View source for Philosophy:Om

{{Short description|Sacred sound in Indic religions}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Om symbol.svg|thumb|''Om'' ligature in Devanagari script]]
[[File:004 Gopura, Aum Sign (26596636998).jpg|thumb|''Om'' ({{script|Taml|ௐ}}) in Tamil script with a ''[[Trishula|trishula]]'' at Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple, Singapore; ''Om'' appears frequently as an icon in temples (''mandirs'') and spiritual retreats]]
[[File:Golden Mandala with Om symbol at Hindu temple in Malaysia.jpg|thumb|A ''rangoli'' featuring ''Om'' surrounded by stylised peacocks; ''Om'' often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of Indic religions]]
[[File:OM in Rakhi.jpg|thumb|A ''[[Astronomy:Raksha Bandhan|rakhi]]'' in the shape of ''Om'']]

'''''Om''''' (or '''''Aum''''') ({{audio|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|listen}}; {{lang-sa|ॐ, ओम्|translit=Oṃ|translit-std=IAST}}, ISO&nbsp;15919: ''Ōṁ'') is a symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, and an invocation in [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |url= |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=319–20 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/824698506 |title=Sonic liturgy: ritual and music in Hindu tradition |date=2012 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-108-2 |location=Columbia |pages=25 |oclc=824698506}}</ref> Its written representation is one of the most important symbols of Hinduism.<ref name="wilke4352">{{Cite book |last1=Wilke |first1=Annette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC&pg=PA435 |title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism |last2=Moebus |first2=Oliver |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3110181593 |location=Berlin |page=435}}</ref> It is variously said to be the essence of the supreme Absolute,<ref name=":1" /> consciousness,<ref name="james4822">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege19962">{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnUFxccJ4igC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-1640-2 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com2">"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/om Om]". ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> ''[[Philosophy:Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]],'' ''[[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]],'' or the cosmic world.<ref name="David Leeming 20052">David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA2">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 318</ref><ref name="annette2">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 435–456</ref> In Indic traditions, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of [[Religion:Vedas|Vedic]] authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices.<ref name=":2">{{Cite thesis |last1=Gerety |first1=Moore |last2=McKean |first2=Finnian |date=2015-05-20 |title=This Whole World Is OM: Song, Soteriology, and the Emergence of the Sacred Syllable |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/17467527 |publisher=Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences |pages=33 |issn=1746-7527}}</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], the [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]], and other Hindu texts.<ref name="annette2" />

''Om'' emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of [[Religion:Samaveda|''Samavedic'']] chants or songs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ''[[Religion:Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (''samskara'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[Unsolved:Pranava yoga|Pranava yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112">David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691140865}}, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122">Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791453902}}, pages 1–4</ref> It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jainism]], and [[Religion:Sikhism|Sikhism]].<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), ''A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan'', {{ISBN|978-8170173489}}, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during [[Philosophy:Meditation|meditation]] in Hinduism, [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], and [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jainism]].<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 2442">Jan Gonda (1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner2">Julius Lipner (2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415456760}}, pp. 66–67</ref>

The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as '''Onkara (Omkara)''' and '''Pranava''' among many other names.<ref name="Misra20182">{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104 |title=The Om Mala: Meanings of the Mystic Sound |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-87471-85-6 |pages=104–}}</ref><ref>"[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=OM&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 OM]". ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Köln, Germany</ref>

== Common names and synonyms ==
The syllable ''Om'' is referred to by many names, including:
* ''{{IAST|Praṇava}}'' ({{lang|sa|प्रणव}}); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Pranava, ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Oṅkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओङ्कार}}) or ''{{IAST|oṃkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओंकार}}); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the [[Philosophy:Creationism#Hinduism|act of creation]].<ref>Diana Eck (2013), ''India: A Sacred Geography'', Random House, {{ISBN|978-0385531924}}, page 245</ref><ref>R Mehta (2007), ''The Call of the Upanishads'', Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807495}}, page 67</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=omkara&trans=Translate&direction=AU Omkara], ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany</ref><ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 435</ref>
** ''{{lang|pa-Latn|[[Religion:Ik Onkar|Ik Oṅkār]]}}'' ({{lang|pa|ੴ or ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an [[Unsolved:Names of God#Sikhism|epithet of God]] in [[Religion:Sikhism|Sikhism]]. (see below).
* ''{{IAST|Udgītha}}'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}); meaning "song, chant", a word found in [[Religion:Samaveda|Samaveda]] and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n123/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 12 with footnote 1</ref>
* ''{{IAST|[[Religion:Aksara|Akṣara]]}}'' ({{lang|sa|अक्षर}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
** ''{{IAST|Ekākṣara}}''; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single [[Social:Ligature (writing)|ligature]]. (see below)

== Origin and spiritual significance ==
The etymological origins of ''ōm'' ''(aum)'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]] having proposed multiple [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] etymologies for ''aum'', including: from "''ām''" ({{lang|sa|आम्}}; "yes"), from "''ávam''" ({{lang|sa|आवम्}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" ({{lang|sa|अव्}}; "to urge") or "''āp-''" ({{lang|sa|आप्}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">{{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |date=1981 |title=On the Primary Meaning and Etymology of the Sacred Syllable ōm |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49902 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=50 |pages=195–214 |issn=2323-5209}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Praṇava Upaniṣad in [[Religion:Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha Brāhmaṇa]] 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142}} In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a [[Social:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] introductory particle "''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{lang|sa|अथ}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from [[Social:Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern [[Social:Tamil language|Tamil]] "''ām''" ({{lang|ta|ஆம்}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">{{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |isbn=9780190226909 |location=New York}}</ref> In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken  in Sri Lanka, ''aum''' is the word for yes.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. [[Biography:Max Müller|Max Müller]] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation" and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]], [[Philosophy:Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], and Self-knowledge".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up ''Chandogya Upanishad''], Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>

