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{{Short description|Software that manages computer hardware resources}}
An '''operating system''' ('''OS''') is [[Software:System software|system software]] that manages [[Computer hardware|computer hardware]] and [[Software|software]] resources, and provides common [[Daemon (computing)|services]] for [[Computer program|computer program]]s.

[[Time-sharing]] operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of [[Scheduling (computing)|processor time]], [[Mass storage|mass storage]], peripherals, and other resources.

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware,<ref>{{cite book | last = Stallings | title = Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | location = Pearson |page=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Dhotre| first = I.A.| title = Operating Systems. | publisher = Technical Publications | year = 2009 |page=1}}</ref> although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes [[System call|system call]]s to an OS function or is [[Interrupt|interrupt]]ed by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer{{snd}}from cellular phones and video game consoles to [[Web server|web server]]s and [[Supercomputer|supercomputer]]s.

In the [[Engineering:Personal computer|personal computer]] market, {{as of|2023|09|lc=y}}, [[Software:Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] holds a dominant market share of around 68%. [[Software:MacOS|macOS]] by [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple Inc.]] is in second place (20%), and the varieties of [[Software:Linux|Linux]], including [[Software:ChromeOS|ChromeOS]], are collectively in third place (7%).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Desktop Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-202309-202309-bar |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002223546/https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Mobile operating system|mobile]] sector (including [[Engineering:Smartphone|smartphone]]s and [[Engineering:Tablet computer|tablets]]), {{as of|2023|09|lc=y}}, [[Software:Android (operating system)|Android's]] share is 68.92%, followed by Apple's [[Software:IOS|iOS]] and [[Software:IPadOS|iPadOS]] with 30.42%, and other operating systems with .66%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile & Tablet Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/mobile-tablet/worldwide/#monthly-202309-202309-bar |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en}}</ref> [[Software:Linux distribution|Linux distribution]]s are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized classes of operating systems (special-purpose operating systems),<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/operating-system-concepts/9780471694663/pt07.html|title=VII. Special-Purpose Systems - Operating System Concepts, Seventh Edition [Book]|website=www.oreilly.com|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613190049/https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/operating-system-concepts/9780471694663/pt07.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acs.eonerc.rwth-aachen.de/cms/E-ON-ERC-ACS/Studium/Lehrveranstaltungen/~lrhs/Spezial-Betriebssysteme/?lidx=1|title=Special-Purpose Operating Systems - RWTH AACHEN UNIVERSITY Institute for Automation of Complex Power Systems - English|website=www.acs.eonerc.rwth-aachen.de|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614034001/https://www.acs.eonerc.rwth-aachen.de/cms/E-ON-ERC-ACS/Studium/Lehrveranstaltungen/~lrhs/Spezial-Betriebssysteme/?lidx=1|url-status=live}}</ref> such as [[Embedded system|embedded]] and real-time systems, exist for many applications. [[Security-focused operating system]]s also exist. Some operating systems have low system requirements (e.g. [[Light-weight Linux distribution|light-weight Linux distribution]]). Others may have higher system requirements.

Some operating systems require installation or may come pre-installed with purchased computers (OEM-installation), whereas others may run directly from media (i.e. live CD) or flash memory (i.e. [[Engineering:USB flash drive|USB]] stick).

==Types of operating systems==

===Single-tasking and multi-tasking===
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a [[Computer multitasking|multi-tasking]] operating system allows more than one program to be running [[Concurrent computing|concurrently]]. This is achieved by [[Time-sharing|time-sharing]], where the available processor time is divided between multiple processes. These processes are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and cooperative types. In [[Preemption (computing)|preemptive]] multitasking, the operating system slices the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. [[Unix-like]] operating systems, such as [[Software:Linux|Linux]]—as well as non-Unix-like, such as [[Software:AmigaOS|AmigaOS]]—support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. [[16-bit computing|16-bit]] versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking; [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] versions of both Windows NT and Win9x used preemptive multi-tasking.

===Single- and multi-user===
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem.<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Lorch | first1=Jacob R. | last2=Smith | first2=Alan Jay | book-title=Proceedings of the 2nd annual international conference on Mobile computing and networking | title=Reducing processor power consumption by improving processor time management in a single-user operating system | publisher=ACM | publication-place=New York, NY, US | year=1996 | pages=143–154 | doi=10.1145/236387.236437 | isbn=089791872X | doi-access=free }}</ref> A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.

===Distributed===
A [[Distributed operating system|distributed operating system]] manages a group of distinct, [[Computer network|networked]] computers and makes them appear to be a single computer, as all computations are [[Distributed computing|distributed]] (divided amongst the constituent computers).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=B. |last2=Singh |first2=N. |last3=Singh |first3=R. |chapter=Master-slave group based model for co-ordinator selection, an improvement of bully algorithm |title=International Conference on Parallel, Distributed and Grid Computing (PDGC) |year=2014 |pages=457–460 |doi=10.1109/PDGC.2014.7030789 |isbn=978-1-4799-7682-9 |s2cid=13887160 }}</ref>

===Embedded===
[[Embedded operating system]]s are designed to be used in [[Embedded system|embedded computer systems]]. They are designed to operate on small machines with less autonomy (e.g. [[Social:Personal digital assistant|PDAs]]). They are very compact and extremely efficient by design and are able to operate with a limited amount of resources. [[Software:Windows CE|Windows CE]] and [[Software:Minix 3|Minix 3]] are some examples of embedded operating systems.

===Real-time===
A [[Real-time operating system|real-time operating system]] is an operating system that guarantees to process [[Event (computing)|events]] or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a [[Deterministic system|deterministic]] nature of behavior is achieved. Such an event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events, whereas time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock [[Interrupt|interrupt]]s.

===Library===
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of [[Library (computing)|libraries]] and composed with the application and configuration code to construct a [[Software:Unikernel|unikernel]]: a specialized, [[Single address space operating system|single address space]], machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded environments.{{Explain|date=February 2022|reason=Please expand this to include more detail, references, examples, and/or links to further reading}}

==History==
{{Main|Software:History of operating systems}}

Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as [[Software:Resident monitor|resident monitor]] functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s.<ref name="google4">{{Cite book|title= Classic Operating Systems|editor1-first= Per Brinch|editor1-last= Hansen|year= 2001|publisher= Springer|isbn= 0-387-95113-X|pages= 4–7|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-PDPBvIPYBkC&pg=PP1|access-date= 19 December 2020|archive-date= 11 January 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230111061716/https://books.google.com/books?id=-PDPBvIPYBkC&pg=PP1|url-status= live}}</ref> Hardware features were added, that enabled use of [[Runtime library|runtime libraries]], interrupts, and [[Parallel computing|parallel processing]]. When [[Engineering:Personal computer|personal computer]]s became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.

In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plugboards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general-purpose computers were invented, [[Machine code|machine languages]](consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981).{{Full citation needed|date=August 2014}}
[[File:IBM360-65-1.corestore.jpg|thumb|An IBM System 360/65 Operator's Panel. OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including computers used by the Apollo program.]]

