View source for Philosophy:Timeline of scientific thought

This is a list of important landmarks in the history of systematic [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophical]] inquiry and [[Scientific method|scientific analysis]] of phenomena. The list seeks to highlight important stages in the development of thoughts and analysis towards conceptualizing and understanding phenomena. This list seeks to include all major landmarks in systematic analysis of phenomena across disciplines that seeks to implement formal methods and systematic formal analysis of phenomena. Thus it seeks to list major landmarks across all scientific philosophy and methodological sciences including physical sciences, scientific philosophy, [[Formal science|formal disciplines]] or pure sciences, [[Behavioural sciences|behavioural sciences]], social sciences, biological sciences, life sciences and other related disciplines.

{| class="sortable wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:left;"
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!style=background:navajowhite|[[Year|chronological period]]
!style=background:navajowhite|Scientific thought
!style=background:navajowhite|notes
|-
|-
|4000 BCE<ref>[https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/x14664 Uruk] britishmuseum.org</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Marcin Z. Paszke |title=Date Palm and Date Palm Inflorescences in the Late Uruk Period (C. 3300 B.c.): Botany and Archaic Script |journal=Iraq |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iraq/article/abs/date-palm-and-date-palm-inflorescences-in-the-late-uruk-period-c-3300-bc-botany-and-archaic-script/8EAB92932F9D73F08831C94FC11D77B3 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|date=6 December 2019|volume=81 |pages=221–239 |doi=10.1017/irq.2019.15|s2cid=213663314 }}</ref>
|[[Place:Uruk|Uruk]] (city)<ref>Liverani, Mario (2006); Mieroop, Marc Van de;  Bahrani, Zainab (ed.)
 [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Uruk/TpljQgAACAAJ?hl=en Uruk The First City] Equinox</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Montgomery  |first1=Scott L|author-link1=Scott L Montgomery|last2=Kumar |first2=Alok  |chapter=3 |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-format=|title=A History of Science in World Cultures Voices of Knowledge |date=12 June 2015|script-title= |trans-title= |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_History_of_Science_in_World_Cultures/kkLeCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=uruk+is+the+first+science&pg=PA54&printsec=frontcover
 |format=Ebook |publisher=Taylor & Francis |publication-date=12 June 2015 |page=54 |isbn=9781317439066 |access-date= |via= |lay-url= |lay-source= |lay-date= |lay-format= |quote=...it seems to have needed the city to appear first...The very first of them - Uruk, Ur, Girsi, Nippur, Eridu - were experiments...}}</ref> separation from nature in an artificial environment allows the perception of nature as a separate subject (c.f. Fowler (11th citation) Thales, for example), construction technique
|technology
|-
|4000 BCE<ref name="Høyrup">{{cite book |last1=Høyrup |first1=Jens |editor1-last=Scarborough 
 |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Keyser|editor2-first=Paul Turquand |title=Social Base and Role and Gross Development, in, The Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World  |year=2018 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_Science_and_Medic/NfxdDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=science++ancient+Egypt&printsec=frontcover|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|publication-date=2018 |isbn=9780199734146 |access-date=25 May 2021 |via=Google books |lay-url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_Science_and_Medic/NfxdDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |lay-source=Google books|quote="With a focus on science in the ancient societies of Greece and Rome, including glimpses into Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China, The Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World offers an in depth synthesis of science and medicine circa 650 BCE to 650 CE..."}}</ref>||[[Place:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]]<ref name="Høyrup"/> counting records<ref name="Høyrup"/><br/>Sexagesimal (base 60) [[Numeral system|numeral system]] originated with the ancient Sumerians <ref name="Høyrup"/> || Mediterranean Levantine Philosophy<br/> economics<br/>mathematics<br/>[[Finance:Accounting|accounting]]<ref name="Høyrup"/>
|-
|after<br/>3000 BCE<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoffman |first1=Curtiss |date=December 2004 |title=Dumuzi's Dream: Dream Analysis in Ancient Mesopotamia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232555217 |journal=Dreaming |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages= 240–251|doi=10.1037/1053-0797.14.4.240 |access-date=May 25, 2021}}</ref>|| [[Place:Assyria|Assyria]]<ref name=Oppenheim >{{cite journal |last1= Oppenheim |first1=A Leo|title=The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient Near East. With a Translation of an Assyrian Dream-Book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005761 |access-date=May 25, 2021 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |year=1956|language=English |publisher=American Philosophical Society |publication-place=104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106  |publication-date= 1956  |volume=46 |issue=3 |page=185 |doi=10.2307/1005761 |doi-access= |jstor=1005761 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210525164050/https://paste.pics/8281b8e0de59a6b96e38b099804a64ad |archive-date=May 25, 2021 |url-status=live |via= }}</ref> [[Hypothesis|hypothetic]] [[Causality|causation]] suggestion for therapeutic alleviation of dreams with evil content <ref name=Oppenheim/>|| human sciences
|-
|after<br/>2000 BCE<ref name=Tuman/>|| [[Astronomy:Enuma Anu Enlil|Enuma Anu Enlil]] (divinatory omen texts)<ref name=Rochberg>{{cite journal |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca|title=Empiricism in Babylonian Omen Texts and the Classification of Mesopotamian Divination as Science |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/604834 |access-date=May 25, 2021|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |year=1999|publisher=American Oriental Society |publication-place=Hatcher Graduate Library [[Organization:University of Michigan|University of Michigan]] Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1205 |publication-date=1999 |volume= 119  |issue=4 |pages=559–569|doi= 10.2307/604834|doi-access= |jstor=604834  |jstor-access= |via= |lay-url= |lay-source= |lay-date= |quote=...It seems to me perfectly reasonable to apply the term empiricism in the characterization of Babylonian divination...(p.569)}}</ref>||
|-
|possibly Dec 2<br/>1878 BC<ref name=Tuman>{{cite journal |last1=Tuman |first1=V S |title=An attempt to Date Text 3 of Enuma Anu Enlil, Tablets 50-51 "Tentative date December 2, — 1878" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133945 |access-date=25 May 2021 |url-access= |format= |department= |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |year=1992 |location=233 Spring Street New York, NY 10013 |publisher=Springer  |publication-date= |volume=45 |issue=2 |page=1 (95)|doi= |doi-access= |jstor=41681280 |bibcode=1992AHES...44...95T |jstor-access=|via= |lay-url= |lay-source= |lay-date= }}</ref>||[[Astronomy:Enuma Anu Enlil|Enuma Anu Enlil]] Tablets 50 & 51  <ref name=Tuman/> observation of solar eclipse<ref name=Tuman/>|| astronomy
|-
|approximately<br/>585 BC<ref name="Fowler"/>|| (Greek) Thales<ref name="Fowler">{{cite web
| url = http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109/lectures/thales.html 
| title = Index of Lectures and Overview of the Course
|author=Michael Fowler
| work =galileo.phys.virginia.edu
| accessdate = May 25, 2021}}</ref> discovery of nature<ref name="Fowler"/>||
|-
|400 BCE<ref name="Brill, Harrison, Sise, Ignacio">{{cite web
| url = https://bulletin.facs.org/2018/02/the-history-of-the-scalpel-from-flint-to-zirconium-coated-steel/ 
| title = The history of the scalpel: From flint to zirconium-coated steel
| author = Brill, Jason B; Harrison, Evan K; Sise, Michael J; Ignacio, Romeo C 
| work =bulletin.facs.org Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons
| date = February 2018