The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name="annette2"/> In the [[Religion:Aranyaka|Aranyaka]] and the [[Religion:Brahmana|Brahmana]] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name="annette2"/> The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), ''Ganapati: The Song of Self'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424391}}, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name="annette2"/><ref>[http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/vedas/aitereya/the_aitareya_brahmanam_of_the_rigveda__s.pdf Aitareya Brahmana 5.32], Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See {{Cite book |last=Arthur Berriedale Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSgYAAAAYAAJ |title=The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=256}}</ref> However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/AitareyataittiriyaUpanishadsWithShankaraBhashya-English/page/n87/mode/2up?view=theater | title=Aitareya &Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya - English }}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name="annette2"/> The [[Religion:Samaveda|Samaveda]], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.<ref name="annette2"/>

== Pronunciation ==
When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of [[Religion:Sandhi|sandhi]] in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the [[Philosophy:Guṇa#Sanskrit grammar|guṇa]] vowel grade of ''u'', not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel ({{IPA-sa|oː|}}), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''.{{efn-ua|see Pāṇini, [[Philosophy:Aṣṭādhyāyī|Aṣṭādhyāyī]] 6.1.95}}<ref name="Whitney1950">{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney) |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=12, 27–28}}</ref> Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation ({{transliteration|sa|raṅga}}). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in the context of Sanskrit.

However, this ''o'' reflects the older [[Social:Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic Sanskrit]] diphthong ''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often archaically considered as consisting of three [[Social:Phoneme|phoneme]]s: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LpJ1CAAAQBAJ&dq=aum+three&pg=PT546 The Book of Secrets]'', unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. {{ISBN|9780880507707}}.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). ''Milk, Honey and Grapes'', p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. {{ISBN|9781438209159}}.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PT287 The Om Mala]'', unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. {{ISBN|9789387471856}}.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLlIAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PA61 The Yoga-vásishtha-mahárámáyana of Válmiki, Volume 1]'', p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. {{pre-ISBN}}.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]].

In the context of the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], particularly the Vedic [[Religion:Brahmana|Brahmana]]s, the vowel is often ''pluta'' ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae ({{transliteration|sa|trimātra}}), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes {{transliteration|sa|pluta}} with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo {{transliteration|sa|pluti}} they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |year=2006 |title=Pāṇini's Phonological Rules and Vedic: Aṣṭādhyāyī 8.2* |url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |page=16}}</ref> realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' {{IPA-sa|ɑːːum|}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as [[Organization:Arya Samaj|Arya Samaj]].

However, ''Om'' is also attested in the [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]] without ''pluta'',{{efn-ua|see {{IAST|Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad}} 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes ''Om'' as having three {{transliteration|sa|mātra}}s corresponding to the three letters a-u-m}} and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as [[Social:Hindustani language|Hindustani]], share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ({{IPA-sa|õː|}} or {{IPA-sa|oːm|}}).

== Written representations ==

=== South Asia ===
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|Statue depicting Shiva as the Nataraja dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for ''Om''; Joseph Campbell argued that the Nataraja statue represents ''Om'' as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"<ref>Joseph Campbell (1949), ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', 108f.</ref>]]

Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in Devanagari as '''{{lang|sa|ओम्}}''', composed of four elements: the vowel letter {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}), the vowel diacritic {{script|Deva|ो}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|o}}), the consonant letter {{script|Deva|म}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|m}}), and the ''virama'' stroke {{script|Deva|्}} which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination {{script|Deva|ओ}} represented a diphthong, often transcribed as {{IAST|au}}, but it now represents a long vowel, {{IAST|ō}}. (See above.) The syllable is sometimes written '''{{lang|sa|ओ३म्}}''', where {{script|Deva|३}} (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates ''pluta'' ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओऽम्}}''' in languages such as [[Social:Hindi|Hindi]], with the {{IAST|avagraha}} ({{script|Deva|ऽ}}) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the {{IAST|avagraha}} in [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओं}}''', with an {{IAST|anusvāra}} reflecting the pronunciation of {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as [[Social:Urdu|Urdu]] and [[Social:Sindhi language|Sindhi]] ''Om'' may be written '''{{script|Arab|اوم}}''' in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.

The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' '''{{lang|sa|{{large|ॐ}}}}''', is a cursive [[Social:Typographic ligature|ligature]] in Devanagari, combining {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}) with {{script|Deva|उ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}) and the chandrabindu (ँ,{{nbsp}}{{IAST|ṃ}}). In [[Unicode]], the symbol is encoded at {{unichar|0950|Devanagari OM|ulink=Devanagari (Unicode block)}} and at {{unichar|1f549|OM Symbol|ulink=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs}} as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".

In some South Asian [[Social:Writing system|writing system]]s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese ''Om'' is written simply as '''{{script|Beng|ওঁ}}''' without an additional curl. In languages such as [[Social:Bengali language|Bengali]] differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for {{IAST|u}} redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains {{IPA-bn|õː|}}. Similarly, in Odia ''Om'' is written as '''{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}}''' without an additional diacritic.

In Tamil, ''Om'' is written as {{script|Taml|ௐ}}, a ligature of {{lang|ta|ஓ}} (''ō'') and {{lang|ta|ம்}} (''m''), while in [[Social:Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Social:Telugu script|Telugu]], and Malayalam, ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by {{IAST|anusvāra}} ({{lang|kn|ಓಂ}}, {{lang|te|ఓం}}, and {{lang|ml|ഓം}}, respectively).

There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in [[Social:Brahmi script|Brahmi script]], dating to before the [[Common Era]]. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the ''[[Swastika|swastika]]'' is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters ({{unichar|11011|Brahmi letter O}}) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deb |first=Harit Krishna |title=The Svastika and the Oṁkāra |year=1921 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=231–247 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/97555#page/313/}}</ref> A commentary in ''Nature'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1922 |title=Research Items: The Swastika, Gammadion, Fylfot |journal=Nature |volume=110 |issue=2758 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/110365a0 |s2cid=4114094 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }} {{Google books|1bMzAQAAMAAJ|The Swastika|page=PA365}}</ref> A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" ({{script|Brah|𑀅𑀉𑀫}}), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol {{script|Deva|ॐ}} for ''Om''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Ankita |year=2011 |title=Rediscovering the Brahmi Script |url=http://www.mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003025656/https://mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2015 |publisher=Industrial Design Center, IDC, IIT |location=Bombay}} See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kak |first=SC |year=1990 |title=Indus and Brahmi: Further Connections |journal=Cryptologia |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=169–183|doi=10.1080/0161-119091864878 }}</ref> Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |title=Ancient Ceylon  |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/428/ 428]}}</ref> including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |title=Ancient Ceylon  |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/490/ 490]}}</ref>

=== East and Southeast Asia ===
The ''Om'' symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]n countries.

