicultural competence is an essential part of the SBFC approach.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=Michael |last2=Hernandez |first2=Emily |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=Effective referral processes in school mental health: Multicultural considerations in a Eurocentric System |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=351–360 |chapter=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=How to develop an SBFC case conceptualization |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=51–59 |chapter=2}}</ref> Gerrard, 2020, pp.&nbsp;51–59). For example, when working with Latino/a immigrant families, SBFC practitioners understand the role of familia and educacion: that the valuing of family and education is a core part of the culture and that parent involvement may be expressed by home-support rather than school visits. Parent home-support for children’s academic performance and well-being includes: support for doing homework, having a quiet place to study, emphasizing respect for teachers, discussing future plans, and excusing chores so that more time can be spent on homework.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Auerbach |first1=S. |title=From moral supporters to struggling advocates: Reconceptualizing parent roles in education through the experience of working class families of color |journal=Urban Education |date=2007 |volume=42 |pages=250–283|doi=10.1177/0042085907300433 |s2cid=146624181 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ceballo |first1=R. |last2=Maurizi |first2=L. |last3=Suarez |first3=G. |last4=Aretakis |first4=M. |title=Gift and sacrifice: Parental involvement in Latino adolescents' education |journal=Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology |date=2014 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=116–127|doi=10.1037/a0033472 |pmid=23834259 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chrispeels |first1=J.H. |last2=Rivero |first2=E. |title=Engaging Latino families for student success: How parent education can reshape parents' sense of place in the education of their children |journal=Peabody Journal of Education |year=2001 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=119–169|doi=10.1207/S15327930pje7602_7 |s2cid=144428180 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=LeFevre |first1=A. L. |last2=Shaw |first2=T.V. |title=Latino parent involvement and school success: Longitudinal effects of formal and informal support |journal=Education and Urban Society |date=2012 |volume=44 |pages=707–723|doi=10.1177/0013124511406719 |s2cid=143873000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=S. |last2=Behnke |first2=A. |last3=Sands |first3=T. |last4=Choi |first4=B. |title=Adolescents' reports of parental engagement and academic achievement in immigrant families |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |date=2008 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=257–268|doi=10.1007/s10964-008-9325-4 |pmid=19636722 |s2cid=7520860 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Zarate |first1=M.E. |title=Understanding Latino parental involvement in education: Perceptions, expectations, and recommendations |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502065.pdf |website=www.tpri.org |publisher=Tomás Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) |accessdate=19 July 2020}}</ref>