| accessdate = May 26, 2021}}</ref>|| [[Biography:Hippocrates|Hippocrates]]<ref name="Brill, Harrison, Sise, Ignacio"/> [[Philosophy:Techne|tekhnē]]<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-121
| title = Tekhne
|author = James, Ian 
| work = oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore Oxford Research Encyclopedia 
|date = 25 February 2019
|doi = 10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.013.121
|publisher = [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]
| isbn = 978-0-19-020109-8
| accessdate = 26 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.arts.ac.uk
| title = technē 2019-20 Application Form Guidance Notes 2019/20 
| accessdate = 26 May 2021}}</ref> realization of extension in time from technology of <ref name="Brill, Harrison, Sise, Ignacio"/> approximately 3.3 million years before,<ref name=Kelly/> description of the scalpel <ref name="Brill, Harrison, Sise, Ignacio"/> ||medicine
|-
|4th century BCE|| [[Axiom]]atic science based on the [[Deductive reasoning|logico-deductive]] method is founded owing to [[Euclid's Elements]] Publication which is at the root of [[Formal system|formal system]].||Ancient Greek Philosophy
|-
|3rd century BCE ||[[Biography:Eratosthenes|Eratosthenes]]: calculated the size of the [[Astronomy:Earth|earth]] and its distance to the [[Astronomy:Sun|sun]] and to the [[Astronomy:Moon|moon]]||ancient Greek Philosophy
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|150s BCE|| [[Biography:Seleucus of Seleucia|Seleucus of Seleucia]]: discovery of [[Astronomy:Tide|tide]]s being caused by the moon||ancient Greek Philosophy
|-
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|5th century CE ||Hindu-Arabic numeral system (decimal) begins to be used<ref name=ifrah>Ifrah, Georges. 1999. ''The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer'', Wiley. {{ISBN|0-471-37568-3}}.</ref><ref name=oconnor>O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson.  2000.  [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html 'Indian Numerals'], ''MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive'', School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.</ref>||Arabic and Indian Philosophy
|-
|630||[[Biography:Abiyun al-Bitriq|Abiyun al-Bitriq]] : Early astronomical instruments || Arabic Astronomy
|-
|776-869||Al-Jahiz : Very first scientist to discuss on natural selection in his "Book of Animal"|| Arabic Science 
|-
|780-850||[[Biography:Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi|Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] : Foundation of modern Algebra and Algorithm || Arabic Science
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|806||[[Biography:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī|Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī]] : Invented first astrolabe for navigation || Arabic Geography and Mathematics 
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|801-873||[[Biography:Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi]] : Father of cryptography, cryptanalysis and frequency analysis || Arabic Mathematics
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|850-950||Influential writings on [[Chemistry:History of chemistry|chemistry]] attributed to [[Biography:Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jabir ibn Hayyan]]|| Arabic Chemistry
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|858-929||[[Biography:Al-Battani|Al-Battani]] : Produced many Trigonometric formulas, Calculation of the values for the precession of the equinoxes (54.5" per year, or 1° in 66 years) and the obliquity of the ecliptic (23° 35')||Arabic Mathematics and Astronomy
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|859|| Fatima al-Fihri : Founded world's first & oldest degree granting university- "University of al-Qarawiyyin" || Arabic Education
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|973-1050||Al-Beruni : Foundation of Chronology and Indology|| Arabic Science and History
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|10th century CE ||Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes): refutation of Aristotelian classical elements and Galenic humorism; and discovery of [[Medicine:Measles|measles]] and [[Medicine:Smallpox|smallpox]], and [[Chemistry:Kerosene|kerosene]] and distilled petroleum||medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1021||[[Biography:Ibn al-Haytham|Ibn al-Haytham]]'s ''[[Physics:Book of Optics|Book of Optics]]'': First accurate vision theory, Father of scientific method || medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1020s||[[Biography:Avicenna|Avicenna]]'s ''The Canon of Medicine'' : Standard medical textbook in Europe for 600 years || Persian medicine & Philosophy
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|1027s||[[Biography:Avicenna|Avicenna]]'s ''Book of Healing'' :First accurate description of Newton's First Law of Motion|| Persian medicine & Philosophy
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|1048-1131||[[Biography:Omar Khayyam|Omar Khayyam]] : Geometric Algebra, a precursor to Descartes' Analytic Geometry; Solution of cubic equations|| Arabic Mathematics
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|1058-1111||[[Biography:Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazali]] : Logic, Philosophy, Business Ethics || Arabic Philosophy
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|1121||[[Biography:Al-Khazini|Al-Khazini]]: variation of gravitation and gravitational potential energy at a distance; the decrease of air [[Physics:Density|density]] with [[Altitude|altitude]]||medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1135-1213||[[Biography:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī|Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī]] : Invented linear Astrolabe; First to propose the idea of a mathematical function || Arabic Mathematics 
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|12th century||Ibn Bajjah (Avempace): discovery of [[Physics:Reaction|reaction]] (precursor to Newton's third law of motion) ||medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|12th century||Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (Nathanel): relationship between [[Physics:Force|force]] and [[Physics:Acceleration|acceleration]] (a vague foreshadowing of a fundamental law of [[Physics:Classical mechanics|classical mechanics]] and a precursor to Newton's second law of motion)|| medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1206|| [[Biography:Ismail al-Jazari|Ismail al-Jazari]]  Inventor of classic Automata, Segmental Gear, Crankshaft, Camshaft that drives modern world|| Arabic Engineering
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|12th century||[[Biography:Averroes|Averroes]]: relationship between [[Physics:Force|force]], work and [[Physics:Kinetic energy|kinetic energy]] || medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1220–1235 || [[Biography:Robert Grosseteste|Robert Grosseteste]]: rudimentals of the [[Scientific method|scientific method]] (see also: [[Biography:Roger Bacon|Roger Bacon]]) || European Philosophy
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|1242|| [[Biography:Ibn al-Nafis|Ibn al-Nafis]]: [[Biology:Pulmonary circulation|pulmonary circulation]] and [[Biology:Circulatory system|circulatory system]] ||  medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|1247|| [[Biography:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]: Invention of famous [[Astronomy:Tusi couple|Tusi Couple]] ||  medieval Mediterranean-Arabic physics & Philosophy
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|13th Century||Ibn al-Shatir: Production of a new lunar model || Arabic Astronomy
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|13th century||[[Biography:Theodoric of Freiberg|Theodoric of Freiberg]]: Correct explanation of [[Earth:Rainbow|rainbow]] phenomenon || European Philosophy
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|13th century||William of Saint-Cloud: pioneering use of [[Physics:Camera obscura|camera obscura]] to view [[Earth:Solar eclipse|solar eclipse]]s ||European Philosophy<ref>Page 26, (2nd chapter) in: [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 Ronald L. Numbers (ed.) ''Galileo Goes to Jail, and Other Myths about Science and Religion'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).] Note: the first tree chapters of the book can be found here {{cite web |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/resources/educators/pdf/NUMGGJ.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-02-13 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719205318/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/resources/educators/pdf/NUMGGJ.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-19 }}.</ref>