In [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's [[Religion:Urna|urna]] curl and later a symbol of the path to [[Philosophy:Nirvana|nirvana]], it is a popular [[Philosophy:Yantra|yantra]] in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in [[Unsolved:Yantra tattooing|''sak yant'']] religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV ({{reign|1851|1868}})<ref>Deborah Wong (2001), ''Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance'', [[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]], {{ISBN|978-0226905853}}, page 292</ref> and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.<ref>James Minahan (2009), ''The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems'', {{ISBN|978-0313344961}}, pages 28-29</ref>

The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម: ប្រភពនៃរូបសញ្ញាឱម |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum02.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម : អំណាចឱមនៅក្នុងសាសនា |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum01.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Khmer language blog articles; historical claims need scholarly sources, preferably in English|date=August 2021}}

In [[Social:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]], ''Om'' is typically transliterated as either 唵 ({{zh|p=ǎn}}) or 嗡 ({{zh|p=wēng}}).

=== Representation in various scripts ===

==== Northern Brahmic ====
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in Northern Brahmic scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:Aum Om black.svg| Devanagari ligature,{{efn|{{script|Deva|ॐ}} (U+0950)}} Gujarati{{efn|{{script|Gujr|ૐ}} (U+0AD0)}}
|File:Devanagari_AUM_ओम्.svg| Devanagari{{efn|{{script|Deva|ओम्}} (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)}} (see above for variants)
|File:Om symbol1.svg| Bengali, Assamese{{efn|{{script|Beng|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)}}
|File:Ek_onkar.svg| Gurmukhi{{efn|{{script|Guru|ੴ}} (U+0A74)}}, [[Religion:Ik Onkar|Ik Onkar]]
|File:EK ONKAR GURMUKHÎ 0A74.svg| Gurmukhi cursive variant, [[Religion:Ik Onkar|Ik Onkar]]
|File:Om jaïn orange.svg| Jain symbol{{efn|ꣽ (U+A8FD)}}
|File:Lepcha Om.svg| Lepcha{{efn|{{script|Lepc|ᰣᰨᰵ}} (U+1C23 & U+1C28 & U+1C35)}}
|File:Limbu Om.svg| Limbu{{efn|{{script|Limb|ᤀᤥᤱ}} (U+1900 & U+1925 & U+1931)}}
|File:Om - Anji in Meetei Mayek.svg| Meitei Mayek, Anji symbol{{efn|{{script|Mtei|ꫲ}} (U+AAF2)}}
|File:Om in Modi script.svg| Modi{{efn|{{script|Modi|𑘌𑘽}} (U+1160C & U+1163D)}}
|File:Odia Om symbol.png| Odia{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+0B01)}}
|File:Odia Om sign.svg| Odia cursive variant{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+200D & U+0B01)}}
|File:Om in Pracalit(Newa) script.svg| Prachalit{{efn|{{script|Newa|𑑉}} (U+11449)}}
|File:Shukla Ranjana Om.svg| Ranjana
|File:Om in Sharada script.svg| Sharada{{efn|{{script|Shrd|𑇄}} (U+111C4)}}
|File:Om in Siddham script.svg| Siddham{{efn|{{script|Sidd|𑖌𑖼}} (U+1158C & U+115BC)}}
|File:Soyombo Om symbol.svg| [[Social:Soyombo script|Soyombo]]{{efn|{{script|Soyo|𑩐𑩖𑪖}} (U+11A50 & U+11A55 & U+11A96)}}
|File:Om in Takri script.svg| [[Takri script|Takri]]{{efn|{{script|Takr|𑚈𑚫}} (U+11688 & U+116AB)}}
|File:Om tibetain-red.svg| Tibetan{{efn|{{bo-textonly|ༀ}} (U+0F00)}}
|File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg| Tirhuta, Mithilakshar{{efn|{{script|Tirh|𑓇}} (U+114C7)}}
}}

==== Southern Brahmic ====
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in Southern Brahmic scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:Bali Omkara Red.png| Balinese{{efn|{{script|Bali|ᬒᬁ}} (U+1B12 & U+1B01)}}
|File:Om in Burmese script.png| Burmese{{efn|{{script|Mymr|ဥုံ}} (U+1025 & U+102F & U+1036)}}
|File:Om in Chakma script.svg| [[Social:Chakma script|Chakma]]{{efn|{{script|Cakm|𑄃𑄮𑄀}} (U+11103 & U+1112E & U+11100)}}
|File:Om in Cham script.png| Cham{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨯꩌ}} (U+AA05 & U+AA4C)}}
|File:Cham Homkar (Om) symbol.svg| Cham ''homkar'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨀꨯꨱꩌ}} (U+AA00 & U+AA2F & U+AA31 & U+AA4C)}}
|File:Om in Grantha script.svg| Grantha{{efn|{{script|Gran|𑍐}} (U+11350)}}
|File:Simbol aum.png| Javanese{{efn|{{script|Java|ꦎꦴꦀ}} (U+A98E & U+A980 & U+A9B4)}}
|File:Kannada OM.svg| [[Social:Kannada script|Kannada]]{{efn|{{script|Knda|ಓಂ}} (U+0C93 & U+0C82)}}
|File:Om in Khmer script.png| Khmer{{efn|{{script|Khmr|ឱំ}} (U+17B1 & U+17C6)}}
|File:Khmer Sacred Symbol, Om or Unalom.svg| Khmer ''Aom, Unalaom,'' or ''Komutr'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Khmr|៚}} (U+17DA)}}
|File:Om in Lao script.png| Lao{{efn|{{script|Laoo|ໂອໍ}} (U+0EAD & U+0EC2 & U+0ECD)}}
|File:Ohm Malayalam.png| Malayalam{{efn|{{script|Mlym|ഓം}} (U+0D13 & U+0D02)}}
|File:Sinhala Om symbol.svg| Sinhala{{efn|{{script|Sinh|ඕං}} (U+0D95 & U+0D82)}}
|File:Tamil Om.svg| Tamil{{efn|{{script|Taml|ௐ}} (U+0BD0)}}
|File:Om in telugu.svg| [[Social:Telugu script|Telugu]]{{efn|{{script|Telu|ఓం}} (U+0C13 & U+0C02)}}
|File:Thai Om symbol.png| Thai{{efn|{{script|Thai|โอํ}} (U+0E2D & U+0E42 & U+0E4D)}}
|File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg| Thai ''Om, Unalome,'' or ''Khomut'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Thai|๛}} (U+0E5B)}}
}}