In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period and would arrive at a scheduled time with their program and data on punched paper cards or [[Punched tape|punched tape]]. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or [[Crash (computing)|crashed]]. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that [[Biography:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]] was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the [[Universal Turing machine|universal Turing machine]].<ref name="google4"/>

Later machines came with libraries of programs, which would be linked to a user's program to assist in operations such as input and output and [[Compiler|compiling]] (generating machine code from human-readable [[Assembly language|symbolic code]]). This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England, the job queue was at one time a washing line (clothesline) from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job priority.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}}

By the late 1950s, programs that one would recognize as an operating system were beginning to appear. Often pointed to as the earliest recognizable example is GM-NAA I/O, released in 1956 on the IBM 704. The first known example that actually referred to itself was the [[Software:SHARE Operating System|SHARE Operating System]], a development of GM-NAA I/O, released in 1959. In a May 1960 paper describing the system, George Ryckman noted:

{{Blockquote|The development of computer operating systems have materially aided the problem of getting a program or series of programs on and off the computer efficiently.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1460361.1460406 |title= The computer operation language |journal=IRE-AIEE-ACM '60 (Western) |first= George |last=Ryckman|year= 1960 |page= 341 |doi= 10.1145/1460361.1460406 |s2cid= 30745551 }}</ref>}}

One of the more famous examples that is often found in discussions of early systems is the [[Software:Atlas Supervisor|Atlas Supervisor]], running on the [[Engineering:Atlas (computer)|Atlas]] in 1962.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lavington |first=Simon |title=A History of Manchester Computers |year=1998 |edition=2nd |publisher=The British Computer Society |location=Swindon |isbn=978-1-902505-01-5|pages=50–52}}</ref> It was referred to as such in a December 1961 article describing the system, but the context of "the Operating System" is more along the lines of "the system operates in the fashion". The Atlas team itself used the term "supervisor",<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Institute of Electrical Engineers |date=December 1961 |title=The Atlas Supervisor |first1=T. |last1=Kilburn |first2=R. B. |last2=Payne |first3=D. J. |last3=Howarth |pages=279–294 |doi=10.1145/1460764.1460786 |s2cid=16466990 |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/1460764.1460786 |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609221919/https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/1460764.1460786 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was widely used along with "monitor". [[Biography:Per Brinch Hansen|Brinch Hansen]] described it as "the most significant breakthrough in the history of operating systems."<ref>{{cite book |last=Brinch Hansen |first=Per |title=Classic Operating Systems: From Batch Processing to Distributed Systems |year=2000 |publisher=Springer-Verlag}}</ref>

===Mainframes===

Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems on [[Mainframe computer|mainframe computer]]s, including [[Software:Batch processing|batch processing]], input/output [[Interrupt|interrupt]]ing, [[Data buffer|buffering]], [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]], [[Spooling|spooling]], [[Runtime library|runtime libraries]], [[Linker (computing)|link-loading]], and programs for [[Sorting algorithm|sorting]] records in files. These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959, the [[Software:SHARE Operating System|SHARE Operating System]] was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes, although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS/IBJOB on the 709, 7090 and 7094, which in turn influenced the later 7040-PR-150 (7040/7044) and 1410-PR-155 (1410/7010) operating systems.

During the 1960s, IBM's OS/360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines. IBM's current mainframe operating systems are [[Software:History of IBM mainframe operating systems|distant descendants]] of this original system and modern machines are backward compatible with applications written for OS/360.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}}

OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and [[File locking|file locking]] during updates. When a process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system.

The alternative [[Software:CP-67|CP-67]] system for the S/360-67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of [[Virtual machine|virtual machine]]s. Other operating systems used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: DOS/360{{efn|A combination of DOS/360 and [[Emulator|emulation software]] was known as Compatibility Operating System (COS).}} (Disk Operating System), TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System), and [[Software:IBM Airline Control Program|ACP]] (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: [[Software:Michigan Terminal System|MTS]] (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).

[[Company:Control Data Corporation|Control Data Corporation]] developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for [[Software:Batch processing|batch processing]]. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the [[Software:CDC Kronos|Kronos]] and later the [[Software:NOS (operating system)|NOS]] operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth [[BASIC]] operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games.

In 1961, [[Company:Burroughs Corporation|Burroughs Corporation]] introduced the B5000 with the [[Software:Burroughs MCP|MCP]] (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a [[Stack machine|stack machine]] designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no assembler;{{efn|However, ESPOL did allow source programs to specify all of the operations of the instruction repertoire.}} indeed, the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language ([[Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language|ESPOL]], a dialect of [[ALGOL]]). MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of [[Virtual memory|virtual memory]]. MCP is still in use today in the [[Company:Unisys|Unisys]] company's MCP/ClearPath line of computers.

[[Engineering:UNIVAC|UNIVAC]], the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems.<ref>{{cite manual
 |title        = EXEC I UNIVAC 1107 Executive System
 |url          = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1107/UP-2577r1_EXEC_I_Tech.pdf
 |id           = UP-2577
 |edition      = rev. 1
 |publisher    = [[Company:Sperry Rand|Sperry Rand]]
 |access-date  = May 15, 2022
 |archive-date = 15 June 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20220615003346/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1107/UP-2577r1_EXEC_I_Tech.pdf
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite manual
 |title        = UNIVAC Data Processing Division Multi-processor System EXEC II Programmers Reference Manual
 |url          = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/exec/UP-4058_EXEC_II_Programmers_Ref_Man_1966.pdf
 |id           = UP-4058
 |year         = 1966
 |publisher    = [[Company:Sperry Rand|Sperry Rand]]
 |access-date  = May 15, 2022
 |archive-date = 15 June 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20220615003849/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/exec/UP-4058_EXEC_II_Programmers_Ref_Man_1966.pdf
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite manual
 |title        = UNIVAC 1108 Multi-processor System Operating System EXEC 8 Programmers Reference
 |url          = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/exec/UP-4144_Rev1_1108_Exec_8_Programmers_Reference_1968.pdf
 |id           = UP-4144
 |edition      = rev. 1
 |year         = 1968
 |publisher    = [[Company:Sperry Rand|Sperry Rand]]
 |access-date  = May 15, 2022
 |archive-date = 25 May 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20220525145022/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/univac/1100/exec/UP-4144_Rev1_1108_Exec_8_Programmers_Reference_1968.pdf
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> Like all early main-frame systems, this batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.

[[Company:General Electric|General Electric]] developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which primarily supported batch processing. After its acquisition by [[Company:Honeywell|Honeywell]], it was renamed [[Software:General Comprehensive Operating System|General Comprehensive Operating System]] (GCOS).

[[Organization:Bell Labs|Bell Labs]],{{efn|Bell Labs quickly dropped out, leaving GE and MIT.}} [[Company:General Electric|General Electric]] and MIT developed Multiplexed Information and Computing Service ([[Software:Multics|Multics]]), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels.

Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including [[Software:TOPS-10|TOPS-10]] and [[Software:TOPS-20|TOPS-20]] time-sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Before the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early [[Engineering:ARPANET|ARPANET]] community. [[Software:RT-11|RT-11]] was a single-user real-time OS for the [[Engineering:PDP-11|PDP-11]] class minicomputer, and [[Software:RSX-11|RSX-11]] was the corresponding multi-user OS.

From the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized [[Microcode|microprogramming]] to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying [[Computer architecture|computer architecture]]s to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact, most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/44, 360/75, 360/91, 360/95 and 360/195) were microprogrammed implementations.

The enormous investment in software for these systems made since the 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. Notable supported mainframe operating systems include:

* Burroughs MCP{{snd}}[[Burroughs large systems|B5000]], 1961 to [[Company:Unisys|Unisys]] Clearpath/MCP, present
* IBM OS/360{{snd}}IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM z/OS, present
* IBM [[Software:CP-67|CP-67]]{{snd}}IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM z/VM, present
* UNIVAC EXEC 8{{snd}}UNIVAC 1108, 1967, to OS 2200 [[Company:Unisys|Unisys]] Clearpath Dorado, present

===Microcomputers===
[[File:PC DOS 1.10 screenshot.png|thumb|256px|PC DOS was an early personal computer OS that featured a command-line interface.]]

The first [[Microcomputer|microcomputer]]s did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minicomputers; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and known as ''[[Software:Resident monitor|monitors]]''. One notable early [[Software:Disk operating system|disk operating system]] was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by [[Company:Microsoft|Microsoft]]'s [[Software:MS-DOS|MS-DOS]], which became widely popular as the operating system chosen for the [[Engineering:IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]] (IBM's version of it was called IBM DOS or [[Software:IBM PC DOS|PC DOS]]).

In the 1980s, Apple Computer Inc. (now [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple Inc.]]) introduced the Apple Macintosh alongside its popular Apple II series of microcomputers. The Macintosh had an innovative [[Graphical user interface|graphical user interface]] (GUI) and a mouse; it ran an operating system later known as the [[Software:Classic Mac OS|(classic) Mac OS]]. 

