View source for Organization:Nalanda mahavihara

{{short description|Ancient University in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox ancient site
 |name                      = Nalanda Mahavihara
 |native_name               = 
 |alternate_name            = 
 |image                     = Temple No.- 3, Nalanda Archaeological Site.jpg
 |image_size                = 250px
 |alt                       =
 |caption                   = The ruins of Nalanda Mahavihara
 |map_type                  = India#Bihar#South Asia
 |map_alt                   =
 |relief                    = yes
 |coordinates               = {{coord|25|08|12|N|85|26|38|E|display=inline,title}}
 |location                  = Nalanda district, Bihar, {{wipe|India}}
 |region                    = Magadha
 |type                      = Centre of learning, ancient university
 |part_of                   =
 |length                    = {{cvt|800|ft|order=flip}}
 |width                     = {{cvt|1600|ft|order=flip}}
 |area                      = {{cvt|12|ha}}
 |height                    =
 |builder                   = King Kumaragupta I 
 |material                  =
 |built                     = 5th century
 |abandoned                 = 13th century 
 |epochs                    =
 |cultures                  =
 |dependency_of             =
 |occupants                 =
 |event                     = Ransacked and destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in {{Circa|1200 CE}}.
 |excavations               = 1915–1937, 1974–1982<ref name="asi1">{{cite web | url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp | title=Nalanda | publisher=Archaeological Survey of India | access-date=18 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140918045920/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp | archive-date=18 September 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
 |archaeologists            = David B. Spooner, Hiranand Sastri, Palak Shah, J. A. Page, M. Kuraishi, G. C. Chandra, N. Nazim, Amalananda Ghosh{{sfn|Le|2010|p=59}}
 |condition                 = In ruins
 |ownership                 = Government of India
 |management                = Archaeological Survey of India
 |public_access             = Yes
 |website                   = {{URL|http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp|ASI}}
 |notes                     = ASI No. N-BR-43<ref>{{cite web | url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_bihar.asp | title=Alphabetical List of Monuments – Bihar | publisher=Archaeological Survey of India | access-date=17 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103035254/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_bihar.asp | archive-date=3 November 2011 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
  {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
  |child = yes
  |Official_name = Archaeological Site of Nalanda ''Mahavihara'' (Nalanda University) at Nalanda, Bihar
  |ID = 1502
  |Year = 2016
  |Criteria = Cultural: iv, vi
  |Area = 23 ha
  |Buffer_zone = 57.88 ha 
  }}
}}
[[File:Transformation of the Ancient Nalanda into the Modern Nalanda.jpg|thumb|Transformation of the Ancient Nalanda  into the Modern Nalanda universities ]]
'''Nalanda''' ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}}, {{IPA-sa|naːlən̪d̪aː|pron}}) was a renowned ''[[Philosophy:Mahavihara|mahavihara]]'' ([[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic university) in ancient [[History:Magadha|Magadha]] (modern-day Bihar), eastern India.{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=1–5}}{{sfnp|Kumar|2018}}<ref name="nalandagoi">{{cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=History {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=nalanda.nic.in}}</ref> Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Nominations |url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1502.pdf |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> and among the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna). Operating from 427 until 1197 CE,{{sfn| Pinkney| 
2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Manoj |title=Ancient Nalanda University |url=https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/aih/MAAIH53.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055253/https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/aih/MAAIH53.pdf |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref> Nalanda played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts and academics during the 5th and 6th century CE, a period that has since been described as the "[[History:Golden Age of India|Golden Age of India]]" by scholars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ingalls |first=Daniel H. H. |date=1976 |title=Kālidāsa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599886 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |doi=10.2307/599886 |jstor=599886 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref>

Nalanda was established during the [[History:Gupta Empire|Gupta Empire]] era,{{sfn|Smith|2013|pp=111–112}} and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons – both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=148–150 with footnotes}} Over some 750 years, its faculty included some of the most revered scholars of [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]] Buddhism. Nalanda ''mahavihara'' taught six major Buddhist schools and philosophies such as [[Philosophy:Yogachara|Yogachara]] and Sarvastivada as well as subjects such as [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics,{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}} [[Astronomy:Astronomy|astronomy]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Pintu |date=2011 |title=The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education |url=https://cgscholar.com/bookstore/works/the-ancient-nalanda-mahavihara |journal=The Journal of the World Universities Forum |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=65–80 |doi=10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v04i01/56731 |issn=1835-2030}}</ref> and [[Philosophy:Alchemy|alchemy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sumersingh |first1=DhirajsinghRajput |last2=Gokarn |first2=Rohit |last3=Jagtap |first3=ChandrashekharY |last4=Galib |first4=R |last5=Patgiri |first5=Bj |last6=Prajapati |first6=Pk |date=2016 |title=Critical Review of Rasaratna Samuccaya: A Comprehensive Treatise of Indian Alchemy |journal=Ancient Science of Life |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=12–18 |doi=10.4103/0257-7941.195412 |issn=0257-7941 |pmc=5255965 |pmid=28182027 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The university was also a major source of the 657 Sanskrit texts carried by pilgrim Xuanzang and the 400 Sanskrit texts carried by Yijing to China in the 7th century, which influenced East Asian Buddhism.{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā'', ''Xuanzang'' and ''Yijing''}} Many of the texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|Vajrayana]] Buddhism including the ''Mahavairocana Tantra'' and the ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' of Shantideva.<ref name="Śāntideva1998">{{cite book|author=Śāntideva|title=Translator's Note: The Bodhicaryāvatāra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-ifbE8kyGIC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283720-2|page=xxviii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hodge |first1=Stephen |title=The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary |date=9 December 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79654-9 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SY4GUaAUNEYC |language=en}}</ref> Nalanda may have been attacked and damaged by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, but it managed to remain operational for decades (or possibly even centuries) following the raids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |date=May 2018 |title=The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/696567 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=406–435 |doi=10.1086/696567 |s2cid=165825418 |issn=0018-2710}}</ref> It is a [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]] World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite news |date=15 July 2016 |agency=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=15 July 2016 |language=en |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |title=Four sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List |work=whc.unesco.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716131638/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |archive-date=16 July 2016 }}</ref>

In 2010, the Government of India passed a resolution to revive the famous university, and a contemporary institute, Nalanda University, was established at Rajgir.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nalandauniv.edu.in/about-nalanda/history-and-revival/|title = History and Revival|newspaper=Nalanda University}}</ref> It has been listed as an "Institute of National Importance" by the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nalandauniv.edu.in/about-nalanda/vision/|title=Vision|website=Nalandauniv.edu.in|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

==Location==
Nalanda is about {{convert|16|km|mi|0}} north of the city of Rajgir and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Patna, connected via NH 31, 20 and 120 to India's highway network.<ref name=nalandagoi/> It is about {{convert|80|km|mi|0}} northeast of Bodh Gaya – another important Buddhist site in Bihar. The Nalanda archaeological site is spread over a large area to the northwest of Bargaon (Nalanda) village, and is between the historical manmade lakes Gidhi, Panashokar and Indrapuskarani. On the south bank of the Indrapushkarani lake is the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara – a university founded in its memory.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Prasad|1988|p=184 with footnotes}} Similarly on the south west bank of the Indrapushkarani lake is Nalanda Open University , the state university named after the ancient Nalanda University.

==Etymology==
''Mahavihara'' ({{IAST|Mahāvihāra}}) is the [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[Social:Pali|Pali]] term for a great [[Philosophy:Vihāra|vihāra]] (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas.

According to the early 7th-century Tang dynasty Chinese pilgrim, Xuanzang, the local tradition explains that the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}} ([[Social:Hindi|Hindi]]/[[Social:Magahi language|Magahi]]: नालन्दा) came from a ''[[Unsolved:Nāga|nāga]]'' (serpent deity in Indian religions) whose name was ''Nalanda''. He offers an alternate meaning "charity without intermission", from "na-alam-da"; however, this split does not mean this.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=3 with footnote 2}} Hiranand Sastri, an archaeologist who headed the excavation of the ruins, attributes the name to the abundance of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|nālas}} (lotus-stalks) in the area and believes that Nalanda would then represent ''the giver of lotus-stalks''.{{sfn|Hiranand Sastri|1986|pp=3–4}}

In some Tibetan sources, including the 17th-century work of Taranatha, Nalanda is referred to as ''Nalendra'', and is likely synonymous with Nala, Nalaka, Nalakagrama found in Tibetan literature.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=2–3}}<ref name="Scharfe2018">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|date=12 November 2018|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|pages=148–150}}</ref><ref name="CabezonCabezón2013">{{cite book|author1=Jose Ignacio Cabezon|author2=José Ignacio Cabezón|title=The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty3O7BZYO5QC&pg=PA87|date=31 January 2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-995862-7|page=87}}</ref>

==History ==
=== Early history of the city of Nalanda (1200 BCE–300 CE) ===
[[File:Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62.jpg|thumbnail|right|A map of Nalanda and its environs from Alexander Cunningham's 1861–62 ASI report which shows a number of ponds (''pokhar'') around the Mahavihara.]]
Archaeological excavations at sites near Nalanda, such as the Juafardih site about 3 kilometres away, have yielded black ware and other items. These have been carbon dated to about 1200 BCE. This suggests that the region around Nalanda in Magadha had a human settlement centuries before the birth of the Mahavira and the Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book|title=EXCAVATION AT JUAFARDIH, DISTRICT NALANDA|last=Tewari|first=Rakesh|publisher=ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA|year=2016|pages=6–8 Layers 13, the uppermost deposit of Period I, has provided a C14 date of 1354BCE it may thus be seen that the C14 dates of Period I and II are consistent and justifiably indicate that the conventional date bracket for NBPW requires a fresh review at least for the sites in Magadh region}}</ref>