==== East Asian ====
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in East Asian scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:Om cinese.svg| [[Social:Chinese characters|Chinese]]{{efn|{{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} (U+5535)}}
|File:Korean Om.svg| Hangul{{efn|{{script|Hang|옴}} (U+110B & U+1169 & U+1106)}}
|File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg| Katakana{{efn|{{script|Kana|オーム}} (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)}}
|File:Om in Mongolian script.svg| [[Social:Mongolian script|Mongolian]]{{efn|{{script|Mong|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}} (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)}}
}}

==== Other ====
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in other scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:OM_in_divehi.svg| Thaana{{efn|{{script|Thaa|އޮމ}} (U+0787 & U+07AE & U+0789)}}
|File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg| [[Social:Warang Citi|Warang Citi]]{{efn|{{script|Wara|𑣿}} (U+118FF)}}
}}

== Hinduism ==
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|left|''Om'' appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the Rigveda{{efn-ua|in the early 19th-century manuscript above ''Om'' is written {{lang|sa|अउ३म्}} with "{{script|Deva|अउ}}" as ligature as in ॐ without chandrabindu}}]]

In [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name="wilke4352"/> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], the [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]], and other Hindu texts,<ref name="annette2"/> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during [[Religion:Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[Philosophy:Yoga|yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112"/><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122"/>

It is the most sacred syllable symbol and [[Philosophy:Mantra|mantra]] of [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Om |url=https://slife.org/om/}}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 20052"/><ref name="ReferenceA2"/><ref name="james4822"/><ref name="Holdrege19962"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ellwood |first1=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Alles |first2=Gregory D. |date=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438110387 |pages=327–328 |language=en}}</ref>

It is called the ''[[Philosophy:Shabda|Shabda]] Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound ({{transl|sa|pranava}}) of the universe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1995 |isbn=9788120812611 |pages=42–48 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Vedas ===
''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the [[Religion:Rigveda|Rigveda]] Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.<ref name="mmwpage17">Monier Monier-Williams (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.<ref name="lipner2"/>

==== Brahmanas ====

===== Aitareya Brahmana =====
The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name="wilke4352"/>

{{Blockquote|''Om'' is the agreement (''pratigara'') with a hymn. Likewise is ''tathā'' {{=}} 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [{{=}} the applause]. But ''Om'' is something divine, and ''tathā'' is something human.
|Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13<ref name="wilke4352"/>}}

==== Upanishads ====
[[File:Om syllable script.jpg|thumb|right|''Ōṃ'' is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the Upanishads, including "the sacred sound, the ''Yes!'', the Vedas, the ''udgitha'' (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence, the cause of the universe, the essence of life, the ''Brahman'', the ''ātman'', the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and self-knowledge (''ātma jñāna'')".<ref name=deussenmeaningofom />]]

===== Chandogya Upanishad =====
The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".<ref name="maxmuller11">Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1-3 with footnotes</ref> It calls the syllable ''Om'' as ''udgitha'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the [[Religion:Rigveda|Rigveda]], the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om'').<ref name=pauldeussen11 />

{{IAST|Ṛc}} ({{lang|sa|ऋच्}}) is speech, states the text, and {{IAST|sāman}} ({{lang|sa|सामन्}}) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.<ref name=maxmuller11 /><ref name=pauldeussen11 /> The highest song is ''Om'', asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.<ref name="pauldeussen11">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 68-70</ref><ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185">Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195124354}}, page 171-185</ref>

The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable ''Om'', explaining its use as a struggle between ''[[Religion:Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (gods) and ''Asuras'' (demons).<ref name="pauldeussen12">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 70-71 with footnotes</ref> Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.<ref name="maxmuller12">Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-6 with footnotes</ref> The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of ''Om'') unto themselves, thinking, "with this ''song'' we shall overcome the demons".<ref name="hume12">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n199/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pages 178-180</ref> The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.<ref name=maxmuller12 /><ref name=hume12 />

Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable ''Om'' in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185" /><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-19 with footnotes</ref> In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of ''Om'' evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where ''Om'' is linked to the Highest Self,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n139/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 28 with footnote 1</ref> and section 2.23 where the text asserts ''Om'' is the essence of three forms of knowledge, ''Om'' is [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]] and "Om is all this [observed world]".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/34/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 35</ref>

===== Katha Upanishad =====
The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, [[Biography:Nachiketa|Nachiketa]], the son of sage {{transliteration|sa|Vājaśravasa|italic=no}}, who meets [[Unsolved:Yama|Yama]], the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, [[Philosophy:Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[Philosophy:Moksha|moksha]] (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge ({{transliteration|sa|[[Philosophy:Vidya|vidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance ({{transliteration|sa|[[Philosophy:Avidyā (Hinduism)|avidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486209937}}, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 284-286</ref>

{{poem quote|
The word which all the Vedas proclaim,
That which is expressed in every Tapas (penance, austerity, meditation),
That for which they live the life of a [[Philosophy:Brahmacharya|Brahmacharin]],
Understand that word in its essence: '''Om! that is the word.'''
Yes, this syllable is [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]],
This syllable is the highest.
He who knows that syllable,
Whatever he desires, is his.
|Katha Upanishad 1.2.15-1.2.16<ref name=pauldeussen1214 />}}