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|Before 1327|| [[Biography:William of Ockham|William of Ockham]]: Occam's Razor || European Philosophy
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|1332-1406||[[Biography:Ibn Khaldun|Ibn Khaldun]] Pioneer of histeriography, sociology, demography and economics||
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|1429||[[Biography:Ulugh Beg|Ulugh Beg]] : astronomy-related mathematics, trigonometry and spherical geometry||Arabic Astronomy
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|1460||[[Biography:Ali Qushji|Ali Qushji]] : Development of astronomical physics || Arabic Astronomy
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|1494 || [[Biography:Luca Pacioli|Luca Pacioli]]: first codification of the [[Finance:Double-entry bookkeeping system|Double-entry bookkeeping system]], which slowly developed in previous centuries ||European philosophy<ref>{{cite web |author=L.M. Smith |url=http://acct.tamu.edu/smith/ethics/pacioli.htm |title=Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting |publisher=Acct.tamu.edu |date=2008-10-01 |access-date=2011-08-11 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818055709/http://acct.tamu.edu/smith/ethics/pacioli.htm |archive-date=2011-08-18 }}</ref>
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|1430-1500||Ahmad ibn Mājid : Navigator and Cartographer; Guided Vasco da Gama to complete the first all water trade route between Europe and India|| Arabic Geography
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|1543||[[Biography:Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]]: [[Astronomy:Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]]|| astronomy & Philosophy
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|1550||[[Biography:Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf]] : Invented steam turbine -today known as [[Engineering:Roasting jack#Steam jack|Steam Jacks]] || Arabic Engineering
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|1570s|| [[Biography:Tycho Brahe|Tycho Brahe]]: detailed astronomical observations ||astronomy, mathematics and philosophy
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|1600|| [[Biography:William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]]: [[Earth:Earth's magnetic field|Earth's magnetic field]]||astronomy & Philosophy
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|1609|| – [[Biography:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]]: first two [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary motion]]||Astronomy, Mathematics & Philosophy

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|1610|| [[Biography:Galileo Galilei|Galileo Galilei]]: ''Sidereus Nuncius'': telescopic observations|| philosophy, astronomy & mathematics
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|1614 || [[Biography:John Napier|John Napier]]: use of [[Logarithm|logarithm]]s for calculation|| mathematical philosophy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ualr.edu/lasmoller/napier.html |title=John Napier and logarithms |publisher=Ualr.edu |access-date=2011-08-12}}</ref>
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|1628|| William Harvey: Blood circulation|| anatomy, medicine & philosophy
|-
|17th century||[[Biography:René Descartes|René Descartes]] creates [[Cartesian coordinate system]] — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations).||philosophy
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|17th Century||[[Biography:Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza]] – opposed Cartesian mind body dualism. He considered the nature of reality of physical and mental worlds to be the same. Spinoza was [[Determinism|determinist]] and believed that even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know and accept that we are determined.||Philosophy
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|1665|| [[Philosophy:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] first peer reviewed scientific journal published.|| Philosophy
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|1669|| Nicholas Steno: Proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of [[Earth:Stratigraphy|stratigraphy]]||Geology, Paleontology & Philosophy
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|1675|| Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Observes Microorganisms by [[Engineering:Microscope|Microscope]]||Philosophy & beginning of modern life sciences
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|1675|| [[Biography:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] developed Infinitesimal calculus and its widely used [[Leibniz's notation|mathematical notation]]. Later he presented the theory of [[Philosophy:Monadology|Monads]] and developed the Binary number system which is elemental for modern digital computing. His [[Law of Continuity]] and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation only in the 20th century.||Mathematical philosophy, Mathematical logic, Philosophy
|-
|1687|| [[Biography:Isaac Newton|Newton]]: [[Physics:Newton's laws of motion|Laws of motion]], law of universal gravitation, basis for [[Physics:Classical physics|classical physics]]|| Physics & Philosophy
|-
|1735|| [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Carl Linnaeus]] published the first edition of his major work [[Biology:Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]. The [[Biology:10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition of this book]] is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature.<ref>{{cite book |year=1999 |title=Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications of Biological Control |publisher=[[Company:Academic Press|Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-257305-7 |chapter=Taxonomy and biological control |author1=T. W. Fisher |editor1=Thomas S. Bellows |editor2=L. E. Caltagirone |editor3=D. L. Dahlsten |editor4=Carl B. Huffaker |editor5=G. Gordh |pages=45–55 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2X-rfgU0ewC&pg=PA46}}</ref> In 1753 he published [[Biology:Species Plantarum|Species Plantarum]] which is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. ||Botany, Zoology, Philosophy, Biology
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|1763|| [[Bayes' theorem]] named for [[Biography:Thomas Bayes|Thomas Bayes]] who first suggested using the theorem to update beliefs was significantly edited and updated by [[Biography:Richard Price|Richard Price]] after the death of Thomas Bayes and read at the Royal Society. This would later serve as foundation of [[Bayesian inference]] in statistics||Philosophy & statistics
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|1767|| James Denham-Steuart: used the term [[Finance:Supply and demand|supply and demand]] in his on [[Finance:Economics|economics]] in ''Inquiry into the Principles of Political economy'', published in 1767. Later, [[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]] used it in his 1776 book ''[[Finance:The Wealth of Nations|The Wealth of Nations]]'', and   David Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price".<ref name=Humphrey>Thomas M. Humphrey, 1992. "Marshallian Cross Diagrams and Their Uses before Alfred Marshall," ''Economic Review'', Mar/Apr, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond,  pp. [http://www.richmondfed.org/publications/research/economic_review/1992/pdf/er780201.pdf 3–23.]</ref>|| Economics, philosophy, sociology 
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|1778|| [[Biography:Antoine Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier]] (and [[Biography:Joseph Priestley|Joseph Priestley]]): discovery of oxygen leading to end of [[Physics:Phlogiston theory|Phlogiston theory]]||Chemistry & Philosophy
|-  |1781|| William Herschel anno n modern history||astronomy & philosophy
     |-
|1796|| [[Biography:Georges Cuvier|Georges Cuvier]]: Establishes [[Biology:Extinction|extinction]] as a fact||biology, paleontology & philosophy
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|1800|| [[Biography:Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]]: discovers electrochemical series and invents the [[Physics:Battery (electricity)|battery]]||chemistry
