View source for Philosophy:Transhumanist politics

{{Short description|Political ideologies based on Transhumanism}}
'''Transhumanist politics''' constitutes a group of [[Social:List of political ideologies|political ideologies]] that generally express the belief in improving human individuals through science and technology. Specific topics include space migration, and cryogenic suspension.<ref name="jme.bmj.com">{{Cite journal |last1=McNamee |first1=M. J. |last2=Edwards |first2=S. D. |date=2006-09-01 |title=Transhumanism, medical technology and slippery slopes |url=https://jme.bmj.com/content/32/9/513 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |language=en |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=513–518 |doi=10.1136/jme.2005.013789 |issn=0306-6800 |pmc=2563415 |pmid=16943331}}</ref> It is considered the opposing ideal to the concept of [[Philosophy:Bioconservatism|bioconservatism]], as Transhumanist politics argue for the use of all technology to enhance human individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brennan |first=Cian |date=2023-06-01 |title=Weak transhumanism: moderate enhancement as a non-radical path to radical enhancement |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-023-09606-6 |journal=Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=229–248 |doi=10.1007/s11017-023-09606-6 |issn=1573-1200 |pmc=10172256 |pmid=36780070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls |url=https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/ageless-bodies-happy-souls |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=The New Atlantis |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History ==
The term "transhumanism" with its present meaning was popularised by [[Biography:Julian Huxley|Julian Huxley]]'s 1957 essay of that name.<ref name="Huxley 1957">{{cite journal| author = Huxley, Julian| title = Transhumanism| year = 1957| url = http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley/| access-date = February 24, 2006|  url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160625132722/http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley| archive-date = June 25, 2016}}</ref>

Natasha Vita-More was elected as a Councilperson for the 28th Senatorial District of Los Angeles in 1992. She ran with the Green Party, but on a personal platform of "transhumanism". She quit after a year, saying her party was "too neurotically geared toward environmentalism".<ref name=rothman>{{cite web|url=http://hplusmagazine.com/2014/10/08/transhumanism-gets-political/|title=Transhumanism Gets Political|last=Rothman|first=Peter|date=8 October 2014|access-date=7 July 2015|publisher=hplusmagazine.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hughes|first1=James|title=The Politics of Transhumanism|url=http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/TranshumPolitics.htm#_ftn2|website=changesurfer.com|access-date=18 August 2016|quote=Ironically, Natasha Vita-More was actually elected to Los Angeles public office on the Green Party ticket in 1992. However her platform was “transhumanism” and she quit after one year of her two year term because the Greens were “too far left and too neurotically geared toward environmentalism.”}}</ref>

[[Biography:James Hughes (sociologist)|James Hughes]] identifies the "neoliberal" Extropy Institute, founded by philosopher Max More and developed in the 1990s, as the first organized advocates for transhumanism.  And he identifies the late-1990s formation of the World Transhumanist Association (WTA), a European organization which later was renamed to Humanity+ (H+), as partly a reaction to the free market perspective of the "Extropians". Per Hughes, "[t]he WTA included both social democrats and neoliberals around a liberal democratic definition of transhumanism, codified in the Transhumanist Declaration."<ref>{{cite web|last=Hughes|first=James|title=Transhumanist politics, 1700 to the near future|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|date=10 April 2009|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/hughes20090409/|access-date=13 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="hughes-zygon">{{cite web |last=Hughes |first=James |date=1 May 2013 |title=The Politics of Transhumanism and the Techno-Millennial Imagination, 1626–2030 |url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/hughes20130501 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601011035/http://ieet.org/archive/2012-Hughes-H+PoliticsEschatViolence.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-01 |access-date=13 January 2015 |publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies}}</ref> Hughes has also detailed the political currents in transhumanism, particularly the shift around 2009 from socialist transhumanism to [[Philosophy:Libertarian transhumanism|libertarian]] and [[Social:Anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalist]] transhumanism.<ref name=hughes-zygon/> He claims that the [[Social:Left-wing politics|left]] was pushed out of the World Transhumanist Association Board of Directors, and that libertarians and [[Singularitarianism|Singularitarians]] have secured a hegemony in the transhumanism community with help from Peter Thiel, but Hughes remains optimistic about a [[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism|techno-progressive]] future.<ref name=hughes-zygon/>

In 2012, the Longevity Party, a movement described as "100% transhumanist" by cofounder Maria Konovalenko,<ref>{{cite web|last=Konovalenko|first=Maria|title=Russians organize the "Longevity Party"|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|date=26 July 2012|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/konovalenko201207261|access-date=14 January 2015|quote=On July 19, we made the first step towards the creation of the Longevity Party. [...] Longevity Party is 100% transhumanist party.|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124103031/http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/konovalenko201207261|url-status=dead}}</ref> began to organize in Russia for building a balloted political party.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pellissier|first=Hank|title=Who are the "Longevity Party" Co-Leaders, and What do They Want? (Part 1)|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|date = 20 August 2012|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/pellissier20120820|access-date=14 January 2015|quote=The recently-formed Longevity Party was co-founded by Ilia Stambler of Israel and Maria Konovalenko of Russia.}}</ref> Another Russian programme, the [[Organization:2045 Initiative|2045 Initiative]] was founded in 2012 by billionaire Dmitry Itskov with its own proposed "Evolution 2045" political party advocating life extension and [[Engineering:Android (robot)|android]] avatars.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dolak|first1=Kevin|title=Technology Human Immortality in 33 Years Claims Dmitry Itskov's 2045 Initiative|url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/08/human-immortality-in-33-years-claims-dmitry-itskovs-2045-initiative/|access-date=22 August 2015|date=27 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Eördögh|first1=Fruzsina|title=Russian Billionaire Dmitry Itskov Plans on Becoming Immortal by 2045|url=http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/russian-billionaire-dmitry-itskov-plans-on-becoming-immortal-by-2045|access-date=22 August 2015|date=7 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524041430/http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/russian-billionaire-dmitry-itskov-plans-on-becoming-immortal-by-2045|archive-date=24 May 2015}}</ref>