===== Maitri Upanishad =====
[[File:A Pahari painting of an OM containing deities, c.1780-1800.jpg|thumb|A Pahari painting of ''Om'' ({{lang|hi|ओं}}), {{circa|1780-1800}}, decorated with deities: Shiva and Shakti (could be Vaishnavi or Siddhidatri); Vishnu and Lakshmi seated upon Shesha; Harihara (Vishnu-Shiva fusion deity); Brahma; and Dattatreya as a representation of the Trimurti (top-to-bottom, left-to-right)]]
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth ''Prapathakas'' (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of ''Om''. The text asserts that ''Om'' represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M''.<ref name="maxmuller64">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up |title=The Upanishads: Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |volume=2 |pages=307–308}}</ref>

The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
* as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
* as light-endowed body – Agni, [[Religion:Vayu|Vayu]], and [[Religion:Surya|Aditya]];
* as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,{{efn-ua|later called Shiva}} and Vishnu;
* as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya'';{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major Vedic fire rituals}}
* as knowledge-endowed body – [[Religion:Rigveda|Rig]], [[Religion:Samaveda|Saman]], and [[Religion:Yajurveda|Yajur]];{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major Vedas}}
* as world-endowed body – {{IAST|bhūr}}, {{IAST|bhuvaḥ}}, and {{IAST|svaḥ}};{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the [[Philosophy:Trailokya|three worlds]] of the Vedas}}
* as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
* as heat-endowed body – [[Philosophy:Prana|breath]], [[Philosophy:Agni (Ayurveda)|fire]], and [[Religion:Surya|Sun]];
* as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
* as thought-endowed body – [[Philosophy:Buddhi|intellect]], [[Philosophy:Antahkarana|mind]], and [[Philosophy:Citta|psyche]].<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">[https://www.shemtaia.com/SKT/PDF/Upanishads/cowellmaitriskt.pdf Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260</ref>

Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>Max Muller, ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684 |editor-last=Deussen |editor-first=Paul |volume=1 |page=347 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation |editor-last=Cowell |editor-first=E.B. |series=Bibliotheca Indica |location=Cambridge University Press |page=258 |translator-last=Cowell |translator-first=E.B.}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Sanskrit original, quote: {{lang|sa|द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource |wslink=मैत्रायण्युपनिषत् |wslanguage=sa |title=Maitri Upanishad |language=Sanskrit}}</ref>}}

The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64 />

===== Mundaka Upanishad =====
[[File:A Yantra with Tamil Om symbol in center, at a Mariamman Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Religion:Shri Yantra|Shri Yantra]] with ''Om'' ({{lang|ta|ௐ}}) at its center, Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore; yantras are frequently used as aids in Hindu meditation]]
The Mundaka Upanishad in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).<ref>Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass (2010 Reprint), {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 580-581</ref><ref>Eduard Roer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ff0IAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Mundaka Upanishad] ''Bibliotheca Indica'', Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 144</ref> 

{{poem quote|
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.{{efn-ua|Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: Max Muller, ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/36/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n387/mode/2up], page 367}}
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.

Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad,
one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation,
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That,
Penetrate{{efn-ua|The Sanskrit word used is ''Vyadh'', which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n387/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], ''Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1}} that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.

'''Om''' is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark,
By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated,
One should come to be in It,
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
|Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4<ref name="roberthume22">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n393/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 372-373</ref><ref>Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920–1931), ''The Mukhya Upanishads'', Kshetra Books, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}} (Reprinted in 2014), [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mundaka%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf Archive of Mundaka Upanishad, pages 310-311] from Theosophical Quarterly journal</ref>}}

[[Biography:Adi Shankara|Adi Shankara]], in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for Atman (Self).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/upanishadssrisan00sita#page/138/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1: ''The Isa Kena and Mundaka'', SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152</ref>

===== Mandukya Upanishad =====
The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "''Om''!, this syllable is this whole world".<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.<ref name=humefull /> This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).<ref name="pauldeussenfull">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 605-637</ref><ref name="humefull">{{Citation |last=Hume |first=Robert Ernest |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n411/mode/2up |pages=391–393 |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
* ''Om'' as all states of [[Astronomy:Kāla|Time]].
*: In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are ''Om''. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is ''Om'' expressed.<ref name=humefull />
* ''Om'' as all states of [[Philosophy:Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] .
*: In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.<ref name="johnston">Charles Johnston, [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mandukya%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf The Measures of the Eternal – Mandukya Upanishad] Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162</ref>
* ''Om'' as all states of [[Philosophy:Consciousness|Consciousness]].
*: In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ''ekatma'' (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).<ref name=humefull /> These four are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "without an element" respectively.<ref name=humefull />
* ''Om'' as all of [[Philosophy:Vidya|Knowledge]].
*: In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable ''Om''. It states that the first element of ''Om'' is ''A'', which is from ''Apti'' (obtaining, reaching) or from ''Adimatva'' (being first).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The second element is ''U'', which is from ''Utkarsa'' (exaltation) or from ''Ubhayatva'' (intermediateness).<ref name=humefull /> The third element is ''M'', from ''Miti'' (erecting, constructing) or from ''Mi Minati, or apīti'' (annihilation).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /><ref name=humefull />

===== Shvetashvatara Upanishad =====
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/236/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Hume |date=1921 |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/ |chapter=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.14 – 1.16 |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=396-397 with footnotes}}</ref>

[[File:Ganesha-aum.jpg|thumb|The Hindu deity [[Biology:Ganesha|Ganesha]] is sometimes referred to as "{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}" (''Omkara'' is his form) and used as the symbol for Upanishadic concept of Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoqB4n95pSoC |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2439-1 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Elephas Maximus: a portrait of the Indian Elephant |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143031741 |location=New Delhi |page=95}}</ref>]]

===== Ganapati Upanishad =====

The [[Biology:Ganapati Atharvashirsa|Ganapati Upanishad]] asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.{{Sfnp|Grimes|1995|pp=23-24}}

{{blockquote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) [[Religion:Brahma|Brahma]], [[Religion:Vishnu|Vishnu]], and [[Religion:Shiva|Mahesa]]. You are [[Religion:Indra|Indra]]. You are fire {{bracket|Agni}} and air {{bracket|[[Religion:Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]]}}. You are the sun {{bracket|[[Religion:Surya|{{IAST|Sūrya}}]]}} and the moon {{bracket|Chandrama}}. You are [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
|Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6{{Sfnp|Saraswati|1987|p=127|ps=, In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}}}

==== Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana ====
The [[Religion:Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana]], a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerety |first=Finnian M. M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Between Sound and Silence in Early Yoga: Meditation on " Om " at Death |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/711944 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=217–218 |doi=10.1086/711944 |s2cid=233429885 |issn=0018-2710}}</ref>

=== Ramayana ===
In Valmiki's [[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]], [[Biology:Rama|Rama]] is identified with ''Om'', with [[Religion:Brahma|Brahma]] saying to Rama:

{{blockquote|"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable {{transliteration|sa|Vashat}} (on hearing which the {{transliteration|sa|Adhvaryu}} priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable ''OM''. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in {{transliteration|sa|brahmana}}s. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."|[[Biology:Ramayana#Yuddha Kanda|Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda]], Sarga 117<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://valmikiramayan.pcriot.com/utf8/yuddha/sarga117/yuddha_117_prose.htm|title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 117|website=valmikiramayan.pcriot.com}}</ref>}}

=== Bhagavad Gita ===
[[File:Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva within an OM.jpg|thumb|An illustration of ''Om'' from a Mahabharata manuscript, 1795, decorated with murtis of Surya, Brahma, and Vishnu to the left, Shakti (could be Maheshwari) on the chandrabindu point, and Shiva (holding a [[Trishula|trishula]]) to the right]]

The [[Religion:Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gita]], in the Epic [[Religion:Mahabharata|Mahabharata]], mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]]".<ref name=jfowler164 />

{{Blockquote|"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the '''sacred syllable ''Om'''''. I am the [[Religion:Rigveda|Ṛig Veda]], [[Religion:Samaveda|Sāma Veda]], and the [[Religion:Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]."

The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:<ref name=jfowler271 />

{{Blockquote|"Therefore, uttering '''Om''', the acts of yagna (fire ritual), [[Philosophy:Dāna|dāna]] (charity) and tapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the [[Philosophy:Brahman|Brahman]]."

=== Puranas ===
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the [[Religion:Puranas|Puranas]] adopt and expand the concept of ''Om'' in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.

==== Vaishnava traditions ====
The [[Religion:Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] ''Garuda Purana'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-garuda-purana-dutt/d/doc122701.html |title=The Vishnu-Dharma Vidya [Chapter CCXXI] |date=16 April 2015}}</ref> According to the ''Vayu Purana'',{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu [[Philosophy:Trimurti|Trimurti]], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for [[Religion:Brahma|Brahma]], ''U'' for [[Religion:Vishnu|Vishnu]] and ''M'' for [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Esnoul |first=A.M. |chapter=Oṃ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Reference |date=2005 |isbn=9780028659978 |edition=2nd |location=USA |pages=6820–6821}}</ref> The ''[[Religion:Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata Purana]]'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/9/14/ |title=Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |language=en |chapter=14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī}}</ref>

==== Shaiva traditions ====
[[File:Om Symbol at Kanaka Durga Temple.jpg|thumb|''Om'' symbol with a [[Trishula|trishula]] at Kanaka Durga Temple, Vijayawada]]

In Shaiva traditions, the ''Shiva Purana'' highlights the relation between deity [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]] and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Guy |last=Beck |year=1995 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120812611 |page=154}}</ref>
After this, an epithet of [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]] is Omkareshwar, the Lord, [[Philosophy:Ishvara|Ishvara]], of oṃkāra.

==== Shakta traditions ====
In the [[Philosophy:Thealogy|thealogy]] of Shakta traditions, ''Om'' connotes the female divine energy, [[Religion:Adi Parashakti|Adi Parashakti]], represented in the [[Philosophy:Tridevi|Tridevi]]: ''A'' for the creative energy (the [[Philosophy:Shakti|Shakti]] of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, ''U'' for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and ''M'' for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), [[Religion:Mahakali|Mahakali]]. The 12th book of the ''[[Religion:Devi-Bhagavata Purana|Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' describes the [[Religion:Devi|Goddess]] as the mother of the Vedas, the ''Adya Shakti'' (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rocher |first=Ludo |title=The Purāṇas |date=1986 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3447025225 |location=Wiesbaden}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2018 |title=Adi Parashakti - The Divine Mother |url=https://www.templepurohit.com/adi-parashakti-the-divine-mother/ |access-date=26 May 2021 |website=TemplePurohit - Your Spiritual Destination Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Narayanananda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_sKqkhwRzoC |title=The Primal Power in Man: The Kundalini Shakti |date=1960 |publisher=Health Research Books |isbn=9780787306311}}</ref>

=== Other texts ===
[[File:Radha and Krishna on a single lotus within an "Om" sign surr Wellcome V0045039.jpg|thumb|[[Religion:Radha|Radha]] and Krishna intertwined with an ''Om'' ({{script|Beng|ওঁ}}) and surrounded by scenes from their life]]

==== Yoga Sutra ====
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's ''Yogasutra'' links ''Om'' to [[Philosophy:Yoga|Yoga]] practice, as follows:
{{poem quote|
{{lang|sa|तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥}}
His word is '''Om'''.

[[Biography:Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Johnston]] states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.<ref name=charlesj />

==== Chaitanya Charitamrita ====
In [[Religion:Krishnaism|Krishnava]] traditions, [[Religion:Krishna|Krishna]] is revered as [[Philosophy:Svayam Bhagavan|Svayam Bhagavan]], the Supreme Lord himself, and ''Om'' is interpreted in light of this. According to the ''[[Religion:Chaitanya Charitamrita|Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'', ''Om'' is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. ''A'' is said to represent [[Philosophy:Bhagavan|Bhagavan]] [[Religion:Krishna|Krishna]] (Vishnu), ''U'' represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and ''M'' represents [[Philosophy:Jiva|jiva]], the Self of the devotee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Century - OM |url=https://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |website=www.indiancentury.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaviraja |first=Krishnadasa |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/tlc/20/ |title=Teachings of Lord Caitanya |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |year=1967 |language=en |translator-last=[[Unsolved:A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] |chapter=20, the Goal of Vedānta Study}}</ref>

== Jainism ==
[[File:Jaipur Jain Aum.jpg|thumb|Painting illustrating the Jain ''Om'' symbol, from Jaipur, {{circa|1840}}]]

In [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jainism]], ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the [[Religion:Pañca-Parameṣṭhi|Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]] by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' (''{{IAST|o3}}{{IAST|m}}'').