Early Buddhist texts state that Buddha visited a town near Rajagriha (modern Rajgir – the capital of [[History:Magadha|Magadha]]) called Nalanda on his peregrinations.{{sfn|KA Nilakanta Sastri|1988|p=268}}{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}} He delivered lectures in a nearby mango grove named ''Pavarika'' and one of his two chief disciples, Shariputra, was born in the area and later attained [[Philosophy:Nirvana|nirvana]] there.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|p= 148}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p= 328}} These Buddhist texts were written down centuries after the death of the Buddha, are not consistent in either the name or the relative locations. For example, texts such as the ''Mahasudassana Jataka'' states that Nalaka or Nalakagrama is about a yojana (10 miles) from Rajagriha, while texts such as ''Mahavastu'' call the place Nalanda-gramaka and place it half a [[Yojana|yojana]] away.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=2–3}} A Buddhist text ''Nikayasamgraha'' does state that emperor Ashoka established a ''vihara'' (monastery) at Nalanda. However, archaeological excavations so far have not yielded any monuments from Ashoka period or from another 600 years after his death.{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=4–5}}

Chapter 2.7 of the Jaina text ''Sutrakritanga'' states that Nalanda is a "suburb" of capital Rajagriha, has numerous buildings, and this is where Mahavira (6th/5th century BCE) spent fourteen ''varshas'' – a term that refers to a traditional retreat during monsoons for the monks in Indian religions. This is corroborated in the ''Kalpasutra'', another cherished text in Jainism. However, other than the mention of Nalanda, Jaina texts do not provide further details, nor were they written down for nearly a millennium after Mahavira's death. Like the Buddhist texts, this has raised questions about reliability and whether the current Nalanda is same as the one in Jaina texts.{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}} According to Scharfe, though the Buddhist and Jaina texts generate problems with place identification, it is "virtually certain" that the modern Nalanda is near or the site these texts are referring to.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}

==== Faxian visit (399–412 CE) ====
When Faxian, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk, visited the city of Nalanda, there probably was no university yet. Faxian had come to India to acquire Buddhist texts, and spent 10 years in India in the early fifth century, visiting major Buddhist pilgrimage sites including the Nalanda area. He also wrote a travelogue, which inspired other Chinese and Korean Buddhists to visit India over the centuries; in it he mentions many Buddhist monasteries and monuments across India. However, he makes no mention of any monastery or university at Nalanda even though he was looking for Sanskrit texts and took a large number of them from other parts of India back to China. Combined with a lack of any archaeological discoveries of pre-400 CE monuments in Nalanda, the silence in Faxian's memoir suggests that Nalanda monastery-university did not exist around 400 CE.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}<ref name="Deeg">{{citation | last=Deeg | first=Max | title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History | chapter=Chinese Buddhist Travelers: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2019 | doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.217 | isbn=978-0-19-027772-7 }}</ref>

=== Foundation (5th century) ===
[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 04.jpg|thumb|left|Nalanda was founded by the Gupta emperors in the early 5th century and then expanded over the next 7 centuries.]]

Nalanda's dateable history begins in the 5th century. A seal discovered at the site identifies a monarch named Shakraditya ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śakrāditya}} - r. c. 415–455 CE) as its founder and attributes the foundation of a sangharama (monastery) at the site to him.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=166}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} This is corroborated by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang travelogue.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} The tradition of formalised Vedic learning "helped to inspire the formation of large teachings centres," such as Nalanda, Taxila, and Vikramashila.<ref name="Frazier2011">{{Cite book |last1=Frazier |first1=Jessica |last2=Flood |first2=Gavin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nv_a5cMEwngC |title=The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies |date=30 June 2011 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Nalanda clay seal of Kumaragupta III.jpg|thumb|Nalanda clay seal of Kumaragupta III. The inscription is in Sanskrit, late-Gupta script, the man shown has Vaishnava mark on his forehead, and seal has Garuda-vahana on upper face.<ref>John F Fleet, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/page/n461/mode/2up Nalanda clay seals of Kumaragupta III], ''Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum'' Vol.3</ref>]]
In the Indian tradition and texts, kings were called by many epithets and names. Scholars such as Andrea Pinkney and Hartmut Scharfe conclude that Shakraditya is same as Kumaragupta I. He was one of the kings in the Hindu dynasty of the Guptas.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116 with footnotes, Quote: "Some of Nalanda's most important patrons include the Hindu Guptas (epecially fifth century Kumaragupta also known as Sakraditya who reigned from 415–455 CE and emperor Harsha (...)"}} Further, numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda corroborate that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of the Nalanda monastery-university.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=166}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}}

His successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=5}} Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|pp=162–163}} These Gupta-era contributions to Nalanda are corroborated by the numerous Buddhist and Hindu seals, artwork, iconography and inscriptions discovered at Nalanda, which are in the Gupta-style and Gupta-era scripts.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=330}}{{sfn|Pal|2019|pp=95–99}} During this period, the Gupta kings were not the only patrons of Nalanda. They reflect a broad and religiously diverse community of supporters. It is remarkable, states Scharfe, that "many donors were not Buddhists; the emblems on their seals show Lakshmi, Ganesha, Shivalinga and Durga".{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 149–150 with footnotes}}

Rulers in northeast India bequeathed villages to help fund Nalanda; the king of Sumatra contributed villages for the monastery's endowment. A special fund was also established to support scholars from China.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Elverskog |first=Johan |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |location=Philadelphia |pages=1}}</ref>

=== Post-Gupta dynasty (550–750 CE) ===
[[File:Seal of Harshavardhana found in Nalanda.jpg|thumb|left|Seal of Harsha found in Nalanda<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sastri |first1=Hirananda |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.21 |date=1931 |pages=74–80 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56981/page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
After the decline of the Guptas, the most notable patron of the Nalanda Mahavihara was Harsha (known as Śīlāditya in some Buddhist records). He was a seventh-century emperor with a capital at Kannauj (Kanyakubja). According to Xuanzang, Harsha was a third generation Hindu king from the Vaishya caste, who built majestic Buddhist viharas, as well as three temples – Buddha, Surya and Shiva, all of the same size.<ref>Li Rongxi (1996), ''The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions'', Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 123–132, Quote: "Harṣavardhana (known as Xizeng, "Increment of Happiness"), is a descendant of the Vaiśya caste. His family had three kings that ruled over the country for (...)"</ref> He states (c. 637 CE), "a long succession of kings" had built up Nalanda till "the whole is truly marvellous to behold".{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=6}}

In accordance with the ancient Indian traditions of supporting temples and monasteries, inscriptions found at Nalanda suggest that it received gifts, including grants of villages by kings to support its work. Harsha himself granted 100 villages and directed 200 households from each of these villages to supply the institution's monks with requisite daily supplies such as of rice, butter, and milk. This supported over 1,500 faculty and 10,000 student monks at Nalanda.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=5}} These numbers, however, may be exaggerated. They are inconsistent with the much lower numbers (over 3000) given by Yijing, another Chinese pilgrim who visited Nalanda a few decades later. According to Asher, while the excavated Nalanda site is large and the number of viharas so far found are impressive, they simply cannot support 10,000 or more student monks. The total number of known rooms and their small size is such that either the number of monks must have been far less than Xuanzang's claims or the Nalanda site was many times larger than numerous excavations have so far discovered and what Xuanzang describes.{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=5–21}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=151–152}}{{refn|group=note|The Nalanda site is not fully excavated, and the modern village of Bargaon may be on top of some of the ruins. (ASI reports, 1935–1937)}}

==== Xuanzang's visit (630–643 CE) ====
Xuanzang travelled around India between 630 and 643 CE,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=110}} visiting Nalanda in 637 and 642, spending a total of around two years at the monastery.{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|p=237}} He was warmly welcomed in Nalanda where he received the Indian name of Mokshadeva{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=8}} and studied under the guidance of Shilabhadra, the venerable head of the institution at the time. He believed that the aim of his arduous overland journey to India had been achieved as in Shilabhadra he had at last found an incomparable teacher to instruct him in [[Philosophy:Yogachara|Yogachara]], a school of thought that had then only partially been transmitted to China. Besides Buddhist studies, the monk also attended courses in grammar, logic, and Sanskrit, and later also lectured at the [[Philosophy:Mahavihara|Mahavihara]].{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|p=124}}

[[File:大唐西域記（四庫）.jpg|thumb|right|A page from Xuanzang's ''Great Tang Records on the Western Regions'' or ''Dà Táng Xīyù Jì'']]
In the detailed account of his stay at Nalanda, the pilgrim describes the view out of the window of his quarters thus,{{sfn|Beal|2000|p=111}}
{{blockquote|Moreover, the whole establishment is surrounded by a brick wall, which encloses the entire convent from without. One gate opens into the great college, from which are separated eight other halls standing in the middle ''(of the Sangharama)''. The richly adorned towers, and the fairy-like turrets, like pointed hill-tops are congregated together. The observatories seem to be lost in the vapours ''(of the morning)'', and the upper rooms tower above the clouds.}}