In October 2013, the political party Alianza Futurista ALFA was founded in Spain with transhumanist goals and ideals inscribed in its statutes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sánchez|first=Cristina|title=Transhumanismo en política: ¿votarías por ser un cíborg que vive eternamente?
|publisher=elDiario.es|date = 3 June 2015|url=https://www.eldiario.es/hojaderouter/tecnologia/partido-transhumanista-politica-robots-ciborgs-tecnologia_1_2648098.html}}</ref>

In October 2014, [[Biography:Zoltan Istvan|Zoltan Istvan]] announced that he would be running in the 2016 United States presidential election under the banner of the "Transhumanist Party."<ref>{{cite news|last=Bartlett|first=Jamie|title=Meet the Transhumanist Party: 'Want to live forever? Vote for me'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/11310031/Meet-the-Transhumanist-Party-Want-to-live-forever-Vote-for-me.html|website=The Telegraph|date=23 December 2014|quote= Zoltan decided to form the Transhumanist Party, and run for president in the 2016 US presidential election.}}</ref> By November 2019, the Party claimed 880 members, with Gennady Stolyarov II as chair.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite web |last1=Bromwich |first1=Jonah |title=Death of a Biohacker |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/style/biohacker-death-aaron-traywick.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=3 June 2018 |date=19 May 2018 |quote=Gennady Stolyarov II, the chairman of the United States Transhumanist Party, a political organization with close to 880 members that supports life extension through science and technology, had been corresponding with Mr. Traywick since November 2015.}}</ref>

Other groups using the name "Transhumanist Party" exist in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|last=Volpicelli|first=Gian|title=Transhumanists Are Writing Their Own Manifesto for the UK General Election|url=http://motherboard.vice.com/read/a-transhumanist-manifesto-for-the-uk-general-election|website=Motherboard|publisher=Vice|date=14 January 2015|quote=As the UK's 2015 general election approaches, you've probably already made up your mind on who knows best about the economy, who you agree with on foreign policy, and who cuts a more leader-like figure. But did you ever wonder who will deliver immortality sooner? If so, there's good news for you, since that's exactly what the UK Transhumanist Party was created for.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Volpicelli|first=Gian|title=A Transhumanist Plans to Run for Office in the UK|url=http://motherboard.vice.com/read/the-first-transhumanist-to-run-for-uk-office|website=Motherboard|publisher=Vice|date=27 March 2015|quote=Twyman intends to stand as an independent MP for the constituency of Kingston, on the radically pro-technology platform of the Transhumanist Party UK (TPUK), of which he's cofounder and leader.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Solon|first=Olivia|title=Cyborg supporting Transhumanist Party appoints first political candidate in UK|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/cyborg-supporting-transhumanist-party-appoints-5494746|website=Mirror|date=10 April 2015|quote=The newly-launched Transhumanist Party, which supports people who want to become cyborgs, has appointed its first political candidate in the UK.}}</ref> and Germany.<ref name=benedikter-leftistreview-2015>{{cite web|last=Benedikter|first=Roland|title=The Age of Transhumanist Politics – Part II|url=https://www.leftistreview.com/2015/04/04/the-age-of-transhumanist-politics-part-ii/rolandbenedikter/|website=The Leftist Review|date=4 April 2015|quote=The Transhumanist Party is gaining traction also in other parts of the Western world – mainly in Europe so far. Among them are the Tranhumanist Party of the UK, the Transhumanist Party of Germany (Transhumanistische Partei Deutschland) and others, all currently in the process of foundation.|access-date=2015-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101170611/http://www.leftistreview.com/2015/04/04/the-age-of-transhumanist-politics-part-ii/rolandbenedikter/|archive-date=2018-01-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Core values ==
According to a 2006 study by the European Parliament, transhumanism is the political expression of the ideology that technology and science should be used to enhance human abilities and characteristics like physical beauty, or lifespan.<ref name="jme.bmj.com"/><ref name="European Parliament 2006">{{cite journal|author=European Parliament|title=Technology Assessment on Converging Technologies|year=2006|at=ii|quote="On the one side are the true believers in the potential of technology to make individuals ever more perfect. Transhumanism is a political expression of that."|url=https://www.itas.kit.edu/downloads/etag_beua06a.pdf|access-date=12 January 2015}}</ref>