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|1805|| John Dalton: Atomic Theory in ([[Chemistry:Chemistry|Chemistry]]) ||chemistry & philosophy
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|1859||[[Biography:Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin]] published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his book ''On the Origin of Species''||Philosophy, biology, beginning of evolutionary sciences
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|1866||[[Biography:Gregor Mendel|Gregor Mendel]] published his work which demonstrated that the inheritance of certain traits in [[Biology:Pea|pea]] plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of [[Biology:Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian inheritance]]. ||Philosophy, biology, beginning of Genetics
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|1869|| [[Biography:Dmitri Mendeleev|Dmitri Mendeleev]]: [[Chemistry:Periodic table|Periodic table]]||Chemistry & philosophy
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|1877|| [[Biography:Ludwig Boltzmann|Ludwig Boltzmann]]: Statistical definition of [[Physics:Entropy (statistical thermodynamics)|entropy]]||Physics & Philosophy
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|1887|| [[Physics:Michelson–Morley experiment|Michelson–Morley experiment]] was performed in 1887 by [[Biography:Albert A. Michelson|Albert A. Michelson]] and [[Biography:Edward W. Morley|Edward W. Morley]] to detect the relative motion of matter through the stationary [[Physics:Luminiferous aether|luminiferous aether]] ("aether wind"). ||Philosophy & Physics
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|1890s|| [[Biography:Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] discovered the axonal growth cone, and provided the definitive evidence for what would later be known as "neuron theory", experimentally demonstrating that the relationship between nerve cells was not one of continuity, but rather of contiguity. "Neuron theory" stands as the foundation of modern neuroscience.||Neuroscience, Philosophy, Psychology, Biology, Cognitive Science
|-   
|1899–1900|| [[Biography:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] developed his theory of the [[Biology:Unconscious mind|unconscious mind]] and began his works on psychodynamic theory and psychosexual development of human organism. He proposed that human thought and behavior is complex process of unconscious processes in the mind||Philosophy & Psychology
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|1900|| [[Biography:Max Planck|Max Planck]]: Planck's law of black body radiation, basis for [[Physics:Quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]||Physics & philosophy
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|1905|| [[Biography:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]]: theory of [[Physics:Special relativity|special relativity]], explanation of [[Brownian motion]], and [[Physics:Photoelectric effect|photoelectric effect]]||Philosophy & Physics
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|1906|| [[Biography:Walther Nernst|Walther Nernst]]: [[Physics:Third law of thermodynamics|Third law of thermodynamics]]||Physics & philosophy
|-
|1911|| [[Biography:Ernest Rutherford|Ernest Rutherford]]: [[Physics:Atomic nucleus|Atomic nucleus]]||Physics & Philosophy
|-
|1911|| [[Biography:Oskar Heinroth|Oskar Heinroth]] rediscovered the phenomenon of psychological [[Philosophy:Imprinting (psychology)|Imprinting]], reported by Douglas Spalding in 1877. It was extensively worked on in the 20th century by [[Biography:Nikolaas Tinbergen|Nikolaas Tinbergen]], [[Biography:Karl von Frisch|Karl von Frisch]] and [[Biography:Konrad Lorenz|Konrad Lorenz]] who demonstrated a "[[Biology:Critical period|critical period]]" and other aspects concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns in animals, earning them a Nobel prize in 1973.<ref name="Dewsbury">Dewsbury, D. A. (2003). "The 1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine: Recognition for behavioral science?". American Psychologist 58 (9): 747–752. {{doi|10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.747}}.</ref>||Ethology, Psychology, Cognitive sciences, Zoology, Philosophy, Biology
|-
|1915||[[Biography:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]]: theory of [[Physics:General relativity|general relativity]]||Physics & Philosophy
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|1924|| [[Biography:Wolfgang Pauli|Wolfgang Pauli]]: quantum [[Physics:Pauli exclusion principle|Pauli exclusion principle]]||Physics & Philosophy
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|1925|| – [[Biography:Erwin Schrödinger|Erwin Schrödinger]]: [[Physics:Schrödinger equation|Schrödinger equation]] ([[Physics:Quantum mechanics|Quantum mechanics]])||Physics & Philosophy
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|1927|| – [[Biography:Werner Heisenberg|Werner Heisenberg]]: [[Physics:Uncertainty principle|Uncertainty principle]] ([[Physics:Quantum mechanics|Quantum mechanics]])||Physics & Philosophy
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|1927|| [[Biography:Georges Lemaître|Georges Lemaître]]: Theory of the [[Astronomy:Big Bang|Big Bang]]||Physics, Philosophy & Cosmology
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|1928|| [[Biography:Paul Dirac|Paul Dirac]]: [[Physics:Dirac equation|Dirac equation]] ([[Physics:Quantum mechanics|Quantum mechanics]])||Physics & Philosophy
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|1929|| – [[Biography:Edwin Hubble|Edwin Hubble]]: [[Astronomy:Hubble's law|Hubble's law]] of the expanding [[Astronomy:Universe|universe]]||Physics, Cosmology & Philosophy
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|1930s|| [[Biography:John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]] introduced Keynesian revolution, overturning [[Finance:Neoclassical economics|neoclassical economics]] that held free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that [[Aggregate demand|aggregate demand]] determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. ||Economics, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1931|| [[Biography:Friedrich Hayek|Friedrich Hayek]] elaborated the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". He argued that the business cycle resulted from the [[Finance:Central bank|central bank]]'s [[Finance:Inflation|inflation]]ary [[Finance:Credit cycle|credit expansion]] and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low [[Finance:Interest rate|interest rate]]s.||Economics, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1931|| [[Biography:Kurt Gödel|Kurt Gödel]] stated the incompleteness theorem which states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example [[Peano axioms|Peano arithmetic]]), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. ||Philosophy, Mathematics, Logic
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|1934|| [[Biography:James Chadwick|James Chadwick]]: Discovery of the [[Physics:Neutron|neutron]]||Physics & Philosophy
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|1934|| [[Biography:Karl Popper|Karl Popper]] emphasized the idea of [[Philosophy:Falsifiability|falsifiability]] as the criterion [[Demarcation problem|demarcating]] science from [[Philosophy:Non-science|non-science]].||Philosophy & Science
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|1937|| [[Biography:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]]: Introduced the mathematical concept of a Turing machine||Philosophy, mathematics, psychology & computer science
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|1937|| Kurt Lewin: on the basis of Herbert Blumer's [[Social:Symbolic interactionism|interactionist]] perspective, suggested that neither nature (inborn tendencies) nor nurture (how [[Philosophy:Experience|experience]]s in [[Philosophy:Personal life|life]] shape individuals) alone can account for individuals' behavior and personalities, but rather that both nature and nurture interact to shape each person.  This is expressed as Lewin's Equation for behavior B=ƒ(''P,E'').<ref>{{cite book | last = Sansone | first = C.|author2=C. C. Morf |author3=A. T. Panter  | year = 2003| title = ''The Sage Handbook of Methods in Social Psychology''| publisher = Sage | isbn =978-0-7619-2535-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cfK_miMqVQC&q=lewin's+equation&pg=PA119}}</ref>  Earlier he coined the notion of [[Philosophy:Genidentity|genidentity]],<ref>Lewin, K. (1922). ''Der Begriff der Genese in Physik, Biologie und Entwicklungsgeschichte.'' (Lewin's Habilitationsschrift)</ref> ||Psychology, philosophy, sociology, management, organizational behavior