Xuanzang returned to China with 657 Sanskrit texts and 150 relics carried by 20 horses in 520 cases. He translated 74 of the texts himself.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=110}}{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|pp=177}}

==== Yijing's visit (673–700 CE) ====
In the thirty years following Xuanzang's return, no fewer than eleven travellers from China and [[Place:Korea|Korea]] are known to have visited Nalanda,{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=9}} including the monk Yijing. Unlike Faxian and Xuanzang, Yijing followed the sea route around Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. He arrived in 673 CE, and stayed in India for fourteen years, ten of which he spent at the Nalanda Mahavihara.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=144}} When he returned to China in 695, he had with him 400 Sanskrit texts and 300 grains of Buddha relics which were subsequently translated in China.{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā'' and ''Yijing''}}

Unlike Xuanzang, who also described the geography and culture of seventh-century India, Yijing's account primarily concentrates on the practice of Buddhism in India and detailed descriptions of the customs, rules, and regulations of the monks at the monastery. In his chronicle, Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time) had been assigned toward the maintenance of Nalanda.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}} He described there being eight [[Philosophy:Vihara|vihara]] with as many as 300 cells.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=167}} According to him, Nalanda monastery has numerous daily ''Nikaya'' procedures and rules for the monks. He gives many examples. In one subsection he explains that the monastery has ten great pools. The morning begins with the ''ghanta'' (bell) being rung. Monks take their bathing sheets and go to one of these pools. They bathe with their underwear on, then get out slowly to avoid disturbing anyone else. They wipe their bodies, then wrap this 5-foot long and 1.5-foot wide sheet around the waist, change their clothes with this wrap in place. Then rinse, wring and dry the sheet. The entire procedure, says Yijing, is explained in the Buddhist Nikaya procedures. The day must begin with bathing, but bathing after meals is forbidden. The Nalanda Nikaya has many such daily procedures and rituals set out for the monks to follow.<ref>J. Takakusu, ''A Record of The Buddhist Religion by I-Tsing'', Oxford University Press, pp. 108–110</ref>

====Korean and Tibetan pilgrims====
[[File:Nalanda University Seal.jpg|thumb|Replica of the seal of Nalanda set in [[Chemistry:Terracotta|terracotta]] on display in the Archaeological Survey of India Museum in Nalanda]]

In addition to Chinese pilgrims, Buddhist pilgrims from Korea also visited India about the same time as Xuanzang and Yingji. The Chinese travelogues about India became known in the 19th century and have been well published. After mid-20th century, the Korean pilgrim journeys have come to light. For example, monks such as Kyom-ik began visiting Indian monasteries by the mid-6th century. They too carried Indian texts and translated them, producing 72 ''chuan'' of translated texts. In the mid-7th century, the Silla (Korean: 신라) monk Hyon-jo visited and stayed at several Indian monasteries, including three years at Nalanda, his visit corroborated by Yingji. He sent his students Hye-ryun and Hyon-gak to Nalanda for studies, the latter died at Nalanda. They adopted Indian names to interact with the fellow students; for example, Hye-ryun was known as Prajnavarman and it is this name that is found in the records. According to Korean records, monks visited India through the ninth century – despite arduous travel challenges – to study at various monasteries, and Nalanda was the most revered.<ref>James Grayson (1980), ''The role of early Korean Buddhism in the history of East Asia'', Asiatische Studien : Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, ETH Zürich and Kyemyong University Taegu, pp. 57–60</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Kwangsu |last1=Lee |title=Trade and Religious Contacts Between India and Korea in Ancient Times | jstor=44143060| journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year= 1993 | pages=701–706|volume=54}}</ref>

In and after the 7th century, Tibetan monks such as Thonmi Sambhota came to Nalanda and other Indian monasteries to study, not only Buddhism, but Sanskrit language, grammar and other subjects. Sambhota is credited with applying the principles of Sanskrit and its grammar to remodel Tibetan language and its script. It was after Sambhota's first return from Nalanda that the Tibetan king adopted Buddhism and committed to making it the religion of his people.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}} Tibetan monks lived closer to Nepal, Sikkim and eastern India, with simpler travel itineraries than the Koreans and others. Tibetans continued to visit Magadha during the Pala era, and beyond through the 14th century, thereby participated in the crucible of ideas at Nalanda and other monasteries in Bihar and Bengal.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=350–351}} However, after the 8th century, it was the esoteric mandala and deities-driven Vajrayana Buddhism that increasingly dominated the exchange.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}}

===Pala dynasty (750–1200 CE)===
[[File:Khasarpana Lokesvara.jpg|thumb|upright|Avalokisteshvara in Khasarpana Lokesvara form from Nalanda, 9th-century.]]
The [[History:Pala Empire|Palas]] established themselves in eastern regions of India in mid-8th century and reigned until the last quarter of the 12th century, they were a Buddhist dynasty. However, under the Palas, the traditional Mahayana Buddhism of Nalanda that inspired East Asian pilgrims such as Xuanzang was superseded by the then newly emerging [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|Vajrayana]] tradition, a [[Philosophy:Tantra|Tantra]]-imbibed, eros- and deity-inclusive esoteric version of Buddhism.<ref>Jacob Kinnard (1996), ''Reevaluating the Eighth-Ninth Century Pala Milieu: Icono-Conservatism and the Presence of Sakyamuni'', Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 19, Number 2, pp. 281–283, for context and critical historiography see pp. 281–297</ref> Nalanda continued to get support from the Palas, but they subscribed to Vajrayana Buddhism and they were prolific builders of new monasteries on Vajrayana mandala ideas such as those at Jagaddala, Odantapura, Somapura, and Vikramashila. Odantapura was founded by Gopala, the progenitor of the royal line, only {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip}} from Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=349–352}} These competing monasteries, some just a few kilometres away from Nalanda likely drew away a number of learned monks from Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=344–346}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=10}}

Inscriptions, literary evidence, seals, and ruined artwork excavated at the Nalanda site suggest that Nalanda remained active and continued to thrive under the Palas.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=10, 54–55}} Kings Dharmapala and Devapala were active patrons. A number of 9th-century metallic statues containing references to Devapala have been found in its ruins as well as two notable inscriptions. The first, a copper plate inscription unearthed at Nalanda, details an endowment by the Shailendra King, Balaputradeva of ''Suvarnadvipa'' (Sumatra in modern-day Indonesia). This Srivijayan king, "attracted by the manifold excellences of Nalanda" had built a monastery there and had requested Devapala to grant the revenue of five villages for its upkeep, a request which was granted. The Ghosrawan inscription is the other inscription from Devapala's time and it mentions that he received and patronised a bhikṣu named Viradeva, who had studied all the Vedas in his youth, and who was later elected the head of Nalanda.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=152}}{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=268}}

Inscriptions issued between the 9th and 12th centuries attest gifts and support to Nalanda for the upkeep of the monastery, maintenance of the monks, copying of palm leaf manuscripts (necessary for preservation given the Indian tropical climate).{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=12–13}} One inscription also mentions the destruction of a Nalanda library of manuscripts by fire, and support for its restoration.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=12–13}} Another 10th-century inscription quotes Bhadracari of the Sautrantikas tradition, attesting the activity of diverse schools of Buddhism at Nalanda.<ref>Gregory Schopen (1989), A Verse from the Bhadracarlpranidhdna in a 10th Century Inscription found at Nalanda, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 12, Number 1, pp. 149–150</ref> Another Nalanda inscription from the 11th century mentions a gift of "revolving bookcase".<ref>{{cite book | author=Gregory Schopen | title=Figments and Fragments of Mahayana Buddhism in India | chapter=Chapter XIII. A Note On The "Technology Of Prayer" And A Reference To A "Revolving Bookcase" In An Eleventh-Century Indian Inscription | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | year=2017 | doi=10.1515/9780824874629-015 | pages=345–349| isbn=9780824874629 }}</ref>

While the Palas continued to patronise Nalanda liberally, the fame and influence of Nalanda helped the Palas. The Srivijaya kingdom of southeast Asia maintained a direct contact with Nalanda and the Palas, thus influencing the 9th to 12th century art in Sumatra, Java, southern Thailand and regions that actively traded with the Srivijaya kingdom. The influence extended to the Indonesian Shailendra dynasty. The Indonesian bronzes and votive tablets from this period show the creativity of its people, yet the iconographic themes overlap with those found at Nalanda and nearby region. Monks from Indonesia, Myanmar and other parts of southeast Asia came to Nalanda during the Pala rule.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|pp=173–189}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Lammerts | first=D.C. | title=Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia | publisher=ISEAS Publishing, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | series=Nalanda-Sriwijaya series | year=2015 | isbn=978-981-4519-06-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgGhCgAAQBAJ | pages=298–299}}</ref>