According to Amon Twyman of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET), political philosophies which support transhumanism include social futurism, [[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism|techno-progressivism]], techno-libertarianism, and anarcho-transhumanism. Twyman considers such philosophies to collectively constitute political transhumanism.<ref name=amon>{{cite web|last=Twyman|first=Amon|title=Transhumanism and Politics|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/twyman20141007|website=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|date=7 October 2014|quote=I would suggest that the way forward is to view transhumanism as a kind of political vector, axis, or hub rather than a single party or philosophy. In other words, the different political philosophies supportive of transhumanism (e.g. Social Futurism, Techno-Progressivism, Anarcho-Transhumanism, Techno-Libertarianism etc) should be considered to collectively constitute Political Transhumanism.|access-date=11 January 2015|archive-date=8 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908064106/http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/twyman20141007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism|Techno-progressives]], also known as Democratic transhumanists,<ref>{{cite web|last=Dvorsky|first=George|title=J. Hughes on democratic transhumanism, personhood, and AI|date=31 March 2012|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/dvorsky20120331|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|access-date=13 January 2015|quote=The term 'democratic transhumanism' distinguishes a biopolitical stance that combines socially liberal or libertarian views (advocating internationalist, secular, free speech, and individual freedom values), with economically egalitarian views (pro-regulation, pro-redistribution, pro-social welfare values), with an openness to the transhuman benefits that science and technology can provide, such as longer lives and expanded abilities. [...] In the last six or seven years the phrase has been supplanted by the descriptor 'technoprogressive' which is used to describe the same basic set of Enlightenment values and policy proposals: Human enhancement technologies, especially anti-aging therapies, should be a priority of publicly financed basic research, be well regulated for safety, and be included in programs of universal health care}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hughes|first1=James|last2=Roux|first2=Marc|title=On Democratic Transhumanism|date=24 June 2009|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/hughes20090623|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies|access-date = 13 January 2015|quote=When I wrote ''Citizen Cyborg'' in 2004 we had just begun defining the ideological position that embraced both traditional social democratic values as well as future transhuman possibilities, and we called it 'democratic transhumanism.' Since then, the people in that space have adopted the much more elegant term 'technoprogressive.'}}</ref> support equal access to [[Philosophy:Human enhancement|human enhancement]] technologies in order to promote [[Social:Social equality|social equality]] and prevent technologies from furthering the divide among [[Social:Social class|socioeconomic classes]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ferrando|first=Francesca|title=Posthumanism, Transhumanism, Antihumanism, Metahumanism, and New Materialisms Differences and Relations|journal=Existenz|volume=8|issue=2, Fall 2013|issn=1932-1066|date=2013|url=http://www.bu.edu/paideia/existenz/volumes/Vol.8-2Ferrando.html|access-date=13 January 2015|quote=Democratic transhumanism calls for an equal access to technological enhancements, which could otherwise be limited to certain socio-political classes and related to economic power, consequently encoding racial and sexual politics.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114042003/http://www.bu.edu/paideia/existenz/volumes/Vol.8-2Ferrando.html|archive-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> However, [[Philosophy:Libertarian transhumanism|libertarian transhumanist]] Ronald Bailey is critical of the democratic transhumanism described by [[Biography:James Hughes (sociologist)|James Hughes]].<ref name="Bailey 2005">{{cite journal|last=Bailey|first=Ronald|title=Trans-Human Expressway: Why libertarians will win the future|year=2005|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/34971.html|access-date=5 February 2006}}</ref><ref name="Bailey 2009">{{cite journal|last=Bailey|first=Ronald|title=Transhumanism and the Limits of Democracy|year=2009|url=http://reason.com/news/show/133074.html|access-date=1 May 2009}}</ref> [[Biography:Jeffrey Bishop|Jeffrey Bishop]] wrote that the disagreements among transhumanists regarding individual and community rights is "precisely the tension that philosophical liberalism historically tried to negotiate," but that disagreeing entirely with a posthuman future is a disagreement with the right to choose what humanity will become.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Jeffrey |date=2010 |title=Transhumanism, Metaphysics, and the Posthuman God |url=https://philosophy.as.uky.edu/sites/default/files/Transhumanism,%20Metaphysics,%20and%20the%20Posthuman%20God%20-%20Jeffrey%20P.%20Bishop.pdf |journal=Journal of Medicine and Philosophy |volume=35 |issue=700–720 |pages=713, 717 |doi=10.1093/jmp/jhq047 |pmid=21088098 |access-date=September 22, 2015 | quote=The tension between the individual and the political that we see within trans-humanist philosophies is precisely the tension that philosophical liberalism historically tried to negotiate." and "[T]o question the posthuman future is to question our liberty to become what we will.}}</ref> Woody Evans has supported placing posthuman rights in a continuum with [[Philosophy:Animal rights|animal rights]] and [[Philosophy:Human rights|human rights]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Evans|first=Woody|date=2015 |title=Posthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds |url=http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/TEKN/article/view/49072/46310 |journal=Teknokultura |publisher=Universidad Complutense Madrid |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.5209/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072 |access-date=August 16, 2016 | quote=Consider the state of posthumanism as a domain (*PR*). The careful definition of this domain will be vital in articulating the nature of the relationship between humanity and posthumanity. It will be an asymmetrical relationship, at first heavily favoring humans. It will become, if the posthuman population (and/or their power or influence) grows, a domain in which posthumans may favor themselves at the expense of humans, as humans favor themselves at the expense of animals and machinery within their own domains and networks.|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Riccardo Campa wrote that transhumanism can be coupled with many different political, philosophical, and religious views, and that this diversity can be an asset so long as transhumanists do not give priority to existing affiliations over membership with organized transhumanism.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.re-public.gr/en/?p=837 |first=Riccardo |last=Campa |title=Toward a transhumanist politics |website=Re-public |quote=The central transhumanist idea of self-directed evolution can be coupled with different political, philosophical and religious opinions. Accordingly, we have observed individuals and groups joining the movement from very different persuasions. On one hand such diversity may be an asset in terms of ideas and stimuli, but on the other hand it may involve a practical paralysis, especially when members give priority to their existing affiliations over their belonging to organized transhumanism. |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614162111/http://www.re-public.gr/en/?p=837 |archive-date=June 14, 2012 }}</ref>

== Criticism ==
Truman Chen of the ''Stanford Political Journal'' considers many transhumanist ideals to be anti-political.<ref name=chen-vacuity-stanford-2014>{{cite web|last=Chen|first=Truman|title=The Political Vacuity of Transhumanism|url=http://stanfordpolitics.com/2014/12/the-political-vacuity-of-transhumanism/|website=Stanford Political Journal|date=15 December 2014|quote=Even some transhumanists have criticized the emergence of the Transhumanist Party, questioning the utility of politicizing transhumanist goals. In reality, the ideals the Transhumanist Party embodies are anti-political.}}</ref>