The introduction of the [[Engineering:Intel 80386|Intel 80386]] CPU chip in October 1985,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickrefyr.htm#1985|title=Intel® Microprocessor Quick Reference Guide - Year|website=Intel |access-date=2016-04-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425001839/http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickrefyr.htm#1985|archive-date=25 April 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> with [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] architecture and [[Paging|paging]] capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] operating systems like those of earlier [[Superminicomputer|superminicomputer]]s and [[Mainframe computer|mainframes]]. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring [[Biography:Dave Cutler|Dave Cutler]], who had developed the [[Software:OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system for [[Company:Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corporation]]. He would lead the development of the [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]] operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft's operating systems line. [[Biography:Steve Jobs|Steve Jobs]], a co-founder of [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple Inc.]], started [[Company:NeXT|NeXT]] Computer Inc., which developed the [[Software:NeXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]] operating system. NeXTSTEP would later be acquired by [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple Inc.]] and used, along with code from [[Software:FreeBSD|FreeBSD]] as the core of [[Software:MacOS|Mac OS X]] (macOS after latest name change).

The [[GNU Project]] was started by activist and programmer [[Biography:Richard Stallman|Richard Stallman]] with the goal of creating a complete [[Free software|free software]] replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the [[Software:GNU Hurd|GNU Hurd]] kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the [[Software:Linux kernel|Linux kernel]]. It was soon merged with the GNU [[User space|user space]] components and [[Software:System software|system software]] to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux" by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the [[Organization:Free Software Foundation|Free Software Foundation]] remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as [[Software:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as [[Software:FreeBSD|FreeBSD]], [[Software:NetBSD|NetBSD]] and [[Organization:OpenBSD|OpenBSD]].

==Examples==

===Unix and Unix-like operating systems===
{{Main|Software:Unix}}
<imagemap>
File:Unix history-simple.png|256px|thumb|Evolution of [[Software:Unix|Unix]] systems
default [[File:Unix history-simple.svg]]
</imagemap>

Unix was originally written in [[Assembly language|assembly language]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Ritchie|first=Dennis|title=Unix Manual, first edition|url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/1stEdman.html|publisher=Lucent Technologies|access-date=22 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518013206/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/1stEdman.html|archive-date=18 May 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Biography:Ken Thompson|Ken Thompson]] wrote [[B (programming language)|B]], mainly based on [[BCPL]], based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by [[C (programming language)|C]], and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see [[Software:History of operating systems|History]]).

The ''[[Unix-like]]'' family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, [[Software:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], and [[Software:Linux|Linux]]. The name "[[Software:Unix|UNIX]]" is a trademark of [[Company:The Open Group|The Open Group]] which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.

Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of [[Computer architecture|computer architecture]]s. They are used heavily for [[Server (computing)|servers]] in business, as well as [[Workstation|workstation]]s in academic and engineering environments. [[Free software|Free]] UNIX variants, such as [[Software:Linux|Linux]] and [[Software:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], are popular in these areas.

Five operating systems are certified by [[Company:The Open Group|The Open Group]] (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP's [[Software:HP-UX|HP-UX]] and IBM's [[Software:IBM AIX|AIX]] are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, [[Company:Sun Microsystems|Sun Microsystems]]'s [[Software:Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]] can run on multiple types of hardware, including [[X86|x86]] and [[SPARC]] servers, and PCs. Apple's [[Software:MacOS|macOS]], a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) [[Software:Classic Mac OS|classic Mac OS]], is a [[Software:Hybrid kernel|hybrid kernel]]-based BSD variant derived from [[Software:NeXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]], [[Software:Mach (kernel)|Mach]], and [[Software:FreeBSD|FreeBSD]]. IBM's z/OS [[Software:UNIX System Services|UNIX System Services]] includes a shell and utilities based on Mortice Kerns' InterOpen products.

Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the [[POSIX]] standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.

====BSD and its descendants====
{{Main|Software:Berkeley Software Distribution}}
[[File:First Web Server.jpg|thumb|256px|The [[Software:CERN httpd|first server]] for the [[World Wide Web|World Wide Web]] ran on NeXTSTEP, based on BSD.]]

A subgroup of the Unix family is the [[Software:Berkeley Software Distribution|Berkeley Software Distribution]] family, which includes [[Software:FreeBSD|FreeBSD]], [[Software:NetBSD|NetBSD]], and [[Organization:OpenBSD|OpenBSD]]. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The [[World Wide Web]] was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD called [[Software:NeXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]].

In 1974, [[Organization:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]] installed its first Unix system. Over time, students and staff in the computer science department there began adding new programs to make things easier, such as text editors. When Berkeley received new [[VAX]] computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the school's undergraduates modified Unix even more in order to take advantage of the computer's hardware possibilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund the project. Many schools, corporations, and government organizations took notice and started to use Berkeley's version of Unix instead of the official one distributed by AT&T.

[[Biography:Steve Jobs|Steve Jobs]], upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed [[Company:NeXT|NeXT Inc.]], a company that manufactured high-end computers running on a variation of BSD called [[Software:NeXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]]. One of these computers was used by Tim Berners-Lee as the first webserver to create the World Wide Web.

Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. After two years of legal disputes, the BSD project spawned a number of free derivatives, such as [[Software:NetBSD|NetBSD]] and [[Software:FreeBSD|FreeBSD]] (both in 1993), and [[Organization:OpenBSD|OpenBSD]] (from NetBSD in 1995).

====macOS====
{{Main|Software:MacOS}}

'''macOS''' (formerly "Mac OS X" and later "OS X") is a line of open core graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple Inc.]], the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping [[Engineering:Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers. macOS is the successor to the original [[Software:Classic Mac OS|classic Mac OS]], which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, macOS is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at [[Company:NeXT|NeXT]] through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997.
The operating system was first released in 1999 as [[Software:Mac OS X Server 1.0|Mac OS X Server 1.0]], followed in March 2001 by a client version (Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah"). Since then, six more distinct "client" and "[[Software:MacOS Server|server]]" editions of macOS have been released, until the two were merged in [[Software:Mac OS X Lion|OS X 10.7 "Lion"]].

Prior to its merging with macOS, the server edition{{snd}}[[Software:MacOS Server|macOS Server]]{{snd}}was [[Software architecture|architecturally]] identical to its desktop counterpart and usually ran on Apple's line of Macintosh [[Server (computing)|server]] hardware. macOS Server included work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a [[Message transfer agent|mail transfer agent]], a [[Software:Samba|Samba server]], an [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] server, a [[Domain Name System|domain name server]], and others. With [[Software:Mac OS X Lion|Mac OS X v10.7 Lion]], all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version and the product re-branded as "OS X" (dropping "Mac" from the name). The server tools are now offered as an application.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apple.com/macosx/lion/ |title=OS X Mountain Lion – Move your Mac even further ahead |publisher=Apple |access-date=2012-08-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523090205/http://www.apple.com/macosx/lion/ |archive-date=23 May 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

====z/OS UNIX System Services====

First introduced as the OpenEdition upgrade to MVS/ESA System Product Version 4 Release 3, announced<ref>{{cite web
 |title        = Openedition Services on MVS/ESA SP Version 4 Release 3 Announced and Availability of MVS/ESA SP Version 4 Release 3 With Additional Enhancements
 |id           = 293-060
 |date         = February 9, 1993
 |url          = https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/announcements/archive/ENUS293-060
 |work         = Announcement Letters
 |publisher    = IBM
 |access-date  = 16 July 2023
}}</ref> February 1993 with support for [[POSIX]] and other standards.<ref name=GC23-3010>{{cite manual
 |     publisher = IBM
 |      title = Introducing OpenEdition MVS
 |         id = GC23-3010-00
 |       date = December 1993
 |     version = First Edition}}</ref><ref name=GC23-3011>{{cite manual
 |     publisher = IBM
 |      title = OpenEdition MVS POSIX.1 Conformance Document
 |         id = GC23-3011-00
 |       date = February 1993
 |     version = First Edition
 }}
</ref><ref name=gc23-3012>{{cite manual
 |     publisher = IBM
 |      title = OpenEdition MVS POSIX.2 Conformance Document
 |         id = GC23-3012-00
 |       date = December 1993
 |     version = First Edition
 }}
</ref> z/OS [[Software:UNIX System Services|UNIX System Services]] is built on top of [[Software:MVS|MVS]] services and cannot run independently. While IBM initially introduced OpenEdition to satisfy [[Federal Information Processing Standards|FIPS]] requirements, several z/OS component now require UNIX services, e.g., TCP/IP.