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|1940s|| Benjamin Lee Whorf brought focus to the Principle of linguistic relativity<ref name="Whorf">Science and linguistics" first published in 1940 in MIT Technology Review (42:229-31)</ref> which implies that the structure of a language affects the weltanschauung or worldview of the speakers of the language and their cognition of the world.<ref name="Whorf"/><ref name="Carroll">Carroll, John B. (ed.) (1956). Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, Mass.: Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. {{ISBN|978-0-262-73006-8}}.</ref> Whorf's works tried to show that there is relationship between [[Philosophy:Language and thought|language and thought]]. The idea was introduced earlier by [[Biography:Wilhelm von Humboldt|Humboldt]] and then worked on by Edward Sapir in the 1920s.||Cognitive science, Psychology, Anthropology, Philosophy
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|1942|| [[Biography:Joseph Schumpeter|Joseph Schumpeter]] introduced the idea [[Finance:Creative destruction|creative destruction]], sometimes known as "Schumpeter's gale" in his work ''Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy'' (1942), where in he described the way in which capitalist economic development arises out of the destruction of some prior economic order. ||Economics, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1943|| Oswald Avery proves that [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] is the genetic material of the [[Biology:Chromosome|chromosome]]||Biology, Genetics & Life sciences
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|1943|| [[Biography:Walter Pitts|Walter Pitts]] and Warren McCulloch wrote the seminal paper entitled "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) and proposed the first mathematical model of a [[Neural network|neural network]]. Their work also presented ideas drawn upon the work of Leibniz with later implications for cellular automata. ||Philosophy, Cognitive science, Artificial Intelligence & Psychology
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|1944|| [[Biography:John von Neumann|John von Neumann]] and [[Biography:Stanislaw Ulam|Stanislaw Ulam]]: introduced the mathematical idea of a cellular automata. This set the foundations for the later discipline of complexity science and agent based modeling ||Philosophy, Mathematics, psychology, dynamical systems, computer science
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|1944|| [[Biography:John von Neumann|John von Neumann]] and [[Biography:Oskar Morgenstern|Oskar Morgenstern]]: wrote the seminal book Theory of games and economic behavior and began the interdisciplinary research field of [[Game theory|game theory]]||Philosophy, Mathematics, psychology, economics
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|1947|| [[Biography:William Shockley|William Shockley]], [[Biography:John Bardeen|John Bardeen]] and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor||electronics & electrical engineering
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|1948|| Claude Elwood Shannon & [[Biography:Warren Weaver|Warren Weaver]]: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in [[Information theory]].||Information Theory, Mathematics & Cognitive sciences
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|1948||[[Biography:Norbert Wiener|Norbert Wiener]]: introduced the concept of [[Cybernetics]] in his work Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.||Mathematical philosophy, artificial intelligence and beginning of cybernetics
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|1948|| [[Biography:Richard Feynman|Richard Feynman]], [[Biography:Julian Schwinger|Julian Schwinger]], Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and [[Biography:Freeman Dyson|Freeman Dyson]]: [[Physics:Quantum electrodynamics|Quantum electrodynamics]]||Physics & Philosophy
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|1950|| [[Biography:Ludwig von Bertalanffy|Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] began General systems theory with his publication  "An Outline of General System Theory" in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science Vol. 1 (No. 2)||Systems science, Cybernetics, Mathematics & Cognitive sciences
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|1950s|| [[Biography:Kenneth Arrow|Kenneth Arrow]], [[Biography:Gérard Debreu|Gérard Debreu]] and [[Biography:Lionel W. McKenzie|Lionel W. McKenzie]] introduced the modern conception of general equilibrium in economics. Gerard Debreu presents this model in Theory of Value (1959). Though an earlier form of general equilibrium was presented by Leon Walras in 1874. ||Economics, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1950s|| Leon Festinger developed the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance and Social Comparison Theory, and discovered nature of the role of [[Social:Propinquity|propinquity]] in the formation of social ties while also making other contributions to the study of social networks, psychological social psychology and sociological social psychology.||Psychology, sociology, Philosophy
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|1951|| [[Biography:John Bowlby|John Bowlby]] developed [[Philosophy:Attachment theory|attachment theory]] which states that human individuals, especially as children, needs to develop a stable and long lasting relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Relationships later in life are built on this primary foundation. The theory states that in human evolution, attachment behaviour increased the chances of survival. ||Psychology, Human development, sociology, philosophy, cognitive sciences
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|1952|| Jonas Salk: developed and tested first [[Engineering:Polio vaccine|polio vaccine]]||medicine, biology and vaccination
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|1953|| [[Biography:Francis Crick|Crick]] and Watson: helical structure of [[Biology:DNA|DNA]], basis for [[Biology:Molecular biology|molecular biology]]||Biology, Genetics, Life sciences and Philosophy
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|1953|| [[Biography:Anatol Rapoport|Anatol Rapoport]] introduced mathematical models in the study of information transmission in human interaction and for the management of conflict and cooperation in human life<ref name="Rapoport">1953, "Spread of information through a population with sociostructural bias: I. Assumption of transitivity." in: Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 15, 523–533.</ref> ||Systems science, Cybernetics, & Cognitive sciences, peace and conflict studies
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|1953|| [[Biography:Ludwig Wittgenstein|Ludwig Wittgenstein]]: wrote his seminal work [[Philosophy:Philosophical Investigations|Philosophical Investigations]] in which he stated that conceptual confusions surrounding language use are at the root of most philosophical problems.||Philosophy, Philosophy of science, language, mathematics and psychology
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|1954|| [[Biography:Jean Piaget|Jean Piaget]]: elaborated on [[Philosophy:Genetic epistemology|Genetic epistemology]] and the [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development|theory of cognitive development]] in his work "La construction du réel chez l'enfant"  (The construction of reality in the child). ||Psychology, Philosophy, Cognitive sciences
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|1956|| Frank Harary and Dorwin Cartwright mathematically formalized generalizations of Fritz Heider's psychological theory of [[Philosophy:Balance theory|cognitive balance]] to give formalization of [[Social:Interpersonal ties|interpersonal network patterns]]. This laid the foundations for micro level social network analysis and small group research and group dynamics research in sociology and sociological social psychology<ref name="HararyCartwright">Cartwright, Dorwin & Harary, Frank. (1956). "Structural Balance: A Generalization of Heider's Theory." Psychological Review 63:277–293.</ref>||Philosophy, sociological social psychology, [[Mathematical sociology|mathematical sociology]]