=== Destruction during Turkic conquest (c. 1200 CE) ===
Archeological excavations in the site during 1920-1921 discovered a thick layer of ashes on the uppermost strata, across many buildings separated by some distance; this suggests that Nalanda was subject to a catastrophic fire.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Anand |year=2013 |title='Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=23–49 |jstor=43854933}}</ref> Traditionally, this is held to be arson, blamed upon the troops of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji who had plundered the region c. 1200 CE, and cited to be the leading cause of Nalanda's demise – a passage from Minhaj-i-Siraj's ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri'' which actually describes the destruction of Odantapura Vihar (var. Bihar Sharif<ref name="anupam">{{cite journal |last1=Anupam |first1=Hitendra |year=2002 |title=Significance of Tibetan Sources in the Study of Odantapuri and Vikramsila Mahavihars |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=61 |pages=424–428 |jstor=44148119}}</ref>), a monastery just a few miles from Nalanda, is offered in support.<ref name=":1" /> While such a reading is misplaced, it is true that the Nalanda was raided by Khalji.<ref name=":1" />

The Tibetan records are the second source of the events at Nalanda in the late 12th century and much of the 13th century. These were the decades of widespread systematic destruction of monasteries in this region, and historical records in Tibet affirm that monks from Nalanda and nearby monasteries such as the Vikramashila monastery who "survived the slaughter, fled to Tibet", according to Scharfe.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=154–155, 157}} Among the Tibetan records, the most useful is the biography of the Tibetan monk-pilgrim, Dharmasvamin discovered in 1936 and in ''bsdus-yig'' style, Tibetan script. It is useful because Dharmasvamin met the fleeing monks and famous scholars during his studies from about mid 1200s to 1226, he had learnt Indian languages and Sanskrit, he walked to and stayed in Nepal starting in 1226 and visited Bihar about 1234, including spending one monsoon season in Nalanda. He described the condition in the decades after the sack of Nalanda and other Buddhist monasteries in Magadha-region of India. His account states that the destruction of Nalanda was not an accident or misunderstanding but a part of the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and monuments including a destruction of Bodhgaya. The vast manuscript libraries of Magadha had been mostly lost. Other Tibetan monks and he had shifted to Nepal, as the place to study, copy and move manuscripts to Tibet. According to his account, the Turushka-Qarluq (Turk) conquest extended from about 1193 to 1205, the destruction was systematic with "Turushka soldiers razing a monastery to the ground and throwing the stones into Ganges river", states Roerich. The fear of persecution was strong in the 1230s, and his colleagues dissuaded him from going to Magadha. According to George Roerich, "his [Chag lo-tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal, Dharmasvamin] account conveys something of the anxiety of [the Buddhist community of] those days."<ref name=Roerich1>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= ii–vi, xxxix–lxv, 90–97}}</ref>

Chapter 10 of Dharmasvamin's biography describes Nalanda in ''c.'' 1235 CE. Dharmasvamin found it "largely damaged and deserted". Despite the perils, some had re-gathered and resumed the scholastic activities in Nalanda, but at a vastly smaller scale and with donations from a wealthy Brahmin layperson named Jayadeva.<ref name=Roerich1/>{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=150}} His account states:

{{Blockquote|There resided a venerable and learned monk who was more than ninety years old, the Guru and Mahapandita Rahulasribhadra. Raja Buddhasena of Magadha honored this Guru and four other Panditas, and about seventy venerable ones (monks).|Dharmasvamin (Translator: George Roerich)<ref>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= xlii, 90–93}}</ref>}}

While he stayed there for six months under the tutelage of Rahula Shribhadra, Dharmasvamin makes no mention of the legendary library of Nalanda which possibly did not survive the initial wave of Turkic attacks. He also states that some structures had survived, with "eighty small viharas, built of bricks and many left undamaged" but "there was absolutely no one to look after them".<ref name=Roerich1/> He recites the arrest of their patron and lay-supporter Jayadeva by Muslim soldiers who threaten to kill him for honouring (supporting) the monks of Nalanda. Jayadeva sends them a message that the Turushka soldiers are sure to kill "Guru [Rahulasribhadra] and his disciples" and they should "flee!".<ref>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= 93–94}}</ref>

Dharmasvamin also provides an eyewitness account of an attack on the derelict Mahavihara by the Muslim soldiers stationed at nearby Odantapura (now Bihar Sharif) which had been turned into a military headquarters. Only the Tibetan and his nonagenarian instructor stayed behind and hid themselves while the rest of the monks fled.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=347}}{{sfn|Chos-dar|1959|loc=Introduction, p. XIX}} Another Tibetan source is that of Lama Taranatha, but this is from the late 16th century, and it is unclear what its sources were. The Taranatha account about Buddhism in India repeats the legendary accounts of Nalanda from the Buddha and Ashoka periods found in Xuanzang and other sources, then shifts to centuries of the 2nd-millennium. It describes Islamic raids in 12th-century India, states that whole of Magadha fell to the Turushka (Turks, a common term for Muslims in historic Indic and Tibetan texts).{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}} Their armies, asserts Taranatha, destroyed Odantapuri as well as Vikramashila. Given the hundreds of years of gap between the events and Taranatha's account, and no clear chain of sources within the Tibetan tradition of record keeping, its reliability is questionable.<ref>{{cite book | author=A Truschke | editor1=Blain Auer | editor2= Ingo Strauch | title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia | chapter=The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism | publisher=De Gruyter | year=2019 | pages=418, 420}}</ref>

===Legendary accounts===
Tibetan texts such as the 18th-century work named ''Pag sam jon zang'' and 16th/17th-century Taranatha's account include fictional Tibetan legends. These include stories such as a king Cingalaraja had brought "all Hindus and Turuskas [Muslims]" up to Delhi under his control, and converted from Brahmanism to Buddhism under the influence of his queen, and he restoring the monasteries.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Anand|last1=Singh|title='Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis| jstor =43854933| journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka|year= 2013 |pages=23–49|volume=58|issue=1}}</ref> 

Others state that a southern king built thousands of monasteries and temples again, Muslim robbers murdered this king, thereafter Nalanda was repaired by Mudita Bhadra and a minister named Kukutasiddha erected a temple there.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

One popular story describes the tale of two angry Tirthika (Brahmanical) monks, who gain magical powers by tantric siddha, spread ashes that erupt a fire that destroyed one of Nalanda's three libraries – Ratnodadhi, but magical water poured out of a manuscript that prevented damage and learned Buddhist monks rewrote the texts that were damaged.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

However, there is no evidence for the existence of such a king (or sultan), minister, Muslim robbers, thousands of Buddhist monuments built in India between the 13th and 19th century, or of any significant Nalanda repairs in or after the 13th century.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=343}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=15}}{{refn|group=note|Variants of similar fictional accounts about Nalanda before the 4th century are found in several Tibetan works and Chinese pilgrim accounts. There are fictional stories in Tibetan texts for post-12th-century era too, with names of ahistorical and unverifiable "kings", "sages", "arsonists", "thousands of new Buddhist monasteries and temples" and "Muslim robbers murdering a king". For example, the Taranatha account (''c.'' 1600 CE) in Chapters 19 and 20, describes the tale of Muditabhabhadra, Malikabuddhi and Kakutsiddha. It states that, after a Persian king from Kashmir and his Muslim army destroyed Magadha and "heavily damaged Sri Nalendra [Nalanda]", one king named Krisnaraja built twenty one centers of Buddhist doctrine in ''madhya-desha'' (central India) with one thousand ''caityas'' containing images of (Buddhist) deities, but Muslim robbers murdered him and his "blood flowed in the form of milk and flowers filled the sky"; then Muditabhabhadra rebuilt those damaged ''caityas'' leading all "householders and brahmanas" to revere the Buddha; thereafter Kakutsiddha built a temple at Nalanda and consecrated it with a great feast. Then "young naughty" monks teased two beggars, who became very angry, one of whom dug a deep pit and pursued sadhana for twelve years and gained magical powers. He performed a yajna and produced magical ashes. He gathered these ashes, then spread them near the Dharmaganja library of Nalanda, which started a fire to destroy the library's collection. However, from the ninth floor miraculous water poured out and all the literature on which this water reached remained unburnt. The two tirthika-arsonists escaped to Ha-sa-ma (Assam), a Buddhapaksha repaired the monuments again and "vastly learned monks" assembled and from their memorised literature rewrote the works that were burnt down in the library.<ref>{{cite book | author=Tāranātha (Jo-nang-pa) |translator-last=Chattopadhyaya |translator-first=Lama Chimpa alaka |translator-last2=Rinpochi |translator-first2=Lama S | title=Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | year=1990 | isbn=978-81-208-0696-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yXn-lVdqGgC | pages= 137–143}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Nalanda's library with palm-leaf manuscripts did have incidences of fire damage in its history. A 10th-century stone inscription notes a destruction by fire and subsequent restoration at the Mahavihara during the reign of Mahipala ({{reign|988|1038}}).{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=13}}}}

===Continued influence===
Johan Elverskog – a scholar of religious studies and history, states that it is incorrect to say Nalanda's end was sudden and complete by about 1202, because it continued to have some students well into the 13th century. Elverskog, relying on Arthur Waley's 1932 paper, states that this is confirmed by the fact a monk ordained in 13th-century Nalanda travelled to the court of Khubilai Khan. He adds that it is wrong to say that Buddhism ended in India around the 13th or 14th century or earlier, because "[Buddha] Dharma survived in India at least until the 17th-century".<ref>Johan Elverskog, ''Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road'', University of Pennsylvania Press (2011), pp. 1–3</ref>