====Linux====
{{Main|Software:Linux|Software:Software:Linux kernel}}
[[File:Ubuntu 19.04 "Disco Dingo".png|thumb|250px|Ubuntu, desktop Linux distribution ]]

[[File:Tux.svg|thumb|A picture of [[Tux (mascot)|Tux]] the penguin, the mascot of Linux. Linux is a [[Unix-like|Unix-like]] operating system that was first released on September 17, 1991 by Linus Torvalds.<ref>{{cite web | title = Twenty Years of Linux according to Linus Torvalds | url = http://www.zdnet.com/article/twenty-years-of-linux-according-to-linus-torvalds/ | publisher = ZDNet | date = April 13, 2011 | access-date = September 19, 2016 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160919232940/http://www.zdnet.com/article/twenty-years-of-linux-according-to-linus-torvalds/ | archive-date = September 19, 2016 | df = mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite newsgroup | title = Free minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT | author = Linus Benedict Torvalds | date = October 5, 1991 | newsgroup = comp.os.minix | url = https://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/2194d253268b0a1b?pli=1 | access-date = September 30, 2011 | archive-date = 2 March 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130302010902/http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/2194d253268b0a1b?pli=1 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = What Is Linux: An Overview of the Linux Operating System | date = 11 April 2020 | url = https://medium.com/@theinfovalley097/what-is-linux-an-overview-of-the-linux-operating-system-77bc7421c7e5 | publisher = Medium | access-date = July 16, 2023}}</ref><ref name="LinuxOnLine2008">{{cite web | url = http://www.linux.org/info/logos.html | title = Linux Logos and Mascots |access-date=August 11, 2009 | last = Linux Online | year = 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100815085106/http://www.linux.org/info/logos.html | archive-date = August 15, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel.

[[Software:Linux|Linux]] is [[Unix-like]], but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the [[Software:Linux kernel|Linux kernel]] code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smartwatches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is [[Software:Usage share of operating systems|used on]] only 2.81% of all "desktop" (or laptop) PCs,<ref name=":0" /> it has been widely adopted for use in servers<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idc.com/about/viewpressrelease.jsp?containerId=prUS22360110&sectionId=null&elementId=null&pageType=SYNOPSIS |title=IDC report into Server market share |publisher=Idc.com |access-date=2012-08-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927155332/http://www.idc.com/about/viewpressrelease.jsp?containerId=prUS22360110&sectionId=null&elementId=null&pageType=SYNOPSIS |archive-date=27 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and embedded systems<ref>{{cite web |last=LinuxDevices Staff |title=Linux still top embedded OS |url=http://archive.linuxgizmos.com/linux-still-top-embedded-os/ |date=23 April 2008 |website=LinuxGizmos.com |access-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419010154/http://archive.linuxgizmos.com/linux-still-top-embedded-os/ |archive-date=19 April 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> such as cell phones. 

Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most [[Supercomputer|supercomputers]], including all 500 most powerful supercomputers on the [[TOP500]] list — having displaced all competitors by 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Operating system Family / Linux {{!}} TOP500 |url=https://www.top500.org/statistics/details/osfam/1/ |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=www.top500.org}}</ref> Linux is also commonly used on other small energy-efficient computers, such as [[Engineering:Smartphone|smartphone]]s and [[Engineering:Smartwatch|smartwatch]]es. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as [[Software:Red Hat Enterprise Linux|Red Hat]], [[Software:Debian|Debian]], [[Software:Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]], [[Software:Linux Mint|Linux Mint]] and [[Company:Google|Google]]'s [[Software:Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Software:ChromeOS|ChromeOS]], and [[Software:ChromiumOS|ChromiumOS]].

===Microsoft Windows===
{{Main|Software:Microsoft Windows}}

Microsoft Windows is a family of [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] operating systems designed by [[Company:Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]] and primarily targeted to [[X86|x86]] architecture based computers. {{asof|2022}}, its worldwide market share on all platforms was approximately 30%,<ref name="StatCounter">{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Operating System Market Share Worldwide Jan–Dec 2022 |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/all/worldwide/2022 |access-date=2023-11-04 }}</ref> and on the desktop/laptop platforms, its market share was approximately 75%.<ref>{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Desktop Operating System Market Share Worldwide Jan–Dec 2022 |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/2022 |access-date=2023-11-04 }}</ref> The latest version is [[Software:Windows 11|Windows 11]].

Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an [[Operating environment|operating environment]] running on top of [[Software:MS-DOS|MS-DOS]], which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, [[Software:Windows 95|Windows 95]] was released which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real-mode MS-DOS<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/130179/EN-US |title=Troubleshooting MS-DOS Compatibility Mode on Hard Disks |publisher=Microsoft Support |access-date=2012-08-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810073641/http://support.microsoft.com/kb/130179/EN-US |archive-date=10 August 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/134748/en |title=Using NDIS 2 PCMCIA Network Card Drivers in Windows 95 |publisher=Microsoft Support |access-date=2012-08-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217043405/http://support.microsoft.com/kb/134748/en |archive-date=17 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and 16-bit Windows 3.x<ref>{{cite web |url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/163354/en |title=INFO: Windows 95 Multimedia Wave Device Drivers Must be 16 bit |publisher=Microsoft Support |access-date=2012-08-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217043412/http://support.microsoft.com/kb/163354/en |archive-date=17 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all been based on the [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]] [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]]. Current client versions of Windows run on [[IA-32]], [[X86-64|x86-64]] and [[ARM architecture family|Arm]] [[Engineering:Microprocessor|microprocessor]]s.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arthur|first=Charles|title='Windows 8' will run on ARM chips - but third-party apps will need rewrite |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/jan/05/microsoft-windows-8-arm-processors|newspaper=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012022725/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/jan/05/microsoft-windows-8-arm-processors|archive-date=12 October 2016|df=dmy-all |date=5 Jan 2011}}</ref> In the past, Windows NT supported additional architectures.

Server editions of Windows are widely used, however, Windows' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.netcraft.com/SSL-Survey/CMatch/osdv_all|title=Operating System Share by Groups for Sites in All Locations January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706135203/http://news.netcraft.com/SSL-Survey/CMatch/osdv_all|archive-date=6 July 2009|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=5408|title=Behind the IDC data: Windows still No. 1 in server operating systems|date=2010-02-26|work=ZDNet|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301032456/http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=5408|archive-date=1 March 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

[[Software:ReactOS|ReactOS]] is a Windows-alternative operating system, which is being developed on the principles of Windows{{snd}}without using any of Microsoft's code.

===Other===
There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no longer so, such as [[Software:AmigaOS|AmigaOS]]; OS/2 from IBM and Microsoft; [[Software:Classic Mac OS|classic Mac OS]], the non-Unix precursor to Apple's macOS; [[Software:BeOS|BeOS]]; [[Software:XTS-400|XTS-300]]; [[Software:RISC OS|RISC OS]]; [[Software:MorphOS|MorphOS]]; [[Software:Haiku (operating system)|Haiku]]; [[Software:BareMetal|BareMetal]] and FreeMint. Some are still used in niche markets and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications.

The z/OS operating system for IBM z/Architecture mainframe computers is still being used and developed, and 
[[Software:OpenVMS|OpenVMS]], formerly from [[Company:Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], is still under active development by VMS Software Inc. The [[Software:IBM i|IBM i]] operating system for IBM AS/400 and [[IBM Power Systems]] midrange computers is also still being used and developed.