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|1957|| [[Biography:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]]: wrote [[Philosophy:Syntactic Structures|Syntactic Structures]] which laid the foundation for the idea of [[Software:Transformational grammar|transformational grammar]]. He also introduced the idea of poverty of the stimulus which states that [[Philosophy:Natural language|natural language]] grammar is [[Philosophy:Underdetermination|unlearnable given the relatively limited data]] available to children learning a language, and therefore that this knowledge is supplemented with some sort of innate linguistic capacity. A tenet of [[Software:Generative grammar|generative grammar]]. ||Philosophy, linguistics, cognitive science, computer science, psychology
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|1957|| [[Biography:Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]]: coined the term [[Bounded rationality]] in psychology as an alternative basis for the mathematical modeling of decision making, as used in [[Finance:Economics|economics]] and related disciplines which views rationality as a ''maximization'' process as described in [[Finance:Rational choice theory|rational choice theory]]. Instead, "bounded rationality" views rationality as a ''[[Philosophy:Satisficing|Satisficing]]'' process.<ref name="SimonH">1957. Models of Man. John Wiley. Presents mathematical models of human behaviour.</ref> He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.||Psychology, Management, Behavioral economics, Cognitive sciences, Philosophy
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|1958|| William Phillips, introduced [[Finance:Phillips curve|Phillips curve]] in economic theory. He described the observation of an inverse relationship between money wage changes and unemployment in the British economy over the period examined. In 1960 [[Biography:Paul Samuelson|Paul Samuelson]] and [[Biography:Robert Solow|Robert Solow]] took Phillips' work and made explicit the link between inflation and unemployment: when inflation was high, unemployment was low, and vice versa.||Economic theory, economics, sociology, philosophy
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|1960s|| [[Biography:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]] conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlates of specific emotions, demonstrating the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Paul Ekman|journal=American Psychologist|date=April 1992|volume=47|issue=4|pages=470–471|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.47.4.470|last1=No Authorship Indicated}}</ref> This served as one of the basis for [[Biography:E. O. Wilson|E. O. Wilson]]'s works on [[Philosophy:Sociobiology|Sociobiology]] in the 1970s and later helped in the emergence of the approach of Evolutionary Psychology in the 1990s through the work of [[Biography:Leda Cosmides|Leda Cosmides]] and [[Biography:John Tooby|John Tooby]]||Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, Biology, Philosophy
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|1962|| [[Biography:Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]] stated that scientific fields undergo periodic "paradigm shifts" rather than solely progressing in continuous way; which open up new approaches to understanding that scientists would never have considered valid before; and that the notion of scientific truth, at any given moment, cannot be established solely by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community||Philosophy & Science
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|1963||Stanley Milgram first published a series of experiments now known as [[Social:Milgram experiment|Milgram experiment]] which demonstrated how people showed [[Philosophy:Obedience (human behavior)|obedience]] to orders in a social system when the orders were given by [[Philosophy:Authority|authority figures]] even when people were asked to perform actions against their wish and conscience.<ref name=ObedStudy>{{cite journal|last=Milgram |first=Stanley |year=1963 |title=Behavioral Study of Obedience |journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=371–8 |pmid=14049516 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |doi=10.1037/h0040525 |citeseerx=10.1.1.599.92 }} [http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf as PDF.]</ref> The studies were done in order to explain [[Conformity|conformity]] and obedience in society as seen during the Holocaust.<ref>{{cite book |last=Milgram |first=Stanley |title=Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View |publisher=Harpercollins |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-06-131983-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/obedien_mil_1974_00_3145|url-access=registration }}</ref>||Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy, Social Psych, Cognitive Sciences
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| 1963|| Lawrence Morley,  Fred Vine, and  Drummond Matthews:  Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of [[Earth:Plate tectonics|plate tectonics]] ([[Earth:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis|Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis]]).||Geology
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|1964||[[Biography:Murray Gell-Mann|Murray Gell-Mann]] and [[Biography:George Zweig|George Zweig]]: postulate quarks leading to the standard model||Physics & Philosophy
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|1968||Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson 1968<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rosenthal |first1=R. |last2=Jacobson |first2=L. |title=Pygmalion in the classroom |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston |year=1968 | url=https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/psyifp/aeechterhoff/sommersemester2012/schluesselstudiendersozialpsychologiea/rosenthal_jacobson_pygmalionclassroom_urbrev1968.pdf}}</ref><ref name="RosenthalJacobson1992">{{cite book |last1=Rosenthal |first1=Robert |last2=Jacobson |first2=Lenore |title=Pygmalion in the classroom |url=https://archive.org/details/pygmalioninclass00rose |url-access=registration |year=1992 |edition=Expanded |location=New York |publisher=Irvington }}</ref> experimentally demonstrated Self fulfilling prophecy in social relationships through their [[Field experiment|field experiment]] which showed that if [[Social:Teacher|teacher]]s were led to expect enhanced performance from some children, then those children did indeed show that enhancement. This is also known as Late bloomers effect||Psychology, Social Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1968–1970||[[Biography:Terry Winograd|Terry Winograd]] made the artificial intelligence and natural language processing program [[Software:SHRDLU|SHRDLU]] that was concerned with the problem of providing a computer with sufficient "understanding" to be able to use natural language. ||Computer science, artificial intelligence, Psychology, Cognitive science
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|1969|| German computer pioneer [[Biography:Konrad Zuse|Konrad Zuse]] published his book [[Physics:Calculating Space|Calculating Space]], proposing that the physical laws of the universe are discrete by nature, and that the entire universe is the output of a deterministic computation on a single [[Cellular automaton|cellular automaton]]; "Zuse's Theory" became the foundation of the field of study called [[Physics:Digital physics|digital physics]]||Mathematics, Cognitive sciences, complexity theory, digital philosophy
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|1969|| Invention of [[Internet]]<ref name="NetValley">[http://www.netvalley.com/intval.html "Roads and Crossroads of Internet History"] by Gregory Gromov. 1995</ref>||Information theory, Computer science, electrical engineering
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|1970||[[Biography:George Akerlof|George Akerlof]] elaborated the idea of economic activity under asymmetric information. He described  information asymmetry, which occurs when the seller knows more about a product than the buyer. Later, Akerlof, Michael Spence, and [[Biography:Joseph Stiglitz|Joseph Stiglitz]] jointly received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2001 for their work on economic behavior under asymmetric information.||Economics, Cognitive economics, economic psychology, Philosophy