==== Impact of its destruction and influence on Tibetan Buddhist Tradition ====
After the Islamic conquest, the destruction and the demise of Nalanda, other monasteries and Buddhist culture from the plains of Bihar and Bengal, the brand memory of "Nalanda" remained the most revered in [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]]. The last throne-holder of Nalanda, Shakyashri Bhadra of Kashmir,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xaRQAgAAQBAJ&dq=Shakya+Shri+Bhadra&pg=PT228|title=Opening the Treasure of the Profound: Teachings on the Songs of Jigten Sumgon and Milarepa|date=8 October 2013|publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=9780834828964|access-date=8 March 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref> fled to Tibet in 1204 at the invitation of the Tibetan translator ''Tropu Lotsawa'' (''Khro-phu Lo-tsa-ba Byams-pa dpal''). Some of the surviving Nalanda books were taken by fleeing monks to Tibet.<ref>{{harvnb|Kim|2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/himalaya_tibet.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320030350/http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/himalaya_tibet.html|url-status=dead|title=Buddhism and the Trade Routes|archive-date=20 March 2012|website=Asiasocietymuseum.org|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> He took with him several Indian masters: Sugataśrī, (an expert in Madhyamaka and Prajñāpāramitā); Jayadatta (Vinaya); Vibhūticandra (grammar and Abhidharma), Dānaśīla (logic), Saṅghaśrī (Candavyākaraṇa), Jīvagupta (books of Maitreya), Mahābodhi,(Bodhicaryāvatāra); and Kālacandra (Kālacakra).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/sakyasribhadra/2810|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423135132/http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/%C5%9A%C4%81kya%C5%9Br%C4%ABbhadra/TBRC_P1518|url-status=dead|title=Sakyasribhadra|archive-date=23 April 2016|website=The Treasury of Lives|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

In 1351, Tibetans committed to recreating a monastery in the heart of Tibet, staffing it with monk-scholars from diverse Buddhist schools, and name it the "Nalanda monastery" in the honour of the ancient Nalanda, according to the ''Blue Annals'' (Tibetan: དེབ་ཐེར་སྔོན་པོ).{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}} This institution emerged north of Lhasa in 1436 through the efforts of Rongtön Mawé Sengge, then expanded in the 15th century. It is now called the Tibetan Nalanda, to distinguish it from this site.<ref>Matthew Kapstein (1990), Mahamudra: The Quintessence of Mind and Meditation Review, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 13, Number 1, pp. 105–106</ref>

Tibetan Buddhist tradition is regarded to be a continuation of the Nalanda tradition. The Dalai Lama states:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBAVJV8zn3oC&q=The+master+Nagarjuna+hailed+from+this+institution,+as+did+many+other+important&pg=PA15|title=Meditation on the Nature of Mind|first1=Dalai|last1=Lama|first2=Dalai Lama XIV|last2=Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho|first3=Khonton Peljor|last3=Lhundrub|first4=José Ignacio|last4=Cabezón|first5=Jose Ignacio|last5=Cabezon|date=17 May 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780861716289|access-date=8 March 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Tibetan Buddhism is not an invention of the Tibetans. Rather, it is quite clear that it derives from the pure lineage of the tradition of the Nalanda Monastery. The master Nagarjuna hailed from this institution, as did many other important philosophers and logicians...}}

The Dalai Lama refers to himself as a follower of the lineage of the seventeen Nalanda masters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fpmt.org/mandala/archives/mandala-for-2012/july/the-seventeen-pandits-of-nalanda-monastery/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120153048/https://fpmt.org/mandala/archives/mandala-for-2012/july/the-seventeen-pandits-of-nalanda-monastery/|url-status=dead|title=The Seventeen Pandits of Nalanda Monastery|archive-date=20 November 2017|website=FPMT|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

An [[Philosophy:Prajnaparamita#A.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADas.C4.81hasrik.C4.81 Praj.C3.B1.C4.81p.C4.81ramit.C4.81|Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita]] Sutra manuscript preserved at the Tsethang monastery has superbly painted and well preserved wooden covers and 139 leaves. According to its colophon it was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala, at the very end of the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409073041/http://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/index.html|url-status=dead|title=Michael Henss: TIBET – Monasteries Open Their Treasure Rooms|archive-date=9 April 2009|website=Asianart.com|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
Nalanda still continued to operate into the 14th century as the Indian monk, Dhyānabhadra was said to have been a monk at Nalanda prior to his travels in East Asia.<ref name="prasad2021">{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781032117225 |pages=140–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbk6EAAAQBAJ&dq=Dhy%C4%81nabhadra&pg=PT135}}</ref>

=== Under the East India Company and British Empire (1800–1947) ===
[[File:Buddha Statue, Nalanda, Alexander E Caddy, 1895.jpg|thumbnail|A statue of [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]] at Nalanda in 1895.]]After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until Francis Buchanan-Hamilton surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to some Buddhist and Brahmanical images and ruins in the area.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=15}} He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. Alexander Cunningham and the newly formed Archaeological Survey of India conducted an official survey in 1861–1862. Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937.<ref name="asi1" /> The first four excavations were led by Spooner between 1915 and 1919. The next two were led by Sastri in 1920 and 1921. The next seven seasons of archaeological excavations through 1928 were led by Page. These efforts were not merely digging, observation and cataloguing of discoveries, they included conservation, restoration and changes to the site such as drainage to prevent damage to unearthed floors.<ref name=mary/> After 1928, Kuraishi led two seasons of excavations, Chandra led the next four. The last season was led by Ghosh, but the excavations were abbreviated in 1937 for financial reasons and budget cuts. Chandra and final ASI team leaders noted that the "long row of monasteries extend further into the modern village of Bargaon" and the "extent of entire monastic establishment can only be determined by future excavations".<ref name=mary>Mary Stewart (1988), ''Nalanda Mahavihara: An Historiographic Study of Its Art and Archaeology, 1812–1938'', SOAS, University of London, pp. 120–177</ref>

===Post–independence (Post-1947)===
[[File:Rear View (2) of Baladitya Temple, Nalanda, by Joseph Beglar, 1872.jpg|thumb|Rear view of the ruins of the Baladitya Temple in 1872.]]Post independence, the second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.<ref name="asi1" /> In 1951, the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (''New Nalanda Mahavihara''), a modern centre for Pali and [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]] in the spirit of the ancient institution, was founded by the Government of Bihar near Nalanda's ruins at the suggestion of Rajendra Prasad, India's first president.<ref name="nnm2">{{cite web|title=Getting to Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (NNM), Nalanda|url=http://www.nnm.ac.in/contact_us.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005083753/http://www.nnm.ac.in/contact_us.html|archive-date=5 October 2014|access-date=25 September 2014|publisher=Nava Nalanda Mahavihara}}</ref> It was deemed to be a university in 2006.<ref name="nnm1">{{cite web|title=Welcome to Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (NNM)|url=http://www.nnm.ac.in/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915173011/http://www.nnm.ac.in/index.html|archive-date=15 September 2014|access-date=25 September 2014|publisher=Nava Nalanda Mahavihara}}</ref>

1 September 2014 saw the commencement of the first academic year of a modern Nalanda University, with 15 students, in nearby Rajgir.<ref name="NUOpen">{{cite news|author=Singh, Santosh|date=1 September 2014|title=Nalanda University starts today with 15 students, 11 faculty members|agency=The Indian Express|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/nalanda-univ-starts-today-from-a-convention-centre-with-15-students-lodged-in-a-hotel/99/|url-status=live|access-date=3 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904021352/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/nalanda-univ-starts-today-from-a-convention-centre-with-15-students-lodged-in-a-hotel/99/|archive-date=4 September 2014}}</ref> Nalanda University (also known as Nalanda International University) is an international and research-intensive university located in the historical city of Rajgir in Bihar, India. It was established by an Act of Parliament to emulate the famous ancient university of Nalanda, which functioned between the 5th and 13th centuries. The idea to resurrect Nalanda University was endorsed in 2007 at the East Asia Summit, represented mostly by Asian countries including {{wipe|China}}, [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]], {{wipe|Japan}}, Malaysia and Vietnam, apart from {{wipe|Australia}} and [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], and as such, the university is seen as one of the flagship projects of the Government of India. It has been designated as an "Institution of National Importance" by the Parliament, and began its first academic session on 1 September 2014. Initially set up with temporary facilities in Rajgir, a modern campus spanning over {{convert|160|ha|acre|abbr=off}} is expected to be finished by 2020. This campus, upon completion, will be the largest of its kind in India, and one of the largest in Asia.<ref name="toireopen">{{cite news|date=1 September 2014|title=Nalanda University reopens|publisher=Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nalanda-University-reopens/articleshow/41410855.cms|url-status=live|access-date=10 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910105312/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nalanda-University-reopens/articleshow/41410855.cms|archive-date=10 September 2014}}</ref>

==The Mahavihara==
While its excavated ruins today only occupy an area of around {{convert|1600|by|800|ft|m|0|order=flip}} or roughly 12 hectares, Nalanda Mahavihara occupied a far greater area in medieval times. The subjects taught at Nalanda covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html | title=Really Old School | date=9 December 2006 | author=Garten, Jeffrey E. | work=The New York Times | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105112058/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html | archive-date=5 November 2011 | df=dmy-all |quote=Nalanda was also the most global university of its time, attracting pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Universities in India |url=https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf |publisher=[[Organization:All India Council for Technical Education|All India Council for Technical Education]] |page=1}}</ref>