==== Challenge:School violence ====
School violence is often a response to a lack of present family members which can be correlated with an economy demanding extremely long work hours for low-income household survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guerra|first1=Nancy G.|last2=Huesmann|first2=L. Rowell|last3=Spindler|first3=Anja|date=2003|title=Community Violence Exposure, Social Cognition, and Aggression Among Urban Elementary School Children|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1561–1576|doi=10.1111/1467-8624.00623|pmid=14552414|issn=1467-8624|hdl=2027.42/83426|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Low-income families that are constantly working can be less active participants in their children's schools and upbringing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guerra|first1=Nancy G.|last2=Huesmann|first2=L. Rowell|last3=Spindler|first3=Anja|date=2003|title=Community Violence Exposure, Social Cognition, and Aggression Among Urban Elementary School Children|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1561–1576|doi=10.1111/1467-8624.00623|pmid=14552414|issn=1467-8624|hdl=2027.42/83426|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Studies note that many low-income communities lack mentors who can stress the value of schooling, which in turn correlates to student disengagement and an increase in acting out and violent behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leventhal|first1=Tama|last2=Brooks-Gunn|first2=Jeanne|date=2004|title=A Randomized Study of Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Children's Educational Outcomes.|journal=Developmental Psychology|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=488–507|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.488|pmid=15238038|issn=1939-0599}}</ref> Lack of engagement among community members can translate to a lack of parent involvement in schooling institutions which can impede the counselor-teacher partnership the SBFC approach urges.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guerra|first1=Nancy G.|last2=Huesmann|first2=L. Rowell|last3=Spindler|first3=Anja|date=2003|title=Community Violence Exposure, Social Cognition, and Aggression Among Urban Elementary School Children|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1561–1576|doi=10.1111/1467-8624.00623|pmid=14552414|issn=1467-8624|hdl=2027.42/83426|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leventhal|first1=Tama|last2=Brooks-Gunn|first2=Jeanne|date=2004|title=A Randomized Study of Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Children's Educational Outcomes.|journal=Developmental Psychology|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=488–507|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.488|pmid=15238038|issn=1939-0599}}</ref> Low-income communities' high numbers of population turnover rates, lack of strong well-funded institutions, and displacement of people from their neighborhoods not only increases school violence among students, but can also create a disconnection between households and local institutions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Elliott|first1=Delbert S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EiiT_E1x4tQC&q=school+violence+low+income+families&pg=PA127|title=Violence in American Schools: A New Perspective|last2=Hamburg|first2=Beatrix A.|last3=Williams|first3=Kirk R.|date=1998-10-13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64418-1|language=en}}</ref> Students in low-income communities with high crime rates are more prone to commit violence in their local schooling institutions which can promote fear into many students yet students in general are prone to stay silent when approached by school administration to speak about this issue.<ref>Rawles, P. D. (2010). The link between poverty, the proliferation of violence and the development of traumatic stress among urban youth in the United States to school violence: A trauma informed, social justice approach to school violence. In Forum on Public Policy Online (Vol. 2010, No. 4). Oxford Round Table. New York: The New Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00623|title = Community Violence Exposure, Social Cognition, and Aggression Among Urban Elementary School Children|year = 2003|last1 = Guerra|first1 = Nancy G.|last2 = Rowell Huesmann|first2 = L.|last3 = Spindler|first3 = Anja|journal = Child Development|volume = 74|issue = 5|pages = 1561–1576|pmid = 14552414|hdl = 2027.42/83426|hdl-access = free}}</ref> Violence in schooling institutions is often normalized by parents due to constant violence in their communities which then disrupts possible connections between counselors and parents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guerra|first1=Nancy G.|last2=Huesmann|first2=L. Rowell|last3=Spindler|first3=Anja|date=2003|title=Community Violence Exposure, Social Cognition, and Aggression Among Urban Elementary School Children|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1561–1576|doi=10.1111/1467-8624.00623|pmid=14552414|issn=1467-8624|hdl=2027.42/83426|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The high rates of school violence within low-income urban schools can lead to traumatic stress which is often neglected by low-income/ethnic minority families while only further undermines the SBFC method of counseling.<ref>Rawles, P. D. (2010). The link between poverty, the proliferation of violence and the development of traumatic stress among urban youth in the United States to school violence: A trauma informed, social justice approach to school violence. In Forum on Public Policy Online (Vol. 2010, No. 4). Oxford Round Table. New York: The New Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Low-Income Communities {{!}} Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA|url=https://adaa.org/low-income-communities|website=adaa.org|access-date=2020-05-12}}</ref>

'''SBFC Solutions'''
SBFC practitioners address school violence in a number of ways. As a general strategy, SBFC practitioners collaborate with school administrators and teachers to increase student engagement. Student engagement refers to: having a sense of belonging and being a part of the school;experiencing teacher support and caring; having friends at school; and experiencing fair and 
effective discipline.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=School prevention: How to Increase School Engagement |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=258–282 |chapter=9}}</ref> SBFC strategies to promote student engagement include: promoting a positive school climate; strengthening school organization and infrastructure; and facilitating student interactions. Studies show that increasing student engagement reduces bullying and school dropout, and creates “caring schools” that are family-friendly and create a safe place for communities where violence is prevalent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |title=Promising practices for preventing bullying in K-12 schools: Student engagement |date=2014 |publisher=University of Southern California |location=Los Angeles, CA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |title=Reducing bullying and preventing dropout through student engagement: A prevention-focused lens for school-based family counselors. |journal=Reducing Bullying and Preventing Dropout Through Student Engagement: A Prevention-focused Lens for School-based Family Counselors. |date=2016 |volume=7 |pages=1–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soriano |first1=Marcel |last2=Hong |first2=George |title=School-based family services: Administrative leadership for a caring model of effective education |journal=Journal for a Just and Caring Education |date=1997 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=180–191}}</ref>
Student engagement falls largely in the area of prevention through the SBFC meta-model and framework. Student engagement is a vital construct to be used in prevention and intervention efforts that target issues related to dropout prevention, bullying, and the behaviors associated with the disengagement of students to school (academic failure, chronic absenteeism, behavioral issues).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-bease family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=School prevention: How to increase student engagement |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=258–282 |chapter=9}}</ref> Student engagement is the central construct in student dropout. It is the slow process of disengagement that contributes to student dropout. There are disproportionate rates of student dropout, chronic absenteeism, and behavior-related suspensions for black and latino/a students. Focusing on student engagement through the SBFC systemic model provides an infrastructure of protective factors that can mitigate negative influences and prevent involvement in school or community violence (Hernandez, 2020). Implementation of student engagement interventions through the SBFC model focusing on school prevention and family prevention have been found to be highly associated with student outcomes. SBFC practitioners following the SBFC meta-model focus their interventions on school prevention and family intervention which largely includes a “whole-school” approach engaging multiple stakeholders, most importantly families.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Emily |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=Schoolprevention: How to increase student engagement |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=258–282 |chapter=9}}</ref> SBFC also places importance on developing community resources to reduce school problems. Community violence is a complex problem and not easily solved – but SBFC practitioners view community intervention as part of their approach to helping children, families and schools.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Soriano |first2=Marcel |title=The role of community intervention in school-based family counseling |journal=International Journal for School-based Family Counseling |date=2018 |volume=10 |pages=1–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=How to develop community resources |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=312–334 |chapter=11}}</ref>