Yet other operating systems are used almost exclusively in academia, for operating systems education or to do research on operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fulfills both roles is [[Software:MINIX|MINIX]], while for example [[Software:Singularity (operating system)|Singularity]] is used purely for research. Another example is the [[Software:Oberon (operating system)|Oberon System]] designed at ETH Zürich by [[Biography:Niklaus Wirth|Niklaus Wirth]], Jürg Gutknecht and a group of students at the former Computer Systems Institute in the 1980s. It was used mainly for research, teaching, and daily work in Wirth's group.

Other operating systems have failed to win significant market share, but have introduced innovations that have influenced mainstream operating systems, not least Bell Labs' [[Software:Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]].

==Components==
The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All user software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or as complex as an Internet component.

===Kernel===
{{Main|Software:Kernel (operating system)}}
[[File:Kernel Layout.svg|thumb|A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.]]

With the aid of [[Firmware|firmware]] and [[Device driver|device driver]]s, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the [[Random-access memory|RAM]], it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with [[File system|file system]]s on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc.

====Program execution====
The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application program typically involves the creation of a [[Process (computing)|process]] by the operating system [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]], which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program, which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices. However, in some systems an application can request that the operating system execute another application within the same process, either as a subroutine or in a separate thread, e.g., the '''LINK''' and '''ATTACH''' facilities of OS/360 and successors.

====Interrupts====
{{Main|Interrupt}}

An [[Interrupt|interrupt]] (also known as an [[Abort (computing)|abort]], [[Exception handling|exception]], ''fault'', [[Signal (IPC)|signal]],<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388_quote1">{{cite book
  | last = Kerrisk
  | first = Michael
  | title = The Linux Programming Interface
  | publisher = No Starch Press
  | year = 2010
  | page = 388
  | isbn = 978-1-59327-220-3
  | quote = A signal is a notification to a process that an event has occurred. Signals are sometimes described as software interrupts.
}}</ref> or ''trap'')<ref name="Hyde_1996">{{cite book
 |last1        = Hyde
 |first1       = Randall
 |chapter-url  = https://www.plantation-productions.com/Webster/www.artofasm.com/DOS/ch17/CH17-1.html#HEADING1-0
 |access-date  = 22 December 2021
 |date         = 1996
 |title        = The Art Of Assembly Language Programming
 |chapter      = Chapter Seventeen: Interrupts, Traps and Exceptions (Part 1)
 |publisher    = No Starch Press
 |quote        = The concept of an interrupt is something that has expanded in scope over the years. The 80x86 family has only added to the confusion surrounding interrupts by introducing the int (software interrupt) instruction. Indeed, different manufacturers have used terms like exceptions, faults, aborts, traps and interrupts to describe the phenomena this chapter discusses. Unfortunately there is no clear consensus as to the exact meaning of these terms. Different authors adopt different terms to their own use.
 |archive-date = 22 December 2021
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20211222205623/https://www.plantation-productions.com/Webster/www.artofasm.com/DOS/ch17/CH17-1.html#HEADING1-0
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> provides an efficient way for most operating systems to react to the environment. Interrupts cause the [[Central processing unit|central processing unit]] (CPU) to have a [[Control flow|control flow]] change away from the currently running program to an [[Interrupt handler|interrupt handler]], also known as an interrupt service routine (ISR).<ref name="sco-ch5-p308_a">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/308 308]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/308
  | quote = Like the trap, the interrupt stops the running program and transfers control to an interrupt handler, which performs some appropriate action. When finished, the interrupt handler returns control to the interrupted program.
  }}</ref><ref name="osc-ch2-p32_a">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 32
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
  | quote = When an interrupt (or trap) occurs, the hardware transfers control to the operating system. First, the operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program counter. Then, it determines which type of interrupt has occurred. For each type of interrupt, separate segments of code in the operating system determine what action should be taken.}}</ref> An interrupt service routine may cause the [[Central processing unit|central processing unit]] (CPU) to have a [[Context switch|context switch]].<ref name="osc-ch4-p105">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 105
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
  | quote = Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known as a context switch.}}</ref>{{efn|Modern CPUs provide instructions (e.g. SYSENTER) to invoke selected kernel services without an interrupts. Visit https://wiki.osdev.org/SYSENTER for more information.}} The details of how a computer processes an interrupt vary from architecture to architecture, and the details of how interrupt service routines behave vary from operating system to operating system.<ref name="osc-ch2-p31">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 31
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
}}</ref> However, several interrupt functions are common.<ref name="osc-ch2-p31"/> The architecture and operating system must:<ref name="osc-ch2-p31"/>
# transfer control to an interrupt service routine.
# save the state of the currently running process.
# restore the state after the interrupt is serviced.

=====Software interrupt=====
A software interrupt is a message to a [[Process (computing)|process]] that an event has occurred.<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388_quote1"/> This contrasts with a ''hardware interrupt'' — which is a message to the [[Central processing unit|central processing unit]] (CPU) that an event has occurred.<ref name="osc-ch2-p30">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 30
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
  | quote = Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the CPU, usually by way of the system bus.
}}</ref> Software interrupts are similar to hardware interrupts — there is a change away from the currently running process.<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388_quote2">{{cite book
  | last = Kerrisk
  | first = Michael
  | title = The Linux Programming Interface
  | publisher = No Starch Press
  | year = 2010
  | page = 388
  | isbn = 978-1-59327-220-3
  | quote = Signals are analogous to hardware interrupts in that they interrupt the normal flow of execution of a program; in most cases, it is not possible to predict exactly when a signal will arrive.
}}</ref> Similarly, both hardware and software interrupts execute an [[Interrupt handler|interrupt service routine]].

Software interrupts may be normally occurring events. It is expected that a [[Preemption (computing)#Time slice|time slice]] will occur, so the kernel will have to perform a [[Context switch|context switch]].<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388_quote3">{{cite book
  | last = Kerrisk
  | first = Michael
  | title = The Linux Programming Interface
  | publisher = No Starch Press
  | year = 2010
  | page = 388
  | isbn = 978-1-59327-220-3
  | quote = Among the types of events that cause the kernel to generate a signal for a process are the following: A software event occurred. For example, ... the process's CPU time limit was exceeded[.]
}}</ref> A [[Computer program|computer program]] may set a timer to go off after a few seconds in case too much data causes an algorithm to take too long.<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388">{{cite book
  | last = Kerrisk
  | first = Michael
  | title = The Linux Programming Interface
  | publisher = No Starch Press
  | year = 2010
  | page = 388
  | isbn = 978-1-59327-220-3
}}</ref>

Software interrupts may be error conditions, such as a malformed [[Machine code|machine instruction]].<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388"/> However, the most common error conditions are [[Division by zero|division by zero]] and [[Segmentation fault|accessing an invalid memory address]].<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388"/>

[[User (computing)|Users]] can send messages to the kernel to modify the behavior of a currently running process.<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388"/> For example, in the [[Command-line interface|command-line environment]], pressing the ''interrupt character'' (usually Control-C) might terminate the currently running process.<ref name="lpi-ch20-p388"/>

To generate ''software interrupts'' for [[X86|x86]] CPUs, the [[INT (x86 instruction)|INT]] [[Assembly language|assembly language]] instruction is available.<ref name="intel-developer">{{cite web
 |url=https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/manuals/64-ia-32-architectures-software-developer-instruction-set-reference-manual-325383.pdf
 |access-date=2022-05-05
 |title=Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual
 |volume=2
 |date=September 2016
 |publisher=Intel Corporation
 |page=610
 |archive-date=23 March 2022
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323231921/https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/manuals/64-ia-32-architectures-software-developer-instruction-set-reference-manual-325383.pdf
 |url-status=live
 }}</ref> The syntax is <code>INT X</code>, where <code>X</code> is the offset number (in [[Hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] format) to the [[Interrupt vector table|interrupt vector table]].