== Anarcho-transhumanism ==
[[File:Anarcho-Transhumanism.svg|thumb|Flag of anarcho-transhumanism, represented by a blue and black diagonal flag, where the blue is representative of futuristic symbolism<ref name="Blueshift">{{cite web|url=http://blueshifted.net/faq/#14|title=An Anarcho-Transhumanist FAQ (Why the color blue?)|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref>]]
'''Anarcho-transhumanism''' is a [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophy]] synthesizing [[Social:Anarchism|anarchism]] with [[Transhumanism|transhumanism]] that is concerned with both social and physical freedom respectively.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Chartier |first1=Gary |title=The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought |last2=Schoelandt |first2=Chad Van |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-351-73358-8 |location=London |pages=416–428 |language=en |chapter=Anarchy and Transhumanism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0EYHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT466}}</ref> Anarcho-transhumanists define freedom as the expansion of one's own ability to experience the world around them.<ref name="AnTrans">{{cite news|last=Gillis|first=William|title=What Is Anarcho-Transhumanism?|url=http://humaniterations.net/2012/01/06/what-is-anarcho-transhumanism/|date=6 January 2012|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> Anarcho-transhumanists may advocate various praxis to advance their ideals, including [[Hacker|computer hacking]], [[3D printing|three-dimensional printing]], or [[Philosophy:Body hacking|biohacking]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marcolli|first=Matilde|title=Lumen Naturae: Visions of the Abstract in Art and Mathematics|title-link=Lumen Naturae|year=2020|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-35832-3|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UKvuDwAAQBAJ&pg=SA8-PA79 79]|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The philosophy draws heavily from the [[Philosophy:Individualist anarchism|individualist anarchism]] of [[Biography:William Godwin|William Godwin]], [[Biography:Max Stirner|Max Stirner]] and [[Biography:Voltairine de Cleyre|Voltairine de Cleyre]]<ref name="Indy">{{cite web|url=http://blueshifted.net/faq/#1|title=An Anarcho-Transhumanist FAQ (What's all this about anarchism and transhumanism?)|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> as well as the [[Philosophy:Cyberfeminism|cyberfeminism]] presented by [[Biography:Donna Haraway|Donna Haraway]] in ''[[Philosophy:A Cyborg Manifesto|A Cyborg Manifesto]]''.<ref name="Cyborg Feminism">{{cite news|url=https://hplusmagazine.com/2009/07/21/importance-being-cyborg-feminist/|title=On the Importance of Being a Cyborg Feminist|last=Munkittrick|first=Kyle|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> Anarcho-transhumanist thought looks at issues surrounding bodily autonomy,<ref name="Sphere">{{cite news|last=Gillis|first=William|title=The Floating Metal Sphere Trump Card|url=http://humaniterations.net/2011/09/21/the-floating-metal-sphere-trump-card/|date=21 September 2011|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> [[Social:Disability|disability]],<ref name="Ability">{{cite news|last=Brix|first=Terra|title=This Machine Kills Ability|url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/terra-brix-anarchotranshumanism-this-machine-kills-ability|date=4 April 2018|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> [[Biology:Gender|gender]],<ref name="Sphere"/><ref name=":0" /> [[Biology:Neurodiversity|neurodiversity]],<ref name="Ableism">{{cite news|last=Linnell|first=Lexi|title=This Machine Kills Ableism|url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/lexi-linnell-this-machine-kills-ableism|date=November 2016|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> [[Philosophy:Queer theory|queer theory]],<ref name="Queer">{{cite news|url=https://amormundi.blogspot.com/2006/03/technology-is-making-queers-of-us-all.html|date=5 March 2006|access-date=22 January 2020|title=Technology Is Making Queers Of Us All|last=Carrico|first=Dale}}</ref> [[Science|science]],<ref name="Science">{{cite book|last=Gillis|first=William|title=Science As Radicalism|url=http://humaniterations.net/2015/08/18/science-as-radicalism/|date= 18 August 2015|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> [[Free software movement|free software]],<ref name=":0" /> and sexuality<ref name="Sex">{{cite news|title=Designing the Future of Sex|url=https://anarchotranshumanzine.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/dfos.pdf|date=2009|last=Saitta|first=Eleanor|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> whilst presenting critiques through anarchist and transhumanist lens of [[Social:Ableism|ableism]],<ref name="Ableism"/> cisheteropatriarchy<ref name="Sphere"/> and [[Social:Primitivism|primitivism]].<ref name="Primitivism">{{cite book|last=Gillis|first=William|title=15 Post-Primitivist Theses|url=http://humaniterations.net/2006/06/13/15-post-primitivist-theses/|date=13 June 2006|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> Much of early anarcho-transhumanist thought was a response to [[Philosophy:Anarcho-primitivism|anarcho-primitivism]]. Anarcho-transhumanism may be interpreted either as criticism of, or an extension of [[Philosophy:Humanism|humanism]], because it challenges what being human means.<ref name=":0" />

Anarcho-transhumanists also criticise non-anarchist forms of transhumanism such as [[Philosophy:Democratic transhumanism|democratic transhumanism]] and [[Philosophy:Libertarian transhumanism|libertarian transhumanism]] as incoherent and unsurvivable due to their preservation of the [[Earth:State (polity)|state]]. They view such instruments of power as inherently unethical and incompatible with the acceleration of social and material freedom for all individuals.<ref name="Non-anarchist">{{cite speech|url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/gillis20151029|title=The Incoherence And Unsurvivability Of Non-Anarchist Transhumanism|last=Gillis|first=William|date=29 October 2015|access-date=22 January 2020|publisher=Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies}}</ref> Anarcho-transhumanism is generally [[Social:Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]], arguing capitalist accumulation of wealth would lead to dystopia while partnered with transhumanism, instead advocating for equal access to advanced technologies that enable morphological freedom and space travel.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/lewis-herber-murray-bookchin-towards-a-liberatory-technology|title=Towards a Liberatory Technology|language=en|last=Bookchin|first=Murray|date= May 1965|publisher=Anarchos|access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carson|first=Kevin|date=February 8, 2019|title=Ephemeralization for Post-Capitalist Space Exploration|url=http://humaniterations.net/wp-content/uploads/Anarchotranshuman_Vol4_Space_norm.pdf|journal=Anarcho-Transhuman|issue=4|pages=23–29}}</ref>