==== Challenge: Trauma and mental health access ====
Low-income households often do not validate students' traumatic experiences and can show little interest in attending training with school counselors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Low-Income Communities {{!}} Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA|url=https://adaa.org/low-income-communities|website=adaa.org|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref> Being low-income can produce various traumas that most families tend to ignore, creating a culture of mental health negligence and a lack of proper self care within these households.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Low-Income Communities {{!}} Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA|url=https://adaa.org/low-income-communities|website=adaa.org|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref> A 2008 survey shows that the mental health needs of the poor are often unmet due to the lack of insurance coverage.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1017/S1121189X00002621|title=Stigma and discrimination limit access to mental health care|year=2008|last1=Thornicroft|first1=Graham|journal=Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale|volume=17|pages=14–19|pmid=18444452|s2cid=273885|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2015 study found that 48% of whites received mental health services compared to  31% of African Americans and Hispanics, and 22% of Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1017/S1121189X00002621|title=Stigma and discrimination limit access to mental health care|year=2008|last1=Thornicroft|first1=Graham|journal=Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale|volume=17|pages=14–19|pmid=18444452|s2cid=273885|doi-access=free}}</ref>  Mental health negligence can be attributed to low-income communities being often misdiagnosed and misunderstood with their trauma or mental healthcare overall.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mental Health Disparities: Diverse Populations|url=https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/cultural-competency/education/mental-health-facts|website=www.psychiatry.org|access-date=2020-04-30}}</ref> SBFC approaches can also fail to account for ethnic/cultural attitudes toward mental health. For example, Mexican American families were found to have a lower rate of mental health problems due to the strong cultural belief of natural healing in comparison to traditional psychiatric services.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1146/annurev.so.17.080191.002031|title = Ethnic Minorities and Mental Health|year = 1991|last1 = Vega|first1 = William A.|last2 = Rumbaut|first2 = Rubén G.|journal = Annual Review of Sociology|volume = 17|pages = 351–383|s2cid = 49344405}}</ref>

'''SBFC Solutions'''
Although SBFC practitioners often offer parent education training at school and community sites, parent consultation is the form of counseling most frequently provided by SBFC. Parent consultation can also be provided by phone or internet (Zoom) for parents who do not want to visit the school or community counseling center. While many low-income parents are not interested in participating in “therapy”, many are very interested in seeing their children succeed at school and welcome the opportunity to speak with a SBFC practitioner who treats them with respect and approaches them as equal partners in helping their child succeed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Carter |first2=Michael |last3=Ribera |first3=Deborah |title=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=5–7}}</ref> (Gerrard, Carter, & Ribera, 2020). Parents who do not feel comfortable attending a parent education workshop at their child’s school, may welcome meeting with the SBFC practitioner at the school or in a home visit, or through brief weekly phone calls. In rare situations where contact between the parents and SBFC counselor is not feasible, SBFC practitioners may use a family systems counseling approach with students that helps them to relate more constructively to their family and strengthen family relationships.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Gerrard |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Ribera |editor3-first=Deborah |editor1-link=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |title=Family intervention: How to do family counseling with individuals |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |pages=119–170 |chapter=4}}</ref>
Most SBFC programs based in schools, such as the Center for Child & Family Development Mission Possible program,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Brian |last2=Carter |first2=Michael |last3=Ribera |first3=Deborah |title=School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |page=14}}</ref> the Families and Schools Together (FAST) program,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kratochwill |first1=T. |last2=McDonald |first2=L. |last3=Levin |first3=J. |last4=Scalia |first4=P. |last5=Coover |first5=G. |title=). Families and schools together: An experimental study of multi-family support groups for children at risk. |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=2009 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=245–265|doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2009.03.001 |pmid=19480887 }}</ref> the Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) program,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=J. |last2=Reid |first2=J. |last3=Fetrow |first3=R. |title=An Elementary School-Based Prevention Program Targeting Modifiable Antecedents of Youth Delinquency and Violence: Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) |journal=Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |date=2000 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=165–176|doi=10.1177/106342660000800304 |s2cid=145685425 }}</ref> and  the Place2Be program<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams-Langley |first1=Stephen |last2=Everts |first2=Hans |title=Place2Be in the inner city: A school-based mental health service in the United Kingdom |journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling |date=2013–14 |volume=5 |pages=1–16}}</ref> were developed especially to reach low-income families  and are free for students and families, making mental health services accessible to low income families. The educational focus of SBFC services also makes mental health counseling more accessible to these same families.