=====Signal=====
To generate ''software interrupts'' in [[Unix-like]] operating systems, the <code>kill(pid,signum)</code> [[System call|system call]] will send a [[Signal (IPC)|signal]] to another process.<ref name="duos-p200">{{cite book
  | last = Bach
  | first = Maurice J.
  | title = The Design of the UNIX Operating System
  | publisher = Prentice-Hall
  | year = 1986
  | page = 200
  | isbn = 0-13-201799-7
}}</ref> <code>pid</code> is the [[Process identifier|process identifier]] of the receiving process. <code>signum</code> is the signal number (in [[Biology:Mnemonic|mnemonic]] format){{efn|Examples include [[Signal (IPC)#SIGINT|SIGINT]], SIGSEGV, and SIGBUS.}} to be sent. (The abrasive name of <code>kill</code> was chosen because early implementations only terminated the process.)<ref name="lpi-ch20-p400">{{cite book
  | last = Kerrisk
  | first = Michael
  | title = The Linux Programming Interface
  | publisher = No Starch Press
  | year = 2010
  | page = 400
  | isbn = 978-1-59327-220-3
}}</ref>

In Unix-like operating systems, ''signals'' inform processes of the occurrence of asynchronous events.<ref name="duos-p200"/> To communicate asynchronously, interrupts are required.<ref name="sco-ch5-p308_b">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/308 308]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/308
  }}</ref> One reason a process needs to asynchronously communicate to another process solves a variation of the classic [[Readers–writers problem|reader/writer problem]].<ref name="osc-p182">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 182
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
}}</ref> The writer receives a pipe from the [[Software:Shell (computing)|shell]] for its output to be sent to the reader's input stream.<ref name="usp-ch6-p153">{{cite book
  | last1 = Haviland
  | first1 = Keith
  | last2 = Salama
  | first2 = Ben
  | title = UNIX System Programming
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
  | year = 1987
  | page = 153
  | isbn = 0-201-12919-1
}}</ref> The [[Command-line interface|command-line]] syntax is <code>alpha | bravo</code>. <code>alpha</code> will write to the pipe when its computation is ready and then sleep in the wait queue.<ref name="usp-ch6-p148">{{cite book
  | last1 = Haviland
  | first1 = Keith
  | last2 = Salama
  | first2 = Ben
  | title = UNIX System Programming
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
  | year = 1987
  | page = 148
  | isbn = 0-201-12919-1
}}</ref> <code>bravo</code> will then be moved to the ready queue and soon will read from its input stream.<ref name="usp-ch6-p149">{{cite book
  | last1 = Haviland
  | first1 = Keith
  | last2 = Salama
  | first2 = Ben
  | title = UNIX System Programming
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
  | year = 1987
  | page = 149
  | isbn = 0-201-12919-1
}}</ref> The kernel will generate ''software interrupts'' to coordinate the piping.<ref name="usp-ch6-p149"/>

''Signals'' may be classified into 7 categories.<ref name="duos-p200"/> The categories are:
# when a process finishes normally.
# when a process has an error exception.
# when a process runs out of a system resource.
# when a process executes an illegal instruction.
# when a process sets an alarm event.
# when a process is aborted from the keyboard.
# when a process has a tracing alert for debugging.

=====Hardware interrupt=====
Input/Output (I/O) [[Engineering:Peripheral|devices]] are slower than the CPU. Therefore, it would slow down the computer if the CPU had to [[Busy waiting|wait]] for each I/O to finish. Instead, a computer may implement interrupts for I/O completion, avoiding the need for [[Polling (computer science)|polling]] or busy waiting.<ref name="sco-ch5-p292">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/292 292]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/292
  }}</ref>

Some computers require an interrupt for each character or word, costing a significant amount of CPU time. [[Direct memory access]] (DMA) is an architecture feature to allow devices to bypass the CPU and access [[Random-access memory|main memory]] directly.<ref name=A22-6821-7-storage>{{cite manual
 |author       = IBM
 |title        = IBM System/360 Principles of Operation
 |date         = September 1968
 |version      = Eighth Edition
 |url          = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/princOps/A22-6821-7_360PrincOpsDec67.pdf
 |section      = Main Storage
 |section-url  = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/princOps/A22-6821-7_360PrincOpsDec67.pdf#page=8
 |mode         = cs2
 |page         = 7
 |access-date  = 13 April 2022
 |archive-date = 19 March 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20220319083255/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/360/princOps/A22-6821-7_360PrincOpsDec67.pdf
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> (Separate from the architecture, a device may perform direct memory access{{efn|often in the form of a DMA chip for smaller systems and I/O channels for larger systems}} to and from main memory either directly or via a bus.)<ref name="sco-ch5-p294">
{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/294 294]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/294
  }}</ref>{{efn|Modern [[Engineering:Motherboard|motherboard]]s have a DMA controller. Additionally, a device may also have one. Visit [[SCSI RDMA Protocol]].}}

====Input/Output====

=====Interrupt-driven I/O=====
When a [[User (computing)|computer user]] types a key on the keyboard, typically the character appears immediately on the screen. Likewise, when a user moves a [[Computer mouse|mouse]], the [[Cursor (user interface)|cursor]] immediately moves across the screen. Each keystroke and mouse movement generates an ''interrupt'' called ''Interrupt-driven I/O''. An interrupt-driven I/O occurs when a process causes an interrupt for every character<ref name="sco-ch5-p294"/> or word<ref>{{cite manual
 |title        = Users Handbook - PDP-7
 |id           = F-75
 |year         = 1965
 |url          = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp7/F-75_PDP-7userHbk_Jun65.pdf
 |section      = Program Interrupt Controller (PIC)
 |section-url  = http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp7/F-75_PDP-7userHbk_Jun65.pdf#page=62
 |pages        = [http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp7/F-75_PDP-7userHbk_Jun65.pdf#page=63 48]
 |publisher    = [[Company:Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corporation]]
 |access-date  = April 20, 2022
 |archive-date = 10 May 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20220510164742/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp7/F-75_PDP-7userHbk_Jun65.pdf
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> transmitted.

=====Direct Memory Access=====
Devices such as hard disk drives, solid state drives, and [[Physics:Magnetic tape|magnetic tape]] drives can transfer data at a rate high enough that interrupting the CPU for every byte or word transferred, and having the CPU transfer the byte or word between the device and memory, would require too much CPU time. Data is, instead, transferred between the device and memory independently of the CPU by hardware such as a channel or a [[Direct memory access|direct memory access]] controller; an interrupt is delivered only when all the data is transferred.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp1/F25_PDP1_IO.pdf|title=PDP-1 Input-Output Systems Manual|publisher=[[Company:Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corporation]]|pages=19–20|access-date=16 August 2022|archive-date=25 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125050839/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp1/F25_PDP1_IO.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
If a [[Computer program|computer program]] executes a [[System call|system call]] to perform a block I/O ''write'' operation, then the system call might execute the following instructions:
* Set the contents of the CPU's [[Processor register|registers]] (including the [[Program counter|program counter]]) into the [[Process control block|process control block]].<ref name="osc-ch2-p32_b">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 32
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
}}</ref>
* Create an entry in the device-status table.<ref name="osc-ch2-p34">{{cite book
  | last = Silberschatz
  | first = Abraham
  | title = Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | year = 1994
  | page = 34
  | isbn = 978-0-201-50480-4
}}</ref> The operating system maintains this table to keep track of which processes are waiting for which devices. One field in the table is the [[Memory address|memory address]] of the process control block.
* Place all the characters to be sent to the device into a [[Random-access memory|memory buffer]].<ref name="sco-ch5-p308_b"/>
* Set the memory address of the memory buffer to a predetermined [[Device register|device register]].<ref name="sco-ch5-p295">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/295 295]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/295
  }}</ref>
* Set the buffer size (an integer) to another predetermined register.<ref name="sco-ch5-p295"/>
* Execute the [[Machine code|machine instruction]] to begin the writing.
* Perform a [[Context switch|context switch]] to the next process in the ready queue.