Anarcho-transhumanist philosopher William Gillis has advocated for a 'social singularity', or a transformation in humanity's [[Philosophy:Morality|morals]], to complement the [[Philosophy:Technological singularity|technological singularity]]. This social singularity will ensure that no [[Social:Coercion|coercion]] will be required to maintain order in a future society where people are likely to have access to lethal forms of technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Anarcho-Transhumanism? |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/william-gillis-what-is-anarcho-transhumanism |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=The Anarchist Library |language=en}}</ref>

== Democratic transhumanism ==
{{Democracy}}
'''Democratic transhumanism''', a term coined by [[Biography:James Hughes (sociologist)|James Hughes]] in 2002, refers to the stance of transhumanists (advocates for the development and use of [[Philosophy:Human enhancement|human enhancement]] technologies) who espouse [[Social:Liberal democracy|liberal]], [[Philosophy:Social democracy|social]], and/or [[Social:Radical democracy|radical democratic]] political views.<ref name="Hughes 2001">{{cite journal|    author = Hughes, James|        title = Politics of Transhumanism|    year = 2001 |   url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/TranshumPolitics.htm| access-date=2007-01-26}}</ref><ref name="Hughes 2002">{{cite journal|    author = Hughes, James|    title = Democratic Transhumanism 2.0|    year = 2002 |   url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/DemocraticTranshumanism.htm| access-date=2007-01-26}}</ref><ref name="Hughes 2003">{{cite journal |author=Hughes, James |title=Better Health through Democratic Transhumanism |year=2003 |url=http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/240/Default.aspx |access-date=2007-01-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061011033709/http://archives.betterhumans.com/Columns/Column/tabid/79/Column/240/Default.aspx |archive-date=2006-10-11 }}</ref><ref name="Hughes 2004">{{cite book| author = Hughes, James| title = Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future| publisher = Westview Press| year = 2004| isbn = 0-8133-4198-1}}</ref>

=== Philosophy ===
According to Hughes, the ideology "stems from the assertion that human beings will generally be [[Philosophy:Happiness|happier]] when they take rational control of the natural and social forces that control their lives."<ref name="Hughes 2002"/><ref>{{cite web 
| author = James Hughes
| title = On Democratic Transhumanism
| date = 20 July 2005
| url = http://www.terasemjournals.com/GNJournal/GN0102/hughes_01a.html
| publisher = The Journal of Geoethical Nanotechnology
| access-date = 13 January 2015
}}</ref>
The [[Philosophy:Ethics|ethical]] foundation of democratic transhumanism rests upon [[Philosophy:Rule utilitarianism|rule utilitarianism]] and [[Philosophy:Sentiocentrism|non-anthropocentric]] personhood theory.<ref name="Hughes 1996">{{cite journal|    author = Hughes, James|    title = Embracing Change with All Four Arms: A Post-Humanist Defense of Genetic Engineering|    year = 1996 |   url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Hlth/Genetech.html| access-date=2007-01-26}}</ref> Democratic transhumanists support equal access to [[Philosophy:Human enhancement|human enhancement]] technologies in order to promote [[Social:Social equality|social equality]] and to prevent technologies from furthering the divide among the [[Social:Social class|socioeconomic classes]].<ref>{{cite journal
 |last=Ferrando 
 |first=Francesca 
 |title=Posthumanism, Transhumanism, Antihumanism, Metahumanism, and New Materialisms Differences and Relations 
 |journal=Existenz 
 |volume=8 
 |issue=2, Fall 2013
 | issn= 1932-1066 
 |date=2013 
 |url=http://www.bu.edu/paideia/existenz/volumes/Vol.8-2Ferrando.html#footnote-383-4 
 |access-date=13 January 2015 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114042003/http://www.bu.edu/paideia/existenz/volumes/Vol.8-2Ferrando.html 
 |archive-date=14 January 2015 
}}</ref>
While raising objections both to [[Social:Right-wing politics|right-wing]] and [[Social:Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism#Contrasting stance|bioconservatism]], and [[Philosophy:Libertarian transhumanism|libertarian transhumanism]], Hughes aims to encourage democratic transhumanists and their potential [[Philosophy:Progressivism|progressive]] allies to unite as a new social movement and influence biopolitical [[Social:Public policy|public policy]].<ref name="Hughes 2002" /><ref name="Hughes 2004"/>

An attempt to expand the middle ground between [[Philosophy:Technorealism|technorealism]] and techno-utopianism, democratic transhumanism can be seen as a radical form of [[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism|techno-progressivism]].<ref name="Carrico 8-2005">{{cite journal|    author = Carrico, Dale|        title =  Listen, Transhumanist!|    year = 2005 |   url = http://amormundi.blogspot.com/2005/08/listen-transhumanist.html| access-date=2007-01-27}}</ref>   Appearing several times in Hughes' work, the term "radical" (from Latin ''rādīx, rādīc-'', root) is used as an adjective meaning ''of or pertaining to the root'' or ''going to the root''. His central thesis is that [[Philosophy:Emerging technologies|emerging technologies]] and [[Social:Radical democracy|radical democracy]] can help citizens overcome some of the ''root causes'' of inequalities of power.<ref name="Hughes 2002"/>

According to Hughes, the terms techno-progressivism and democratic transhumanism both refer to the same set of [[Philosophy:Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] values and principles; however, the term technoprogressive has replaced the use of the word democratic transhumanism.<ref>{{cite web 
| author = George Dvorsky
| title = J. Hughes on democratic transhumanism, personhood, and AI
| date = 31 March 2012
| url = http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/dvorsky20120331
| publisher = Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
| access-date = 13 January 2015
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web 
| author = James Hughes and Marc Roux
| title = On Democratic Transhumanism
| date = 24 June 2009
| url = http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/hughes20090623
| publisher = Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
| access-date = 13 January 2015
}}</ref>