=== The university ===
At its peak the school attracted scholars and students from near and far, with some travelling from [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]], {{wipe|China}}, [[Place:Korea|Korea]], and [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]].{{sfn|Monroe|2000|pp=169}} The highly formalised methods of Shramanic studies helped the establishment of large teaching institutions such as [[Place:Taxila|Taxila]], Nalanda, and Vikramashila,{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}} which are often characterised as India's early universities.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=148}}{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=174}}{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=119}} Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the [[History:Gupta Empire|Gupta Empire]] in the 5th and 6th centuries, and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kannauj.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century CE. The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which the [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|tantric]] developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India under the [[History:Pala Empire|Pala Empire]].{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=344}}

Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the writings of pilgrim monks from Asia, such as Xuanzang and Yijing, who travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century CE. Vincent Smith remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism." Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his travelogue as alumni of Nalanda are the names of those who developed the overall philosophy of Mahayana.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=334}} All students at Nalanda studied [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]], as well as the texts of the eighteen ([[Philosophy:Hinayana|Hinayana]]) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum also included other subjects, such as the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, and [[Philosophy:Samkhya|Samkhya]].{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=332–333}}{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}}{{sfn|Walton|2015|p=122}}

Nalanda was destroyed three times but was rebuilt only twice.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023|reason=The Better India page is a questionable source}} It was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the [[History:Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultanate]] under Bakhtiyar Khalji in {{Circa|1202 CE}}.{{sfn|Chandra|2004|p=41}} While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion after this attack, it was eventually abandoned altogether and forgotten until the 19th century, when the site was surveyed and preliminary excavations were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India. Systematic excavations commenced in 1915, which unearthed eleven monasteries and six brick temples neatly arranged on grounds {{convert|12|hectare|acres}} in area. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals, and inscriptions have also been discovered in the ruins, many of which are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum, situated nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination, and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit.

On 25 November 2010, the Indian government, through an Act of Parliament, 'resurrected' the ancient university through the Nalanda University Bill, with which they chose to create a new and unrelated Nalanda University relatively nearby. It has been designated as an "International University of National Importance," and has accordingly been subject to intense government oversight, with both of its past chancellors explicitly citing Government actions for them leaving their post and courses being shut down due to members of the ruling party disapproving of them.

===The library===
[[File:Prajnaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), Folios from a Dharanisamgraha (Compilation of Protective or Empowering Spells) LACMA M.72.1.20a-b.jpg|thumb |upright=1.35 |Prajnaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), Folios from a Dharanisamgraha, manuscript from Nalanda, circa 1075]]
[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Nalanda.jpeg|thumb|Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. ''Ashtasahasrika Prajnyaparamita Sutra'' manuscript from Nalanda's Pala period.]]

It is evident from the large numbers of texts that Yijing carried back with him after his 10-year residence at Nalanda, that the Mahavihara must have featured a well-equipped library. Traditional Tibetan sources mention the existence of a great library at Nalanda named ''Dharmaganja'' (''Piety Mart'') which comprised three large multi-storeyed buildings, the ''Ratnasagara'' (''Ocean of Jewels''), the ''Ratnodadhi'' (''Sea of Jewels''), and the ''Ratnaranjaka'' (''Jewel-adorned''). Ratnodadhi was nine storeys high and housed the most sacred manuscripts including the ''Prajnyaparamita Sutra'' and the ''Guhyasamaja''.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=159}}{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=174}}

The exact number of volumes in the Nalanda library is not known, but it is estimated to have been in the hundreds of thousands.{{sfn|Khurshid|1972|pp=21–65}} When a Buddhist scholar at Nalanda died, his manuscripts were added to the library collection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumar|first=Pintu|title=The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education|journal=Journal of the World Universities Forum|date=2011|volume=4|issue=1|pages=65–79|via=Education Source|doi=10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v04i01/56731}}</ref> The library not only collected religious manuscripts but also had texts on such subjects as [[Social:Grammar|grammar]], logic, literature, [[Unsolved:Astrology|astrology]], [[Astronomy:Astronomy|astronomy]], and medicine.{{sfn|Bhatt|1995}}{{page needed|date=August 2017}} The Nalanda library must have had a classification scheme which was possibly based on a text classification scheme developed by the Sanskrit linguist, Panini.{{sfn|Patel|Kumar|2001|p=4}} Buddhist texts were most likely divided into three classes based on the Tripitaka's three main divisions: the Vinaya, Sutra, and the Abhidhamma.{{sfn|Taher|Davis|1994|p=37}}

===Curriculum===
In his biography of Xuanzang, Hwui-Li states that all the students of Nalanda studied the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) as well as the works of the eighteen Nikaya traditions of Buddhism. In addition to these, they studied other subjects such as the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], ''Hetuvidyā'' (Logic), ''Shabdavidya'' (Grammar and Philology), ''Chikitsavidya'' (Medicine), the works on magic (the [[Religion:Atharvaveda|Atharvaveda]]), and [[Philosophy:Samkhya|Samkhya]].{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=332–333}} According to Frazier, the Vedic studies included [[Religion:Vedas|Vedic texts]] and ritual, but also the different theoretical disciplines associated with the [[Philosophy:Vedanga|limbs]] or the sciences of the Vedas, which included disciplines such as linguistics, law, astronomy and reasoning.<ref name="Frazier2011"/>

Xuanzang himself studied a number of these subjects at Nalanda under Shilabhadra and others. Besides theology and philosophy, frequent debates and discussions necessitated competence in Logic. A student at the Mahavihara had to be well-versed in the systems of Logic associated with all the different schools of thought of the time as he was expected to defend Buddhist systems against the others. Other subjects believed to have been taught at Nalanda include law, astronomy, and city-planning.{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}

Tibetan tradition holds that there were "four [[Philosophy:Doxography|doxographies]]" ({{lang-bo|script=Latn|grub mtha'}}) which were taught at Nalanda:<ref name="berzin1">{{cite web | url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/abhidharma-tenet-systems/the-indian-tenet-systems/the-four-buddhist-tenet-systems-regarding-illusion | title=The Four Indian Buddhist Tenet Systems Regarding Illusion | date=2002 | access-date=11 July 2016 | author=Berzin, Alexander |  url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815193010/http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/abhidharma-tenet-systems/the-indian-tenet-systems/the-four-buddhist-tenet-systems-regarding-illusion | archive-date=15 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

# Sarvastivada Vaibhashika
# Sarvastivada Sautrantika
# [[Philosophy:Madhyamaka|Madhyamaka]], the Mahayana philosophy of [[Biography:Nagarjuna|Nagarjuna]]
# Chittamatra, the Mahayana philosophy of [[Biology:Asanga|Asanga]] and [[Biography:Vasubandhu|Vasubandhu]]

In the 7th century, Xuanzang recorded the number of teachers at Nalanda as being around 1510. Of these, approximately 1000 were able to explain 20 collections of sutras and shastras, 500 were able to explain 30 collections, and only 10 teachers were able to explain 50 collections. Xuanzang was among the few who were able to explain 50 collections or more. At this time, only the abbot Shilabhadra had studied all the major collections of sutras and shastras at Nalanda.{{sfn|Mookerji|1998|p=565}}

===Administration===
The Chinese monk Yijing wrote that matters of discussion and administration at Nalanda would require assembly and consensus on decisions by all those at the assembly, as well as resident monks:{{sfn|Walser|2005|p=102}}

{{blockquote|If the monks had some business, they would assemble to discuss the matter. Then they ordered the officer, Vihārapāla, to circulate and report the matter to the resident monks one by one with folded hands. With the objection of a single monk, it would not pass. There was no use of beating or thumping to announce his case. In case a monk did something without consent of all the residents, he would be forced to leave the monastery. If there was a difference of opinion on a certain issue, they would give reason to convince (the other group). No force or coercion was used to convince.}}

Xuanzang also noted:{{sfn|Grousset|1971|p=159}}

{{blockquote|The lives of all these virtuous men were naturally governed by habits of the most solemn and strictest kind. Thus in the seven hundred years of the monastery's existence no man has ever contravened the rules of the discipline. The king showers it with the signs of his respect and veneration and has assigned the revenue from a hundred cities to pay for the maintenance of the religious.}}

=== Influence on Buddhism ===
A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]] and [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|Vajrayana]] traditions, stems from the teachers and traditions at Nalanda. Shantarakshita, who pioneered the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century was a scholar of Nalanda. He was invited by the Tibetan king, Khri-sron-deu-tsan, and established the monastery at Samye, serving as its first abbot. He and his disciple Kamalashila (who was also of Nalanda) essentially taught Tibetans how to do philosophy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Śāntarakṣita|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/saantarak-sita/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=4 October 2015}}</ref> [[Biography:Padmasambhava|Padmasambhava]], who was also invited from Nalanda Mahavihara by the king in 747 CE, is credited as a founder of Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=11}}

The scholar [[Philosophy:Dharmakirti|Dharmakirti]] ({{circa|7th century}}), one of the Buddhist founders of Indian [[Philosophy:Philosophical logic|philosophical logic]], as well as one of the primary theorists of [[Philosophy:Buddhist atomism|Buddhist atomism]], taught at Nalanda.{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=240}}

Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, [[Place:Korea|Korea]] and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient school. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts such as the ''Shurangama Sutra'', an important sutra in East Asian Buddhism, with the Buddhist tradition at Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=264}}{{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=111}} Ron Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sutra does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nalanda toward the end of the Gupta period when it was translated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/authenticity.htm|title=The Shurangama Sutra (T. 945): A Reappraisal of its Authenticity|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127031858/http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/authenticity.htm|archive-date=27 November 2010|access-date=8 April 2011}}</ref>