While the writing takes place, the operating system will context switch to other processes as normal. When the device finishes writing, the device will ''interrupt'' the currently running process by ''asserting'' an [[Interrupt request (PC architecture)|interrupt request]]. The device will also place an integer onto the data bus.<ref name="sco-ch5-p309">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/309 309]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/309
  }}</ref> Upon accepting the interrupt request, the operating system will:
* Push the contents of the [[Program counter|program counter]] (a register) followed by the [[Status register|status register]] onto the [[Call stack|call stack]].<ref name="osc-ch2-p31"/>
* Push the contents of the other registers onto the call stack. (Alternatively, the contents of the registers may be placed in a system table.)<ref name="sco-ch5-p309"/>
* Read the integer from the data bus. The integer is an offset to the [[Interrupt vector table|interrupt vector table]]. The vector table's instructions will then:
:* Access the device-status table.
:* Extract the process control block.
:* Perform a context switch back to the writing process.

When the writing process has its [[Preemption (computing)#time slice|time slice]] expired, the operating system will:<ref name="sco-ch5-p310">{{cite book
  | last = Tanenbaum
  | first = Andrew S.
  | title = Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition
  | publisher = Prentice Hall
  | year = 1990
  | page = [https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/310 310]
  | isbn = 978-0-13-854662-5
  | url = https://archive.org/details/structuredcomput00tane/page/310
  }}</ref>
* Pop from the call stack the registers other than the status register and program counter.
* Pop from the call stack the status register.
* Pop from the call stack the address of the next instruction, and set it back into the program counter.

With the program counter now reset, the interrupted process will resume its time slice.<ref name="osc-ch2-p31"/>

====Modes====
[[File:Priv rings.svg|300px|thumb|right|Privilege rings for the [[X86|x86]] microprocessor architecture available in [[Protected mode|protected mode]]. Operating systems determine which processes run in each mode.]]

Modern computers support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability offer at least two modes: user mode and supervisor mode. In general terms, supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access to all machine resources, including all MPU instructions. User mode operation sets limits on instruction use and typically disallows direct access to machine resources. CPUs might have other modes similar to user mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit processors on a [[64-bit computing|64-bit]] one.

At power-on or reset, the system begins in supervisor mode. Once an operating system [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] has been loaded and started, the boundary between user mode and supervisor mode (also known as kernel mode) can be established.

Supervisor mode is used by the kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is accessed, and communicating with devices such as disk drives and video display devices. User mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Application programs, such as word processors and database managers, operate within user mode, and can only access machine resources by turning control over to the kernel, a process which causes a switch to supervisor mode. Typically, the transfer of control to the kernel is achieved by executing a software interrupt instruction, such as the Motorola 68000 <code>TRAP</code> instruction. The software interrupt causes the processor to switch from user mode to supervisor mode and begin executing code that allows the kernel to take control.

In user mode, programs usually have access to a restricted set of processor instructions, and generally cannot execute any instructions that could potentially cause disruption to the system's operation. In supervisor mode, instruction execution restrictions are typically removed, allowing the kernel unrestricted access to all machine resources.

The term "user mode resource" generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program is not allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources generally cause a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting; for example, by forcibly terminating ("killing") the program.

====Memory management====
{{Main|Memory management}}

Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by the programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.

Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]]'s memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may purposefully alter another program's memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system.

[[Memory protection]] enables the [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] to limit a process' access to the computer's memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including [[Memory segmentation|memory segmentation]] and [[Paging|paging]]. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which does not exist in all computers.

In both segmentation and paging, certain [[Protected mode|protected mode]] registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses trigger an interrupt, which causes the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg-V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] generally resorts to terminating the offending program, and reports the error.

Windows versions 3.1 through ME had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A [[General protection fault|general protection fault]] would be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway.

====Virtual memory====
{{Main|Virtual memory}}
{{Further|Page fault}}
[[File:Virtual memory.svg|thumb|250px|Many operating systems can "trick" programs into using memory scattered around the hard disk and RAM as if it is one continuous chunk of memory, called virtual memory.]]

The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.

If a program tries to access memory that is not in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel is interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a [[Page fault|page fault]].

When the kernel detects a page fault it generally adjusts the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application's memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet.

In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on a disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called [[Paging|swapping]], as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.

"Virtual memory" provides the programmer or the user with the perception that there is a much larger amount of RAM in the computer than is really there.<ref name="Operating System">{{cite book|last=Stallings|first=William|title=Computer Organization & Architecture|year=2008|publisher=Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-203-2962-1|page=267}}</ref>

====Multitasking====
{{Main|Computer multitasking|Process management (computing)}}

[[Computer multitasking|Multitasking]] refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer, giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time-sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute.

An operating system [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]] contains a [[Scheduling (computing)|scheduling]] program which determines how much time each process spends executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and memory. Later, control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a [[Context switch|context switch]].

An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called [[Cooperative multitasking|cooperative multitasking]]. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an [[Infinite loop|infinite loop]].

Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal run-times as well.

The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A [[Protected mode|protected mode]] timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.)

On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. [[Software:AmigaOS|AmigaOS]] is an exception, having preemptive multitasking from its first version. [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]] was the first version of [[Software:Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it did not reach the home user market until [[Software:Windows XP|Windows XP]] (since [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]] was targeted at professionals).

====Disk access and file systems====
{{Main|Virtual file system}}
[[File:Dolphin FileManager.png|thumb|256px|File systems allow users and programs to organize and sort files on a computer, often through the use of directories (or "folders").]]

Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on [[Engineering:Hard disk drive|disks]] using [[Computer file|files]], which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a [[File system|file system]], and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a [[Directory (computing)|directory tree]].

Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system.

While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like [[Software:Unix|UNIX]] and [[Software:Linux|Linux]] support a technology known as a [[Virtual file system|virtual file system]] or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or [[File system|file system]]s, allowing them to be accessed through a common [[Application programming interface|application programming interface]] (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them, through the use of specific [[Device driver|device driver]]s and file system drivers.

A connected [[Data storage|storage device]], such as a [[Engineering:Hard disk drive|hard drive]], is accessed through a [[Device driver|device driver]]. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX, this is the language of block devices.

When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories/folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates.

Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of [[File attribute|file attribute]]s makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, [[NTFS]] in Windows and [[ReiserFS]], [[Reiser4]], [[Ext3|ext3]], [[Ext4|ext4]] and [[Btrfs]] in Linux. However, in practice, third party drivers are usually available to give support for the most widely used file systems in most general-purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in Linux through [[Software:NTFS-3G|NTFS-3g]], and ext2/3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through third-party software).

Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use [[ISO 9660]] or [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]], and as of [[Software:Windows Vista|Windows Vista]], NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc ([[Engineering:Compact disc|CD]], [[Engineering:DVD|DVD]]...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system.

====Device drivers====
{{Main|Device driver}}
A [[Device driver|device driver]] is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs.

The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver ensures that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating system's point of view.

Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do.

===Networking===
{{Main|Computer network}}
Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common [[Computer network|network]] for sharing resources such as [[Remote procedure call|computing]], files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer's graphics or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such as [[Secure Shell|SSH]] which allows networked users direct access to a computer's command line interface.

Client/server networking allows a program on a computer, called a client, to connect via a network to another computer, called a server. Servers offer (or host) various services to other network computers and users. These services are usually provided through ports or numbered access points beyond the server's [[IP address]]. Each port number is usually associated with a maximum of one running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel.

Many operating systems support one or more vendor-specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, [[Systems Network Architecture|SNA]] on [[Company:IBM|IBM]] systems, [[DECnet]] on systems from [[Company:Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corporation]], and Microsoft-specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such as [[Network File System|NFS]] for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system's sound hardware.

===Security===
{{Main|Computer security}}

A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Operating Systems: Security|url=https://www.cs.uic.edu/~jbell/CourseNotes/OperatingSystems/15_Security.html|access-date=2020-11-27|website=www.cs.uic.edu|archive-date=7 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207224231/https://www.cs.uic.edu/~jbell/CourseNotes/OperatingSystems/15_Security.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-privileged", systems commonly have a form of requester ''identity'', such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of ''authentication''. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester '''identity''' is ''authorization''; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to either the requester's user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

In addition to the allow or disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security also offers auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file?"). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they cannot be secured.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system's kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the ''[[Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria]]'' (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select [[Trusted operating system|trusted operating system]]s being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information.

Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection/prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection/prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port.