=== Trends ===
Hughes has identified 15 "left futurist" or "left techno-utopian" trends and projects that could be incorporated into democratic transhumanism:
{{div col}}
* Afrofuturism
* [[Engineering:Assistive technology|Assistive technology]]-enabled disabled people
* [[Philosophy:Biopunk|Biopunk]] science fiction and movement
* Body modification culture
* Cyborg feminism/[[Philosophy:Cyberfeminism|cyberfeminism]]
* Feminist science fiction
* [[Free software movement]]
* Lesbian science fiction, gay science fiction, [[Social:List of media portrayals of bisexuality|bisexual]] science fiction and transgender science fiction
* [[Physics:Nanosocialism|Nanosocialism]]
* Post-[[Biology:A Darwinian Left|Darwinian leftism]]
* [[Philosophy:Postcyberpunk|Postcyberpunk]] science fiction
* Post-work/[[Social:Guaranteed minimum income|guaranteed minimum income]] movement
* [[Philosophy:Technogaianism|Technogaianism]]
* Up-wing politics
* Viridian design movement
{{div col end}}

=== List of democratic transhumanists ===
These are notable individuals who have identified themselves, or have been identified by Hughes, as advocates of democratic transhumanism:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/cybdem|title=Cyborg Democracy|access-date=2018-01-15|archive-date=2016-09-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908114401/http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/cybdem|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{div col}}
* Charles Stross
* [[Biography:George Dvorsky|George Dvorsky]]
* Giulio Prisco
* Ken MacLeod
* Mark Alan Walker
* Martine Rothblatt
* Ramez Naam
* Riccardo Campa
{{div col end}}

=== Criticism ===
Science journalist Ronald Bailey wrote a review of ''[[Philosophy:Citizen Cyborg|Citizen Cyborg]]'' in his online column for ''Reason'' magazine in which he offered a critique of democratic transhumanism and a defense of [[Philosophy:Libertarian transhumanism|libertarian transhumanism]].<ref name="Bailey 2005"/><ref name="Bailey 2009"/>

Critical theorist Dale Carrico defended democratic transhumanism from Bailey's criticism.<ref name="Carrico 5-2005">{{cite journal| author = Carrico, Dale | title = Bailey on the CybDemite Menace | year = 2005 | url = http://amormundi.blogspot.com/2005/05/bailey-on-cybdemite-menace.html | access-date = 2006-02-05}}</ref> However, he would later criticize democratic transhumanism himself on technoprogressive grounds.<ref name="Carrico 2-2009">{{cite journal| author = Carrico, Dale | title = James Hughes Flogs for the Robot Cult | year = 2009 | url = http://amormundi.blogspot.com/2009/02/james-hughes-flogs-for-robot-cult.html | access-date = 2010-03-27}}</ref>

== Libertarian transhumanism ==
'''Libertarian transhumanism''' is a [[Social:Political ideology|political ideology]] synthesizing [[Philosophy:Libertarianism|libertarianism]]  and [[Transhumanism|transhumanism]].<ref name="Hughes 2001"/>

Self-identified libertarian transhumanists, such as Ronald Bailey of ''Reason'' magazine and Glenn Reynolds of Instapundit, are advocates of the asserted "right to [[Philosophy:Human enhancement|human enhancement]]" who argue that the [[Social:Free market|free market]] is the best guarantor of this right, claiming that it produces greater prosperity and personal freedom than other economic systems.<ref name="Bailey 2005 LB">{{cite book|author=Bailey, Ronald|title=Liberation Biology: The Scientific and Moral Case For the Biotech Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/liberationbiolog0000bail|url-access=registration|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2005|isbn=1-59102-227-4}}</ref><ref name="Reynolds 2006">{{cite book|author=Reynolds, Glenn |title=An Army of Davids: How Markets and Technology Empower Ordinary People to Beat Big Media, Big Government, and Other Goliaths|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year=2006|isbn=1-59555-054-2}}</ref>

=== Principles ===
Libertarian transhumanists believe that the principle of [[Philosophy:Self-ownership|self-ownership]] is the most fundamental idea from which both libertarianism and transhumanism stem. They are [[Philosophy:Rational egoism|rational egoists]] and [[Philosophy:Ethical egoism|ethical egoists]] who embrace the prospect of using [[Philosophy:Emerging technologies|emerging technologies]] to enhance human capacities, which they believe stems from the self-interested application of [[Philosophy:Reason|reason]] and [[Philosophy:Will|will]] in the context of the individual freedom to achieve a [[Philosophy:Posthuman|posthuman]] state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Evans, W. | title = Review of On Transhumanism | journal = Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–74 | date = June 2022 | doi = 10.13169/prometheus.38.2.0271 | s2cid = 252023683 | doi-access = free }}</ref> They extend this rational and ethical egoism to advocate a form of "biolibertarianism".<ref name="Bailey 2005 LB"/>

As strong [[Social:Civil libertarianism|civil libertarians]], libertarian transhumanists hold that any attempt to limit or suppress the asserted right to human enhancement is a violation of civil rights and [[Philosophy:Civil liberties|civil liberties]]. However, as strong [[Social:Economic liberalism|economic libertarian]]s, they also reject proposed [[Social:Public policy|public policies]] of [[Biology:Regulation of science|government-regulated]] and -[[Philosophy:Universal health care|insured]] human enhancement technologies, which are advocated by [[Philosophy:Democratic transhumanism|democratic transhumanists]], because they fear that any [[Social:Interventionism (politics)|state intervention]] will steer or limit their choices.<ref name="Bailey 2009"/><ref name="Bailey 2005 THE">{{cite journal| author = Bailey, Ronald | title = Trans-Human Expressway: Why libertarians will win the future | year = 2005 | url = http://www.reason.com/news/show/34971.html | access-date=2006-02-05}}</ref>