Several Buddhist institutions overseas have chosen to call themselves Nalanda to acknowledge Nalanda's influence. These include Nalanda Buddhist Society in Malaysia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nalanda.org.my/society/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114042341/https://www.nalanda.org.my/society/|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Buddhist Society – Nalanda Buddhist Society|archive-date=14 November 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> and Nalanda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandacollege.lk/index.php/about|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722221825/http://www.nalandacollege.lk/index.php/about|url-status=dead|title=About Nalanda College|archive-date=22 July 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> Nalanda Buddhist Education Foundation, Indonesia, Nalanda Buddhist Institute, Bhutan

=== World Heritage Sites Recognisation ===
The Nalanda Mahavihara is recognised as a World Heritage Site by the [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chaudhary |first1=Pranava Kumar |title=UNESCO declares Nalanda Mahavihara World Heritage Site |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/unesco-declares-nalanda-mahavihara-world-heritage-site/articleshow/53229398.cms |access-date=9 August 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=15 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927054041/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502|archive-date=27 September 2018|access-date=8 January 2019|website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref>

== Historical figures associated with Nalanda ==
Traditional sources state that Nalanda was visited by both Mahavira and the Buddha in {{circa}} 6th and 5th century BCE.<ref name=asi1 /> It is also the place of birth and nirvana of Shariputra, one of the famous disciples of Buddha.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=148}}

Other historical figures associated with Nalanda include:

* Aryabhata{{sfn|Jarzombek|Prakash|Ching|2011|p=312}}
* Aryadeva, student of Nagarjuna{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}
* [[Biology:Asanga|Asanga]], proponent of the Yogacarya school<ref name="KumarDriem2020">{{cite book|author1=Niraj Kumar|author2=George van Driem|author3=Phunchok Stobdan|title=Himalayan Bridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhEHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA253|date=18 November 2020|publisher=KW|isbn=978-1-00-021549-6|pages=253–255}}</ref>
* Atisha, Mahayana and Vajrayana scholar
* Buddhaguhya, Vajrayana Buddhist monk and scholar<ref name="Hodge2005">{{cite book|author=Stephen Hodge|title=The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SY4GUaAUNEYC&pg=PA17|date=9 December 2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79654-9|page=17}}</ref>
* Chandrakirti, student of Nagarjuna
* Chandragomin
* [[Philosophy:Dharmakirti|Dharmakirti]], logician{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=240}}
* Dharmapala
* Dhyānabhadra<ref name="prasad2021"/>
* Dignaga, founder of Buddhist Logic
* [[Philosophy:Kamalaśīla|Kamalaśīla]], abbot of Nalanda
* Maitripada, Indian Buddhist [[Biography:Mahasiddha|Mahasiddha]]
* [[Biography:Nagarjuna|Nagarjuna]], formaliser of the concept of Shunyata{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}
* Naropa, student of Tilopa and teacher of Marpa
* [[Philosophy:Śāntarakṣita|Śāntarakṣita]], founder of Yogācāra-Mādhyamika
* Shantideva, composer of the Bodhisattvacarya
* Shilabhadra, the teacher of Xuanzang{{sfn|Joshi|1977|p=177}}
* Vajrabodhi, 7th–8th century Indian esoteric monk and one of the patriarchs of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and Shingon Buddhism<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lowe |first1=Roy |title=The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=70 |isbn=9781317543275 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9DolDwAAQBAJ&q=vajrabodhi+nalanda&pg=PA70}}</ref>
* [[Biography:Vasubandhu|Vasubandhu]], brother of Asanga<ref name="KumarDriem2020"/>
* Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist traveller
* Yijing, Chinese Buddhist traveller

==Excavated remains==
[[File:Nalanda, excavated remains.jpg|thumb|upright=2.0|A map of the excavated remains of Nalanda.]]
[[File:Nalanda Buddhist University Ruins, which flourished from 427 to 1197 CE, Nalanda, Bihar.jpg|thumbnail|Excavated ruins of the monasteries of Nalanda.]]
After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until Francis Buchanan-Hamilton surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to a vast complex of ruins in the area. He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. Alexander Cunningham and the newly formed Archaeological Survey of India conducted an official survey in 1861–1862.{{sfn|Le|2010|p=59}} Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937. The second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.<ref name=asi1 />

The remains of Nalanda today extend some {{convert|1600|ft|m|0|order=flip}} north to south and around {{convert|800|ft|m|0|order=flip}} east to west. Excavations have revealed eleven monasteries (also known as [[Philosophy:Vihāra|vihara]]) and six major brick temples arranged in an ordered layout. A {{cvt|100|ft|order=flip}} wide passage runs from north to south with the temples to its west and the monasteries to its east.<ref name=asi1 /> Most structures show evidence of multiple periods of construction with new buildings being raised atop the ruins of old ones. Many of the buildings also display signs of damage by fire on at least one occasion.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=27}}

The map gives the layout of the excavated structures. Temple 3 in the south was the most imposing structure. Temple 12, 13, 14 face the monasteries and face east. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=28}} Temple 2 was to the east.

All the monasteries at Nalanda are very similar in layout and general appearance. Their plan involves a rectangular form with a central quadrangular court which is surrounded by a verandah which, in turn, is bounded by an outer row of cells for the monks – a typical design of [[Philosophy:Vihāra|vihara]] architecture. The central cell facing the entrance leading into the court is a shrine chamber. Its strategic position means that it would have been the first thing that drew the eye when entering the edifice. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=28}}

'''Monastery 1''' is considered the oldest and the most important of the monastery group and shows as many as nine levels of construction. Its lower monastery is believed to be the one sponsored by Balaputradeva, the Srivijayan king, during the reign of Devapala in the 9th century (see Nalanda copper-plate of Devapala). The building was originally at least 2 storeys high and contained a colossal statue of a seated Buddha.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=19}}{{clear}}
[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 05.jpg|thumb|Temple no. 3 (Sariputta Stupa)]]
[[File:Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of the 5th Stupa, c. 6th century CE.jpg|thumb|Conjectural Reconstruction of Temple no. 3, Nalanda University]]
'''Temple no. 3''' (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures including Buddha and the [[Philosophy:Bodhisattva|Bodhisattva]]s, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=17}} According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had Kushana era influences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddhistelibrary.org/en/albums/central/Dhamma_books/The_Anscestral_Stupas_of_Shwedagon.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129145843/http://www.buddhistelibrary.org/en/albums/central/Dhamma_books/The_Anscestral_Stupas_of_Shwedagon.pdf|url-status=dead|title=THE ANCESTRAL STUPAS OF SHWEDAGON, International Buddhist Conference, May 2007|archive-date=29 November 2016|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the museum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/archival4-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044658/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/archival4-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda archival-4|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Buddha Shakyamuni or the Bodhisattva Maitreya LACMA M.75.4.3 (1 of 2).jpg|thumbnail|upright|Buddha Shakyamuni or the Bodhisattva [[Philosophy:Maitreya|Maitreya]], gilt copper alloy, early 8th century, Nalanda]]
'''Temple no. 2''' notably features 211 sculptured religious and secular panels. These include [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]], [[Religion:Parvati|Parvati]], Kartikeya, and [[Religion:Gajalakshmi|Gajalakshmi]], [[Unsolved:Kinnara|Kinnara]]s playing musical instruments, various representations of [[Unsolved:Makara (Hindu mythology)|Makaras]], as well as human couples in amorous postures, as well as scenes of art and of everyday life. Susan Huntington and Bhaskara Misra – scholars of Indian architecture and arts, state Temple 2 as a Hindu temple.<ref name=PhuocLe/> However, Huu Phuoc Le – a scholar of Buddhist architecture, questions this purely "Hindu affiliation", stating that it could be a temple based on the mandala principles, and one reflecting "Hindu-Buddhist syncretism" of the 8th to 12th century when Shaiva and Shakti deities were integrated into Vajrayana Buddhism.<ref name=PhuocLe>{{harvnb|Le|2010}}</ref> The site of Temple no. 13 features a brick-made smelting furnace with four chambers. The discovery of burnt metal and [[Chemistry:Slag|slag]] suggests that it was used to cast metallic objects.

To the north of Temple 13 lie the remains of '''Temple no. 14'''. An enormous image of the Buddha was discovered here. The image's pedestal features fragments of the only surviving exhibit of mural painting at Nalanda.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=31–33}}

To the east of Temple 2, lie the remains of '''Sarai Temple''' in the recently excavated Sarai Mound. This multi-storeyed Buddhist temple with many stupas and shrines was enclosed by a massive wall enclosure. The remains in the sanctum suggest that the Buddha statue was around {{convert|80|ft|order=flip}} high.