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|1970||[[Biography:John Horton Conway|John Horton Conway]] made the computer program [[Conway's Game of Life|Game of Life]], also known simply as Life, a [[Cellular automaton|cellular automaton]] in which  its evolution is determined by its initial state, requiring no further input. The game of life simulates the rise, fall and alterations of a society of living organisms.||Mathematics, Computer science, agent based modeling, cognitive sciences, Philosophy
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|1970s|| Amos Tversky and [[Biography:Daniel Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] published series of discoveries on the [[Social:Psychology|psychology]] of human judgment and decision making describing the pervasive nature of systematic human [[Philosophy:Cognitive bias|cognitive bias]] and handling of [[Risk|risk]] in everyday life.<ref name="TverskyKahneman">Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1971). "Belief in the law of small numbers". Psychological Bulletin 76 (2): 105–110. {{doi|10.1037/h0031322}}</ref><ref name="TverskyAKahnemanD">Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1974). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science 185 (4157): 1124–1131. {{doi|10.1126/science.185.4157.1124}}</ref><ref name="KahnemanTversky">Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1981). "The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice". Science 211 (4481): 453–458. {{doi|10.1126/science.7455683}}</ref>||Psychology, Cognitive sciences, Philosophy
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|1972|| Paleontologists [[Biography:Niles Eldredge|Niles Eldredge]] and [[Biography:Stephen Jay Gould|Stephen Jay Gould]] published a landmark paper developing this theory and called it [[Biology:Punctuated equilibrium|punctuated equilibria]]||Paleontology, Philosophy, Biology, genetics & evolutionary sciences
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|1972|| Michael D. Cohen, James G. March and Johan Olsen proposed the Garbage can model of organizational decision making. They published the model along with a computer code.<ref name="CohenMarchOlsen">Cohen, Michael D.; March, James G.; Olsen, Johan P. (1972). "A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice". Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (1): 1–25. {{doi|10.2307/2392088}}. {{JSTOR|2392088}}.</ref> Earlier James G. March presented the Behavioral theory of the firm in 1963<ref name="MarchCyert">Richard M. Cyert and James G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963. 2nd ed., Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1992. Translated into Chinese, French, German, Italian, and Japanese.</ref> and made a compendium of basic Organizational studies, Management science,  and [[Organization:Organizational behavior|organizational behavior]] in his edition "A Handbook of Organizations" (1965).<ref name="March">James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1965.</ref>||Organization Theory & science, Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1973|| Mark Granovetter published his seminal work in modern sociology and social network theory on the spread of information in social networks known as "The Strength of Weak Ties" describing how weak ties enable reaching populations and audiences that are not accessible via strong ties.<ref name="Granovetter">Granovetter, M. S. (1973). "The Strength of Weak Ties". The American Journal of Sociology 78 (6): 1360–1380. {{doi|10.1086/225469}}. {{JSTOR|2776392}}</ref>||Sociology, Sociological Social Psychology, Philosophy<ref name="Granovetter"/>
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|1977|| [[Astronomy:Voyager program|Voyager program]] launched two unmanned space missions, the probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 to study planetary systems ||Cosmology, astronomy, Physics & Philosophy
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|1981–1984|| [[Biography:Robert Axelrod|Robert Axelrod]] and [[Biography:W. D. Hamilton|W. D. Hamilton]] described the evolution of cooperation between cognitive entities and gave a mathematical and computational model describing the phenomena||Political science, Psychology, Computer science
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|1986|| [[Biography:David Rumelhart|David Rumelhart]] and [[Biography:James McClelland (psychologist)|James McClelland]] described the idea of Parallel Distributed Processing in modeling human cognition in psychology. They made mathematical and computational models of psychological information processing and described computer simulations of perception, giving testable models of neural information processing and introducing [[Connectionism]].<ref name="NYTimes_obituary">{{cite news|last=Carey|first=Benedict|title=David Rumelhart Dies at 68; Created Computer Simulations of Perception|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/health/19rumelhart.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 18, 2011}}</ref>||Psychology, Cognitive science, computer science, artificial intelligence
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|1987|| John C. Turner and Michael Hogg along with other colleagues developed the Self categorization theory which gives a  psychological theory for dynamics in group processes. It states that the self is not the foundational aspect of cognition, rather the self is a product of cognitive processes that occur in social processes. Earlier John Turner worked with Henri Tajfel (1979) on the precursor theory [[Philosophy:Social identity theory|Social identity theory]].||Psychology, social psychology, Sociology, Philosophy
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|1988|| The concept of a Quantum cellular automata was introduced thus advancing quantum computation and quantum computer<ref name= "GrossZeil">Grossing, G and Zeilinger, A (1988) Quantum cellular automata, Complex Systems (2) pp. 197–208 http://www.complex-systems.com/pdf/02-2-4.pdf</ref>||Cellular automata, Computer science & Mathematics
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|1970s–1988|| [[Biography:Marvin Minsky|Marvin Minsky]] & [[Biography:Seymour Papert|Seymour Papert]] started developing what came to be called The Society of Mind theory. They state how intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts. Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a video camera, and a computer to build with children's blocks.||Philosophy, Artificial intelligence, Cognitive science, Psychology Computer Sc
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|1988|| [[Biography:Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]] reconstructed human evolution and migration patterns in human history in his work in [[Biology:Population genetics|population genetics]]. He claimed to show a strong association between [[Social:Language family|language families]] and genetic trees of the same populations, proposing for [[Biology:Dual inheritance theory|genetic–linguistic coevolution]].<ref name="Cavalli">Cavalli-Sforza L.L., Piazza A., Menozzi P. and Mountain J. (1988) [http://www.pnas.org/content/85/16/6002.long Reconstruction of human evolution: bringing together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data]. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 85: 6002–6006.</ref>||Population genetics, anthropology, linguistics
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|1989–1990|| Tim Berners-Lee invented the [[World Wide Web]]. He made a proposal for an information management system in March 1989,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://info.cern.ch/Proposal.html |title=cern.info.ch – Tim Berners-Lee's proposal |publisher=Info.cern.ch |access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref> and on 25 December 1990, with the help of Robert Cailliau and a young student at [[Organization:CERN|CERN]], he implemented the first successful communication between a [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) client and [[Web server|server]] via the Internet.<ref name=AFP>{{cite news
| title       = Tim Berners Lee—Time 100 People of the Century
| url         = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990627,00.html
|work=Time Magazine
| quote       = He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free.