[[Philosophy:Extropianism|Extropianism]], the earliest [[Transhumanism#Currents|current of transhumanist thought]] defined in 1988 by philosopher Max More, initially included an [[Social:Anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalist]] interpretation of the concept of  "[[Spontaneous order|spontaneous order]]" in its principles, which states that a free market economy achieves a more efficient allocation of societal resources than any [[Social:Planned economy|planned]] or [[Philosophy:Mixed economy|mixed economy]] could achieve. In 2000, while revising the principles of Extropy, More seemed to be abandoning libertarianism in favor of [[Philosophy:Social liberalism|modern liberalism]] and [[Social:Anticipatory democracy|anticipatory democracy]]. However, many Extropians remained libertarian transhumanists.<ref name="Hughes 2001"/>

=== Criticisms ===
Critiques of the techno-utopianism of libertarian transhumanists from progressive [[Philosophy:Cultural critic|cultural critic]]s include Richard Barbrook and Andy Cameron's 1995 essay ''The Californian Ideology''; Mark Dery's 1996 book ''Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century''; and Paulina Borsook's 2000 book ''Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp Through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High-Tech''.

Barbrook argues that libertarian transhumanists are proponents of the Californian Ideology who embrace the goal of [[Philosophy:Reactionary modernism|reactionary modernism]]: [[Finance:Economic growth|economic growth]] without [[Social:Social mobility|social mobility]].<ref name="Barbrook and Cameron 1995">{{cite journal |author1=Barbrook, Richard |author2=Cameron, Andy |title=The Californian Ideology |year=2000 |url=http://www.hrc.wmin.ac.uk/theory-californianideology.html |access-date=2007-02-06 |journal= |archive-date=2006-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109180733/http://www.hrc.wmin.ac.uk/theory-californianideology.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>  According to Barbrook, libertarian transhumanists are unwittingly appropriating the theoretical legacy of [[Social:Stalinism|Stalinist communism]] by substituting, among other concepts, the "vanguard party" with the "[[Social:Digerati|digerati]]", and the "new Soviet man" with the "[[Philosophy:Posthuman|posthuman]]".<ref name="Barbrook">{{cite journal| author = Barbrook, Richard | title = Cyber-Communism: How the Americans Are Superseding Capitalism in Cyberspace | year = 2007 | url = http://www.imaginaryfutures.net/2007/04/17/cyber-communism-how-the-americans-are-superseding-capitalism-in-cyberspace/ | access-date = 2009-05-21}}</ref> Dery coined the dismissive phrase "body-loathing" to describe the attitude of libertarian transhumanists and those in the cyberculture who want to escape from their "[[Medicine:Human body|meat puppet]]" through [[Philosophy:Mind uploading|mind uploading]] into [[Cyberspace|cyberspace]].<ref name="Dery 1996">{{cite book| author = Dery, Mark|  title = Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century | url = https://archive.org/details/escapevelocitycy00dery| url-access = registration| publisher = Grove Press | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-8021-3520-X}}</ref> Borsook asserts that libertarian transhumanists indulge in a subculture of [[Philosophy:Selfishness|selfishness]], [[Philosophy:Elitism|elitism]], and [[Escapism|escapism]].<ref name="Borsook 2000">{{cite book| author = Borsook, Paulina | title = Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp Through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High-Tech |publisher=Mother Jones | year = 2000 | url = https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2000/11/cyberselfish-redux | isbn = 1-891620-78-9}}</ref>

Sociologist [[Biography:James Hughes (sociologist)|James Hughes]] is the most militant critic of libertarian transhumanism. While articulating "democratic transhumanism" as a sociopolitical program in his 2004 book ''[[Philosophy:Citizen Cyborg|Citizen Cyborg]]'',<ref name="Hughes 2004"/> Hughes sought to convince libertarian transhumanists to embrace [[Philosophy:Social democracy|social democracy]] by arguing that:
# [[Earth:State (polity)|State]] action is required to address catastrophic threats from transhumanist technologies;
# Only believable and effective [[Social:Public policy|public policies]] to prevent adverse consequences from new technologies will reassure skittish publics that they do not have to be banned;
# [[Social:Social policy|Social policies]] must explicitly address public concerns that transhumanist biotechnologies will exacerbate [[Social:Social inequality|social inequality]];
# [[Monopoly|Monopolistic]] practices and overly restrictive [[Social:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] law can seriously delay the development of transhumanist technologies, and restrict their access;
# Only a strong liberal democratic state can ensure that posthumans are not persecuted; and
# Libertarian transhumanists (who are [[Philosophy:Antinaturalism (politics)|anti-naturalists]]) are inconsistent in arguing for the free market [[Medicine:Appeal to nature|on the grounds that it is a natural phenomenon]].

Klaus-Gerd Giesen, a German political scientist specializing in the [[Engineering:Philosophy of technology|philosophy of technology]], wrote a critique of the libertarianism he imputes to all transhumanists. While pointing out that the works of [[Social:Austrian School|Austrian School]] economist [[Biography:Friedrich Hayek|Friedrich Hayek]] figure in practically all of the recommended reading lists of Extropians, he argues that transhumanists, convinced of the sole virtues of the free market, advocate an unabashed [[Social:Social Darwinism|inegalitarianism]] and merciless [[Philosophy:Meritocracy|meritocracy]] which can be reduced in reality to a biological [[Religion:Fetishism|fetish]]. He is especially critical of their promotion of a science-fictional liberal eugenics, virulently opposed to any political regulation of human genetics, where the [[Finance:Consumerism|consumerist]] model presides over their ideology. Giesen concludes that the despair of finding social and political solutions to today's sociopolitical problems incites transhumanists to reduce everything to the hereditary gene, as a fantasy of [[Philosophy:Omnipotence|omnipotence]] to be found within the individual, even if it means transforming the subject ([[Biology:Human|human]]) to a new draft (posthuman).<ref name="Giesen 2004">{{cite journal | author = Giesen, Klaus-Gerd | title = Transhumanisme et génétique humaine | year = 2004 | url = http://www.ircm.qc.ca/bioethique/obsgenetique/cadrages/cadr2004/c_no16_04/c_no16_04_01.html | access-date = 2006-04-26 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070310224959/http://www.ircm.qc.ca/bioethique/obsgenetique/cadrages/cadr2004/c_no16_04/c_no16_04_01.html | archive-date = 2007-03-10 }}</ref>