Numerous sculptures, as well as many murals, copper plates, artworks, inscriptions, seals, coins, plaques, potteries and works in stone, bronze, stucco, and terracotta, have been unearthed within the ruins of Nalanda. The Buddhist sculptures discovered notably include those of the Buddha in different postures, Avalokiteshvara, [[Philosophy:Jambhala|Jambhala]], Manjushri, [[Religion:Marici (Buddhism)|Marichi]], and [[Religion:Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]]. Brahmanical idols of [[Religion:Vishnu|Vishnu]], Shiva-Parvathi, [[Biology:Ganesha|Ganesha]], Mahishasura Mardini, and [[Religion:Surya|Surya]] have also been found in the ruins.<ref name=asi1 />

A '''Black Buddha temple''' (termed by locals as the Telia Bhairav, "tel" refers to use of oil) is near Temple 14 with has an ancient large black Buddha image in bhumisparha mudra. This the same temple termed Baithak Bhairab in Cunningham's 1861–62 ASI report.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1135/1/2016-MBRajani-ArchivesofAsianArt.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114145251/http://eprints.nias.res.in/1135/1/2016-MBRajani-ArchivesofAsianArt.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Expanse of Archaeological Remains at Nalanda: A Study Using remote sensing, MB Rajani, Archive of Asian Art, V 66, No. 1, pp. 1–23, 2016|archive-date=14 November 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

==Surviving Nalanda manuscripts==
Fleeing monks took some of the Nalanda manuscripts. A few of them have survived and are preserved in collections such as those at:

* Los Angeles County Museum of Art{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=52}} Folios from a Dharanisamgraha, circa 1075.
* Asia Society<ref>{{cite web | url=http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=1&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 | title=Five of the Leaves from an Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Manuscript | publisher=Asia Society | access-date=25 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182939/http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=1&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 | archive-date=14 July 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> This Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita manuscript records, in Sanskrit and Tibetan, the history of the manuscript from its creation at the famous Nalanda monastery in India through its use in Tibet by the compiler of the first Tibetan canon of Buddhism, Buton.
* Yarlung Museum, Tsetang (From the ''On ke ru Lha khang monastery'')<ref name="henss">{{cite web | url=http://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/13.html | title=Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript | access-date=25 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402025050/http://asianart.com/articles/henss/13.html | archive-date=2 April 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript, with 139 leaves and painted wooden covers. According to the colophon, this manuscript was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala at end of the 11th century.

==Nalanda inscriptions==
A number of inscriptions were found during the excavation, which are now preserved in the Nalanda Museum. These include:
* Son of a minister of Yashovarman donated to the temple built by king Baladitya. 8th cent CE, basalt slab found in monastery 1.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-30-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044526/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-30-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-30|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
* Murnavarman constructed an {{convert|80|ft|m|order=flip|adj=mid|-high}} brass image of Buddha. 7th cent CE, basalt slab, found in Sarai mound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-28-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044810/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-28-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-28|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> 
* Monk Vipulshrimitra built a monastery. Basalt slab, later half of 12th cent, found in the uppermost level of Monastery 7.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-31-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044816/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-31-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-31|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> 
* Donation of Balaputradeva, the king of Suvarnadvipa of Sailendra dynasty. 860 CE Copperplate found by Hirananda Shastri in 1921 in the antechamber of Monastery 1 at Nalanda.

==Tourism==
[[File:Xuanzang Memorial Hall.JPG|thumbnail|right|The Xuanzang Memorial Hall at Nalanda]]
Nalanda is a popular tourist destination in the state attracting a number of Indian and overseas visitors.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chatterjee|first1=Chandan|title=Nalanda route to prosperity&nbsp;— Varsity will boost trade, feel residents|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140901/jsp/bihar/story_18782156.jsp|access-date=10 September 2014|publisher=The Telegraph|date=1 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910122350/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140901/jsp/bihar/story_18782156.jsp|archive-date=10 September 2014}}</ref> It is also an important stop on the Buddhist tourism circuit.<ref name=toireopen />

===Nalanda Archaeological Museum===
[[File:Nalanda Archaeologicall Museum India - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Nalanda Archaeological Museum]]
The Archaeological Survey of India maintains a museum near the ruins for the benefit of visitors. The museum, opened in 1917, exhibits the antiquities that have been unearthed at Nalanda as well as from nearby Rajgir. Out of 13,463 items, only 349 are on display in four galleries.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Archaeological Museum, Nalanda|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_nalanda.asp|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India|access-date=10 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627073309/http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_nalanda.asp|archive-date=27 June 2014}}</ref>

===Xuanzang Memorial Hall===
[[File:Xuanzang Memorial Hall Nalanda.jpg|thumb|Xuan Zang Memorial Hall]]
The Xuanzang Memorial Hall is an Indo-Chinese undertaking to honour the famed Buddhist monk and traveller. A relic, comprising a skull bone of the Chinese monk, is on display in the memorial hall.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chaudhary|first1=Pranava K|title=Nalanda gets set for relic|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Nalanda-gets-set-for-relic/articleshow/940043.cms|access-date=10 September 2014|publisher=Times of India|date=27 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106011503/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Nalanda-gets-set-for-relic/articleshow/940043.cms|archive-date=6 November 2015}}</ref>

===Nalanda Multimedia Museum===
Another museum adjoining the excavated site is the privately run Nalanda Multimedia Museum.<ref name=multimediamuseum>{{cite web|title=Nalanda Multimedia Museum|url=http://www.prachinbharat.com/page_id_2.html|publisher=Prachin Bharat|access-date=10 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073647/http://www.prachinbharat.com/page_id_2.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> It showcases the history of Nalanda through [[3D film|3-D animation]] and other multimedia presentations.<ref name=multimediamuseum/>

==Gallery==

<gallery>
File:NALANDA UNIVERSITY FRONT VIEW.jpg|Entrance to the excavated remains
File:Plaque - Stupas and Inscription - Terracotta - Gupta Period Circa 5th-6th Century AD - Nalanda - Archaeological Museum - Nalanda - Bihar - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2312.JPG|A seal, Gupta period c. 5th–6th century
File:Nalanda 08 Sariputta stupa (32140418232).jpg|Stupa of Sariputta (Temple 3)
File:Nalanda Temple 3 ei7-17.jpg|Stupa of Sariputta, secondary shrines
File:Nalanda - 017 Images on Tower (9253715372).jpg|Sculpted stucco panels on a tower, Stupa of Sariputta
File:Nalanda - 013 Stucco Buddha Image (9253751402).jpg|Stucco Buddha image at Nalanda, Stupa of Sariputta
File:Nalanda - 037 People on Monastic Ruins (9250761121).jpg|People on second story of an excavated monastery
File:Nalanda Monastery 4 ei7-02.jpg|Monastery 4 with well and stepped platform
File:Buddha - Bronze - Circa 8th-12th Century AD - Nalanda - Bihar - Bronze Gallery - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2416.JPG|A post-8th century bronze statue of Buddha from Nalanda
File:Nalanda - 023 Broken Section of Votive Stupa (9250881377).jpg|Details on one of numerous votive stupas at the site
File:Vajrapani - Basalt - Pala Period Circa 8th Century AD - Nalanda - Archaeological Museum - Nalanda - Bihar - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2278.JPG|Vajrapani – Basalt circa 8th century CE
File:Nalanda - 108 Skanda (9250196607).jpg|Skanda, Temple 2
File:Kubera 3, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|Kubera
File:Jain Tirthankara, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|Jain [[Religion:Tirthankara|Tirthankara]], Bronze, from Nalanda, 10th century
File:Ganesha, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|[[Biology:Ganesha|Ganesha]], Bronze, from Nalanda, 10th century
</gallery>

==See also==
 Related Sites and Place

* Telhara – Telhara was the site of a [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastery in ancient India
* Bakhtiarpur – named after Bakhtiar Khilji who destroyed Nalanda Mahavira
Ancient Indian learning centers:
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Jagaddala, Bengal
* Odantapuri, adjacent to Nalanda
* Pushpagiri Vihara, Odissa
* Sharada Peeth, Kashmir
* Somapura, Bengal
* [[Place:Taxila|Taxila]], Punjab
* Teladhaka, near Nalanda
* Vallabhi, Gujarat
* Vikramashila, Bihar
{{div col end}}

== Further reading ==
* Ancient higher-learning institutions
* List of Monuments of National Importance in Bihar
* Kurkihar hoard
* {{cite web |title=Nalanda: The university that changed the world |date=23 February 2023 |first=Sugato |last=Mukherjee |website=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230222-nalanda-the-university-that-changed-the-world}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{refend}}

==External links==

*[https://archive.org/details/ajf4729.0001.001.umich.edu The life of Hiuen-Tsiang (1914)] by Xuanzang's biographer, Hwui Li (translated by Samuel Beal), p.&nbsp;105-113
*[https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00ichi A record of the Buddhist religion as practised in India and the Malay archipelago (1896)] by Yijing (translated by J. Takakasu), searchable for Nalanda
*[https://archive.org/details/pagsamjonzang00jorgoog Pag Sam Jon Zang (Dpag bsam ljon bzaṅ), Part I: History of the Rise, Progress, and Downfall of Buddhism in India (1908)] by Sumpa Khan-po Yeçe Pal Jor (in Tibetan with an index in English, edited by Sarat Chandra Das)
*[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281968 Tabakat-i-Nasiri – A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia Including Hindustan] by Minhaj-i-Siraj (translated by Major H. G. Raverty), p.&nbsp;552.
*[https://rajgir.co.in/ Rajgir | District Nalanda, Government of Bihar | India]
;Misc
*[https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?searchText=+Nalanda Seals and figurines from Nalanda at the British Museum]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@25.1364553,85.4439231,886m/data=!3m1!1e3 Interactive walking tour from Google]


[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 5th century]]

{{Sourceattribution|Nalanda mahavihara}}