| first=Joshua
| last=Quittner
| date=29 March 1999}}</ref>||Computer science, Information theory
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|1996|| Joshua M. Epstein along with Robert Axtell developed the first large scale agent-based computational model, the [[Sugarscape]], to explore the role of social phenomenon such as seasonal migrations, pollution, sexual reproduction, combat, and transmission of disease and even culture. With this work Epstein laid the foundation for what he later called as Generative social science<ref name="EpsteinAxtell">Epstein, Joshua M.; Axtell, Robert L. (1996). Growing Artificial Societies: Social Science From the Bottom Up. MIT/Brookings Institution. pp. 224. {{ISBN|978-0-262-55025-3}}.</ref><ref name="Epstein">Epstein, Joshua M. (January 8, 2007). Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling. Princeton University. pp. 352. {{ISBN|978-0-691-12547-3}}.</ref>||Generative science, Philosophy, Complexity science
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|1997|| [[Organization:Roslin Institute|Roslin Institute]]: Dolly the sheep was cloned.||medicine, biology, genetics and cloning
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|1998|| [[Biography:Gerson Goldhaber|Gerson Goldhaber]] and [[Biography:Saul Perlmutter|Saul Perlmutter]] observed that the expansion of the universe is accelerating||Cosmology & Physics
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|2000|| [[Biography:Alison Gopnik|Alison Gopnik]] and [[Biography:Andrew N. Meltzoff|Andrew N. Meltzoff]] and [[Biography:Patricia K. Kuhl|Patricia K. Kuhl]] stated that the same mechanisms used by scientists to develop scientific theories are used by children to develop causal models of their environment.<ref name="GopnikMeltzoffKuhl">Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The scientist in the crib: What early learning tells us about the mind. New York: Harper Paperbacks.</ref> They state that the cognitive development of children in early life is made possible by three factors: innate knowledge, advanced learning ability, and the evolved ability of parents to teach their offspring.<ref name="GopnikMeltzoffKuhl"/> ||Psychology, child psychology, human development, philosophy
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|2001|| The first draft of the [[Biology:Human genome|human genome]] is completed.||Genetics, biology & Life sciences
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|2002|| [[Biography:Ray Jackendoff|Ray Jackendoff]] published his theory of conceptual semantics a comprehensive theory on the foundations of language, in the monograph (2002): ''Foundations of Language. Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution''. Earlier he worked with Fred Lerdahl, on musical cognition, presenting a Generative theory of tonal music. ||Linguistics, Music cognition, music, cognitive science, psychology, philosophy
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|2002|| Daniel Wegner published his book stating that the experience of [[Philosophy:Free will|free will]] is an illusion.<ref name="Wegner">Wegner, D. M. (2002). The illusion of conscious will. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> Wegner conducted a series of experiments in which people experience an [[Philosophy:Illusion of control|illusion of control]], feeling that their free will shapes events when actually it were determined by someone else.<ref name="Blackmore2005">{{cite book|last=Blackmore|first=Susan J.|title=Conversations on consciousness|chapter=Daniel Wegner|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6wDTFXZQKIsC&pg=PA245|access-date=21 March 2011|date=15 November 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280622-2|pages=245–257}}</ref> According to Wegner the fact that this illusion of free will can be created shows that it is an illusion<ref name="Nadelhoffer2010">{{cite book|last=Nadelhoffer|first=Thomas|title=Moral Psychology: Historical and Contemporary Readings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pvk56gLAE-QC&pg=PA236|access-date=21 March 2011|date=11 June 2010|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9019-0|page=236}}</ref> and that it is "the mind's best trick".<ref>Wegner, Daniel M. (2003). [http://web.gc.cuny.edu/cogsci/private/wegner-trick.pdf ''The mind's best trick: how we experience conscious will.''] Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 65–69.</ref> ||Psychology, Cognitive Sciences, Philosophy
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|2009|| The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Life Sciences Corporation completed making a draft sequencing of the genome of the closest human relative the [[Biology:Neanderthal|Neanderthal]]||Anthropology, genetics, evolutionary sciences
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|2010|| [[Organization:J. Craig Venter Institute|J. Craig Venter Institute]] creates the first synthetic bacterial cell.||Genetics, biology & life sciences
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|2011|| a team led by Shinji Nishimoto made break through in [[Thought identification]] when they partially reconstructed visual images from only brain recordings of neural activity of volunteers who were seeing actual visual pictures or images.<ref name="Nishimoto">Shinji Nishimoto, An T. Vu, Thomas Naselaris, Yuval Benjamini, Bin Yu, Jack L. Gallant, Reconstructing Visual Experiences from Brain Activity Evoked by Natural Movies, Current Biology, Available online 22 September 2011, {{ISSN|0960-9822}}, {{doi|10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.031}}.[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211009377]</ref>||Neuroscience, Psychology, biology, Life sciences and philosophy<ref name="Nishimoto"/>
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|2012|| Higgs Boson is discovered at [[Organization:CERN|CERN]] (confirmed to 99.999% certainty)||Physics & Philosophy
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==See also==
* Timeline of science
* Timeline of scientific discoveries

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.sciencetimeline.net/prehistory.htm Science Timeline]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline Of Scientific Thought}}
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]

{{Sourceattribution|Timeline of scientific thought|1}}