== Marxist Transhumanism ==
'''Marxist Transhumanism''' or '''Left Transhumanism''' is a [[Social:Political ideology|political ideology]] synthesizing [[Philosophy:Marxism|marxism]] and [[Transhumanism|transhumanism]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Conde |first=Santiago Javier Armesilla |date=2021 |title=A Marxist Transhumanism? |url=https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/newproposals/article/view/196704 |journal=New Proposals: Journal of Marxism and Interdisciplinary Inquiry |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |issn=1715-6718}}</ref>

Marxist Transhumanists believe that the class struggle central to Marxist approach to society and economics must be central in a Transhumanist context. Arguing that with [[Social:Class conflict|class struggle]], Transhumanism will amount to a form of [[Philosophy:Elitism|elitism]] due to [[Social:Free market|free market]] mechanisms. Furthermore it is argued that this trend is already occurring in the early stages. Citing Bryan Johnson's costly medical treatments and [[Biography:Jeff Bezos|Jeff Bezos's]] Altos Labs as proof that the capitalist class is slowly gaining the ability to obtain longevity treatments while the rest of [[Social:Working class|working class]] people die at a rate of 100,000 per day.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perdue |first=Mitzi |date=2014-01-29 |title=Aubrey de Grey: Out to Defy Death |url=https://www.genengnews.com/insights/aubrey-de-grey-out-to-defy-death/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Basis ===
Marxist Transhumanists hold that a new society must come about either through [[Social:Revolution|revolution]] or reforms for the masses of people to truly experience the opportunities of a Transhumanist society. Despite the abundance that may occur if a society has vastly automated labor. The social relations which dictate society will not allow that abundance to be distributed in a egalitarian manner under [[Philosophy:Capitalism|capitalism]]. Marxist Transhumanist often point to food production and hunger as well as the producible results of fast fashion and the 1 billion people without shoes as foreshadowing of the conditions which will encompass longevity treatments or an abundance of resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Holt-Giménez |first1=Eric |last2=Shattuck |first2=Annie |last3=Altieri |first3=Miguel |last4=Herren |first4=Hans |last5=Gliessman |first5=Steve |date=July 2012 |title=We Already Grow Enough Food for 10 Billion People … and Still Can't End Hunger |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10440046.2012.695331 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Agriculture |language=en |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=595–598 |doi=10.1080/10440046.2012.695331 |s2cid=85672210 |issn=1044-0046}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=Humanitarian organisations estimate one person dying of hunger every four seconds - World {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/humanitarian-organisations-estimate-one-person-dying-hunger-every-four-seconds |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solely Because of the Increasing Disorder: The Thirty-Sixth Newsletter (2021) |url=https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/36-poverty/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research |language=en}}</ref> In addition Marxist Transhumanist assert Transhumanism should return to its roots in regards to economics holding that a return to a transhumanism akin to [[Philosophy:Russian cosmism|Russian Cosmism]] or Individuals such as [[Biography:Alexander Bogdanov|Alexander Bogdanov]], [[Biography:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky|Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], or [[Biography:Ivan Yefremov|Ivan Yefremov]].
Another fundamental concept within Marxist Transhumanism is the texts and literature of [[Biography:Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]], and [[Biography:Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]]. In which proto-transhumanist ideas can be found as well as the numerous philosophical connections between Marxism and transhumanism. Marxist transhumanism would comply with the definition of communism of Marx and Engels, and it could even be said that Marxism is, essentially, transhumanist in its foundations, even when it defines posthumans as ''New Men'', or ''Men Made In Property''.<ref name=":1" />

=== Criticisms ===
Jeffrey Noonan argues that a Marxist transhumanism is politically and ethically incoherent. While it is true that Transhumanists and Marxists believe that human beings are self-determining and self-transforming. Transhumanists are committed to transcending the material conditions of organic life with their ultimate aim being to encourage the emergence of an artificial superintelligence whose self-creative capacities are not limited by the needs of organic life forms. Socialism, by contrast, is a political and ethical movement committed to ending the suffering caused by capitalism, by changing social institutions and the values according to which resources are distributed and utilized.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noonan |first=Jeff |date=2021 |title=Marxist Transhumanism? |url=https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/newproposals/article/view/194411 |journal=New Proposals: Journal of Marxism and Interdisciplinary Inquiry |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |issn=1715-6718}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Philosophy:Bioethics|Bioethics]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive liberty|Cognitive liberty]]
* [[Philosophy:Left-libertarianism|Left-libertarianism]]
* [[Philosophy:Outline of libertarianism|Outline of libertarianism]]
* [[Philosophy:Secular humanism|Secular humanism]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-ownership|Self-ownership]]
* [[Philosophy:Technogaianism|Technogaianism]]
* [[Social:Technological utopianism|Technological utopianism]]
* [[Philosophy:Techno-progressivism|Techno-progressivism]]
* {{section link|Transhumanism|Genetic divide}}
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
<!-- Further reading. -->

== External links ==
* [http://transpolitica.org/2015/04/27/an-introduction-to-tomorrows-politics/ An introduction to tomorrow's politics]
* [http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/cybdem Cyborg Democracy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908114401/http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/cybdem |date=2016-09-08 }}
* [http://ieet.org/ Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181113165853/http://transmocracy.org/ Transmocracy]
* [http://laissez-faire.ch/en/articles/transhumanism-the-next-step-of-civilization/ "Transhumanism: the next step of civilization"] by Jan Krepelka

{{Political ideologies}}

[[Category:Political ideologies]]
[[Category:Transhumanism]]

{{Sourceattribution|Transhumanist politics}}