The [[Religion:Dravyasamgraha|Dravyasamgraha]] quotes a [[Social:Prakrit|Prakrit]] line:{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}
{{poem quote|
{{lang|pra-Deva|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां}}
{{IAST|Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".}}
''AAAUM'' [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [{{IAST|pañca-parameṣṭhi}}]: "[[Religion:Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]], Ashariri, [[Philosophy:Acharya|Acharya]], Upajjhaya, [[Philosophy:Jain monasticism|Muni]]".<ref>{{Citation |last=Malaiya |first=Yashwant K. |article-url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |article=Om – significance in Jainism |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html |title=Languages and Scripts of India |publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref>}}

By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the [[Religion:Namokar Mantra|Namokar mantra]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namokar Mantra |url=http://www.digambarjainonline.com/namo_index.htm |access-date=2014-06-04 |publisher=Digambarjainonline.com}}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the {{IAST|Pañca-Parameṣṭhi}}. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}

== Buddhism ==
''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXgy1WvZCI0C&q=vajrayana+tantra&pg=PR9 |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120827523 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajrayana Buddhism Origins, Vajrayana Buddhism History, Vajrayana Buddhism Beliefs |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Vajrayana-Buddhism |access-date=2017-08-04 |website=www.patheos.com}}</ref>

In East Asian Buddhism, ''Om'' is often transliterated as the Chinese character {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} ([[Pinyin|pinyin]] {{transl|zh|ǎn}}) or {{script|Hant|嗡}} ([[Pinyin|pinyin]] {{transl|zh|wēng}}).

=== Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana ===
[[File:OM MANI PADME HUM.svg|thumb|The mantra ''om mani padme hum'' written in Tibetan script on the petals of a sacred lotus around the syllable hrih at the center; ''Om'' is written on the top petal in white]]

In Tibetan [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and [[Philosophy:Dharani|dharani]]s. Probably the most well known mantra is "[[Religion:Om mani padme hum|Om mani padme hum]]", the six syllable mantra of the [[Philosophy:Bodhisattva|Bodhisattva]] of compassion, [[Religion:Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteśvara]]. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed {{IAST|Ṣaḍākṣarī}} form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''[[Philosophy:Bīja|Bīja]] mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Om" - the Symbol of the Absolute |url=http://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |access-date=2015-10-13}}</ref>

Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra {{IAST|oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ}} to be {{IAST|auṃ}}, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Carl |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8135-3778-8 |page=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |url=https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett |title=The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-486-25575-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett/page/29 29], 191–192 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

{{IAST|Oṃ}} has been described by the [[Biography:14th Dalai Lama|14th Dalai Lama]] as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure [[Philosophy:Three Vajras|body, speech, and mind]] of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyatso |first=Tenzin |title=On the meaning of: OM MANI PADME HUM - The jewel is in the lotus or praise to the jewel in the lotus |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tib/omph.htm |access-date=2017-04-17 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |pages=159–160}}</ref> According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |page=158}}</ref>

=== Japanese Buddhism ===
[[File:Kannonshoji Azuchi Kyoto pref Japan01s3.jpg|thumb|Nio statues in Kyoto prefecture of Japan, are interpreted as saying the start (open mouth) and the end (closed mouth) of syllable "AUM"<ref name=adrian /><ref name=helenbaroni />]]

==== ''A-un'' ====
The term {{nihongo|'''''A-un'''''|{{linktext|阿吽}}}} is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "''a''" and "{{IAST|hūṃ}}", written in Devanagari as {{script|Deva|अहूँ}}. In Japanese, it is often [[Philosophy:Conflation|conflated]] with the syllable ''Om''. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first ({{script|Deva|अ}}) and the last ({{script|Deva|ह}}) letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-{{IAST|ūṃ}}" of "{{IAST|hūṃ}}". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.<ref name="jaanus a-un">{{Cite web |year=2001 |title="A un" (阿吽) |url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/a/aun.htm |access-date=14 April 2011 |publisher=Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System}}</ref> In Japanese ''[[Philosophy:Mikkyō|Mikkyō]]'' Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.<ref>Daijirin Japanese dictionary, 2008, Monokakido Co., Ltd.</ref>  This is comparable to [[Alpha and Omega]], the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.

The term ''a-un'' is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as {{nihongo|"''a-un'' breathing"|阿吽の呼吸|a-un no kokyū}} or {{nihongo|"''a-un'' relationship"|阿吽の仲|a-un no naka}}, indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.

==== ''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs ====

The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the ''Niō'' ({{lang|ja|仁王}}) and the ''[[Unsolved:Komainu|komainu]]'' ({{lang|ja|狛犬}}).<ref name="jaanus a-un" /> One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is {{nihongo|''agyō''|阿形||lit. "a" shape}}, that for those with a closed mouth {{nihongo|''ungyō''|吽形||lit. {{"'}}un' shape"}}.<ref name="jaanus a-un" />

Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''Vajrapani'').<ref name="adrian">{{Cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |year=2007 |isbn=978-8120807815 |page=303 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass}}</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">{{Cite book |last=Baroni |first=Helen J. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |publisher=Rosen Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6 |page=240}}</ref>

[[Unsolved:Komainu|Komainu]], also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth ({{transl|ja|Agyō}}), the other closed ({{transl|ja|Ungyō}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dentsdelion.com/NEWSLETTER/03_Komainu.pdf |title=Komainu and Niô |journal=Dentsdelion Antiques Tokyo Newsletter |volume=11 |issue=3 |date=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Katherine |title=Animal Motifs in Asian Art |publisher=Dover Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-486-43338-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur |first=Chris |title=Irish Elegies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61534-2 |page=21}}</ref>