'''

== Barriers to Entry for SBFC ==
'''
The development of SBFC programs requires both cross-disciplinary and cross-cultural thinking and a willingness to set aside mental health professional "turf" issues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soriano|first1=M.|last2=Hong|first2=G.|title=School-based family services: Administrative leadership for a caring model of effective education|journal=Journal for a Just and Caring Education|date=1997|volume=3|issue=2|pages=180–191}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Powers |first1=J. |last2=Swick |first2=D. |title=Establishing and maintaining successful university-school partnerships in school-based research |journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling |date=2017 |volume=1 |pages=1–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Schalkwyk |first1=G. |title=Socio-cultural barriers to entry for School-Based Family Counseling |journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling |date=2017 |volume=1 |pages=1–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soriano |first1=M. |title=When leadership and vision fail: The dismantling of a School-Based Family Counseling leadership program |journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling |date=2017 |volume=1 |pages=1–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=M. |last2=Garner |first2=W. |last3=Geiger |first3=P. |last4=Gerrard |first4=B. |last5=Soriano |first5=M. |title=Reducing inter-professional barriers affecting School-Based Family Counseling |journal=International Journal for School-Based Family Counseling |date=2017 |volume=1}}</ref> Graduates of mental health discipline academic programs who have not been exposed to other mental health professions, may develop a “silo” approach to mental health that leads to competition and “turf” battles with professionals from other disciplines. Strategies to overcome interprofessional barriers to SBFC practitioners include: using discipline inclusive language (e.g. SBFC practitioner rather than SBFC counselor, SBFC social worker, etc.; becoming familiar with the SBFC literature in other mental health professions; fostering a collaborative relationship with members of other mental health disciplines; gathering evidence-based support for your SBFC program; developing support from administrators leading the organization in which you are practicing an SBFC approach .<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Michael |last2=Garner |first2=William |last3=Geiger |first3=Peter |last4=Gerrard |first4=Brian |last5=Soriano |first5=Marcel |title=Reducing inter-professional barriers affecting school-based family counseling |journal=International Journal for School-based Family Counseling |date=2017 |volume=9 |pages=1–17}}</ref>

==Examples of Books on School-Based Family Counseling==

*Boyd-Franklin, L. & Hafer Bry, B. (2000). Reaching out in family therapy. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
*Dreikurs, R.; Cassel, P. (1965). Discipline without tears. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
*Fine, Marvin J. & Carlson C . (Eds.). (1992) Family-school intervention: A systems perspective. New York, NY:Allyn and Bacon.
*Gerrard, B. & Soriano, M. (Eds.) (2013). School-based family counseling: Transforming family-school relationships. Phoenix, AZ: CreateSpace.
*Gerrard, B., Carter, M. & Ribera, D. (Eds.).(2019). School-based family counseling: An interdisciplinary practitioner's guide. London, UK:   Routledge. 
*Hinckle, J. & Wells, M. (1995). Family counseling in the schools. Greensboro, NC: ERIC/CASS Publications.
*Laundy, K. C. (2015). Building School-Based Collaborative Mental Health Teams: A Systems Approach to Student Achievement. Camp Hill, PA: TPI Press.
*Miller, L. D. (Ed.) (2002). Integrating school and family counseling: Practical solutions. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
*Palmatier. Larry L. (1998) Crisis Counseling For A Quality School Community: A family perspective. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
*Sherman, R., Shumsky, A. & Roundtree, Y. (1994) Enlarging the Therapeutic Circle. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
*Sheridan, S. & Kratochwill, T. (2008) Conjoint behavioral consultation, promoting family-based connections and interventions. New York, NY:Springer.
*Shute, R. & Slee, P. (Eds.). (2016). Mental health and wellbeing through schools: The way forward. London, UK: Routledge. 
*Steele W. & Raider M. (1991). Working With Families in Crisis: School-based intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
*Walsh, W. & Giblen, N. (Eds) (1988). Family counseling in school settings. Springfield, Il: Charles C. Thomas.
*Walsh, W. & Williams, G. (1997) Schools and Family Therapy: Using Systems Theory and Family Therapy in the Resolution of School Problems. New York, NY: Charles C. Thomas.

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]

{{Sourceattribution|School-Based Family Counseling|1}}