An alternative strategy, and the only [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]] strategy available in systems that do not meet the [[Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements]], is where the operating system is not running user programs as native code, but instead either [[Emulator|emulates]] a processor or provides a host for a [[P-code machine|p-code]] based system such as Java.

Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing.

===User interface===
[[File:Command line.png|thumb|256px|A screenshot of the [[Software:Bash (Unix shell)|bash]] command line. Each command is typed out after the 'prompt', and then its output appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at the bottom.]]

Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a [[User interface|user interface]]. The user interface is usually referred to as a [[Software:Shell (computing)|shell]] and is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface views the [[Directory structure|directory structure]] and requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from [[Input device|input hardware devices]], such as a keyboard, mouse or [[Finance:Credit card|credit card reader]], and requests operating system services to display [[Command-line interface#Command prompt|prompts]], status messages and such on [[Output device|output hardware devices]], such as a [[Engineering:Computer monitor|video monitor]] or [[Engineering:Printer (computing)|printer]]. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the [[Command-line interface|command-line interface]], where computer commands are typed out line-by-line, and the [[Graphical user interface|graphical user interface]], where a visual environment (most commonly a [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]) is present.

====Graphical user interfaces====
[[File:KDE Plasma 5.16.png|thumb|left|256px|A screenshot of the KDE Plasma 5 graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on the screen, and the files, folders (directories), and applications take the form of icons and symbols. A mouse is used to navigate the computer.]]

Most of the modern computer systems support [[Graphical user interface|graphical user interface]]s (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementation of the [[Software:Classic Mac OS|classic Mac OS]], the GUI is integrated into the [[Software:Kernel (operating system)|kernel]].

While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of [[Context switch|context switch]]es required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are [[Modular programming|modular]], separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and macOS are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as [[Software:Windows Vista|Windows Vista]] implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions between [[Software:Windows NT 4.0|Windows NT 4.0]] and [[Software:Windows Server 2003|Windows Server 2003]] exist mostly in kernel space. [[Software:Windows 9x|Windows 9x]] had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel.

Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X&nbsp;Window System in conjunction with [[Software:GNOME|GNOME]] or [[Software:KDE Plasma 5|KDE Plasma 5]] is a commonly found setup on most Unix and [[Unix-like]] (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included [[Software:Windows shell|Windows shell]], but the shell itself cannot be separated from Windows.

Numerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to [[Common Open Software Environment|COSE]] and [[Software:Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and [[Organization:KDE|K Desktop Environment]]. Prior to [[Free software|free software]]-based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit/desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed).

Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac&nbsp;OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac&nbsp;OS&nbsp;X in 1999.<ref name="intro-date">{{cite web |first=Ken |last=Polsson | title=Chronology of Personal Computer Software (1998-1999) | website=islandnet.com | date=2007-02-08 | url=http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/compsoft/soft1998.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514022217/http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/compsoft/soft1998.htm | archive-date=2008-05-14 | url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Real-time operating systems==
{{Main|Real-time operating system}}

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines ([[Real-time computing|real-time computing]]). Such applications include some small [[Embedded system|embedded system]]s, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.

An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was [[Organization:Transaction Processing Facility|Transaction Processing Facility]] developed by American Airlines and [[Company:IBM|IBM]] for the [[Company:Sabre (computer system)|Sabre Airline Reservations System]].

Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a [[Real-time operating system|real-time operating system]] such as [[Software:VxWorks|VxWorks]], [[Software:PikeOS|PikeOS]], [[Software:ECos|eCos]], [[QNX]], [[Company:MontaVista|MontaVista Linux]] and [[RTLinux]]. [[Software:Windows CE|Windows CE]] is a [[Real-time operating system|real-time operating system]] that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows' codebase.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-computerapps-v2/chapter/reading-operating-system/|title=Reading: Operating System|website=Lumen|access-date=5 January 2019|archive-date=6 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106012248/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-computerapps-v2/chapter/reading-operating-system/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Software:Symbian|Symbian OS]] also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0b.

Some embedded systems use operating systems such as [[Software:Palm OS|Palm OS]], [[Software:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], and [[Software:Linux|Linux]], although such operating systems do not support real-time computing.

==Operating system development as a hobby==
{{Main|Hobbyist operating system}}
A hobby operating system may be classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating system, and has few users and active developers.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

In some cases, hobby development is in support of a "homebrew" computing device, for example, a simple [[Engineering:Single-board computer|single-board computer]] powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is her/his own developer, or may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have like interests.

Examples of a hobby operating system include [[Software:Syllable Desktop|Syllable]] and [[Software:TempleOS|TempleOS]].

==Diversity of operating systems and portability==
If an application is written for use on a specific operating system, and is ported to another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise [[Software maintenance|maintained]].<!--There really ought to be a discussion of ''software modules'' somewhere, such as those that are neither API's nor Plug-Ins (not sure what those are), but which are either hard (on cartridge), soft (on diskette), or otherwise installable by downloading). -->

This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms such as [[Software:Java (software platform)|Java]] or [[Software:Qt|Qt]]. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.

Another approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For example, [[POSIX]] and [[Operating system abstraction layer|OS abstraction layers]] provide commonalities that reduce porting costs.

==Market share==
{{Further|Software:Usage share of operating systems}}

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Software:Comparison of operating systems|Comparison of operating systems]]
* [[Crash (computing)]]
* [[Hypervisor]]
* [[Interruptible operating system]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Operating systems|List of important publications in operating systems]]
* [[Software:List of operating systems|List of operating systems]]
* List of pioneers in computer science
* Live CD
* [[Software:Glossary of operating systems terms|Glossary of operating systems terms]]
* [[Engineering:Microcontroller|Microcontroller]]
* [[Engineering:Mobile device|Mobile device]]
* [[Mobile operating system]]
* [[Network operating system]]
* [[Object-oriented operating system]]
* [[Software:Operating System Projects|Operating System Projects]]
* [[Software:System Commander|System Commander]]
* [[System image]]
* [[Software:Timeline of operating systems|Timeline of operating systems]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Thomas |last2=Dahlin |first2=Michael |title=Operating Systems: Principles and Practice |date=2014 |publisher=Recursive Books |isbn=978-0-9856735-2-9 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Auslander |first1=M. A. |last2=Larkin |first2=D. C. |last3=Scherr |first3=A. L. |title=The Evolution of the MVS Operating System |journal=IBM Journal of Research and Development |date=September 1981 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=471–482 |doi=10.1147/rd.255.0471}}
* {{cite book | last = Deitel | first = Harvey M. | author2 = Deitel, Paul | author3 = Choffnes, David | title = Operating Systems | date = 25 December 2015 | publisher = Pearson/Prentice Hall | isbn = 978-0-13-092641-8 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/modernoperatings00tane }}
* {{cite book | last = Bic| first = Lubomur F. |author2=Shaw, Alan C. | title = Operating Systems | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2003 | location = Pearson  }}
* {{cite book | last = Silberschatz | first = Avi |author2=Galvin, Peter |author3=Gagne, Greg | title = Operating Systems Concepts | publisher = {{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}} | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-470-12872-5 }}
* O'Brien, J. A., & Marakas, G. M.(2011). ''Management Information Systems''. 10e. McGraw-Hill Irwin.
* {{cite book |last1=Leva |first1=Alberto |last2=Maggio |first2=Martina |last3=Papadopoulos |first3=Alessandro Vittorio |last4=Terraneo |first4=Federico |title=Control-based Operating System Design |publisher=[[Organization:Institution of Engineering and Technology|IET]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84919-609-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Arpaci-Dusseau |first1=Remzi |last2=Arpaci-Dusseau |first2=Andrea |year=2015 |url=http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/ |title=Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces |access-date=25 July 2016 |archive-date=25 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725012948/http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/ |url-status=live }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{curlie|Computers/Software/Operating_Systems|Operating Systems}}
* [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/iterations/haigh.html Multics History] and the history of operating systems

{{Operating system}}
{{Computer science}}

[[Category:Operating systems| ]]

{{Sourceattribution|Operating system}}