{{gallery
|title = Some ''a-un'' pairs
|File:Iwaya Jinja Komainu 2.JPG|An ''ungyō'' komainu
|File:Iwaya Jinja Komainu 1.JPG|An ''agyō'' komainu
|File:Horyu-ji15s3200.jpg|''Ungyō'' Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
|File:Horyu-ji14s3200.jpg|''Agyō'' Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
}}

== Sikhism ==
{{Main|Religion:Ik Onkar}}
[[File:Ek onkar.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Ik Onkar'' of Sikhism]]

''Ik Onkar'' ({{lang-pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}; iconically represented as {{script|Guru|ੴ}}) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the [[Biography:Guru Granth Sahib|Guru Granth Sahib]], the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500 |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=500 |access-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''";<ref name="gulati285">{{Cite book |first=Mahinder |last=Gulati |date=2008 |title=Comparative Religious And Philosophies: Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity |publisher=Atlantic |isbn=978-8126909025 |pages=284–285}}</ref> {{efn-ua|Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."<ref name="gulati285" />}} these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |editor-last=Kitagawa |editor-first=Joseph Mitsuo |location=London |page=114 |chapter=The Sikhs |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114}}</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute [[Philosophy:Monotheism|monotheistic]] unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Wazir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWM9AAAAIAAJ&q=substitute+ekankar |title=Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1969 |page=20 |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality,  ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."<ref name=wazirsingh />}}

According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (''[[Philosophy:Shabda|shabad]]''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".<ref name=pashaura227/>

''Ik Onkar'' is a significant [[Unsolved:Names of God#Sikhism|name of God]] in the Guru Granth Sahib and [[Religion:Gurbani|Gurbani]], states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]] and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''[[Philosophy:Trailokya|Trailokya]]'') of [[Philosophy:Creationism|creation]].<ref name="sskohli39">{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=S.S. |title=The Sikh and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic |year=1993 |isbn=81-71563368 |page=35}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."<ref name=sskohli39 />}} According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe".<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Wazir |year=1969 |title=Guru Nanak's philosophy |journal=Journal of Religious Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=56}}</ref> [[Biography:Guru Nanak|Guru Nanak]] wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" />
{{Poem quote|
''Onkar'' ('the Primal Sound') created [[Religion:Brahma|Brahma]], ''Onkar'' fashioned the consciousness,
From ''Onkar'' came mountains and ages, ''Onkar'' produced the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]],
By the grace of ''Onkar'', people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of ''Onkar'', they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.
|Ramakali Dakkhani|Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh<ref name="pashaura227">{{Cite encyclopedia |first=Pashaura |last=Singh |date=2014 |title=Gurmat: The Teachings of the Gurus |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |editor-first=Pashaura |editor-last=Singh |editor2-first=Louis E. |editor2-last=Fenech |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199699308 |page=227}}</ref>}}

"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (''anahat naad'' or ''anahad naad''). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).{{cn|date=June 2023}}

== Thelema ==
For both symbolic and numerological reasons, [[Biography:Aleister Crowley|Aleister Crowley]] adapted ''aum'' into a [[Philosophy:Thelema|Thelemic]] [[Unsolved:Magical formula|magical formula]], ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word '[[Philosophy:Gnosis|gnosis]]') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of [[Philosophy:Thelema#93|93]], a number with [[Philosophy:Polysemy|polysemic]] significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's [[Philosophy:Ceremonial magic|magical]] and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''[[Religion:Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass|Gnostic Mass]]''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''Liber Samekh'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''[[Unsolved:Magick (Book 4)|Magick (Book 4)]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Liber Samekh |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib813.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick in Theory and Practice - Chapter 7 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/aba/chap7.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick : Liber ABA, book four, parts I-IV |date=1997 |isbn=9780877289197 |edition=Second revised |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Liber XV : Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae Canon Missae |date=2016 |isbn=9788393928453 |location=Gothenburg}}</ref>

== Modern reception ==
The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form ({{script|Deva|ॐ}}), but the Tibetan ''Om'' ({{bo-textonly|ༀ|lang=bo}}) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Messerle |first=Ulrich |title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM |url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191837/http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |archive-date=31 December 2017 |access-date=14 January 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== In meditation ==
{{further|Unsolved:Pranava yoga}}

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said{{by whom|date=February 2022}} to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H.R. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N.K. |last4=Naveen |first4=K.V. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |date=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |s2cid=2631383 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2022}}

==See also==
* [[Religion:A in Buddhism|A in Buddhism]]
* Beej Mantra
* Religious symbol

== Notes ==
{{notelist|15em}}
{{notelist-ua|30em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Francke |first=A. H. |year=1915 |title=The Meaning of the "Om-mani-padme-hum" Formula |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=397–404 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00048425 |jstor=25189337|s2cid=170755544 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Gurjar |first1=A. A. |last2=Ladhake |first2=S. A. |last3=Thakare |first3=A. P. |year=2009 |title=Analysis of Acoustic of "OM " Chant to Study {{sic|I|t's|nolink=y}} Effect on Nervous System |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=363–367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.8652}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N. |last4=Naveen |first4=K. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |year=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Uttam |last2=Guleria |first2=Anupam |last3=Khetrapal |first3=Chunni Lal |year=2015 |title=Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=432–441 |doi=10.1080/02699931.2014.917609 |pmid=24845107 |s2cid=20292351}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-8175973589 |location=Bombay |}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=4 August 2003 |title=Just say Om |url=http://www.thebuddhasaidiamawake.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Just-Say-Om-Printout-TIME.pdf |magazine=Time Magazine}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Telles |first1=S. |last2=Nagarathna |first2=R. |last3=Nagendra |first3=H. R. |year=1995 |title=Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation |url=http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1995_39_4/418-420.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=418–420 |issn=0019-5499 |pmid=8582759}}
* {{Cite wikisource |last=Vivekanda |title=The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom |wslink=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 3/Bhakti-Yoga/The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom}}
* {{Cite book |last=Von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |date=1999 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |location=[[Place:Delhi|Delhi]] |language=de |trans-title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |}}
{{refend}}

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{{Sourceattribution|Om}}