View source for Philosophy:Wisdom

{{short description|Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight}}
[[File:Meynier - Wisdom defending Youth against Love.jpg|thumb|''Wisdom Defending Youth against Love'' by Meynier, {{circa|1810}}]]

'''Wisdom''', '''sapience''', or '''sagacity''' is the ability to contemplate and act productively using [[Philosophy:Knowledge|knowledge]], [[Philosophy:Experience|experience]], [[Philosophy:Understanding|understanding]], [[Philosophy:Common sense|common sense]], and [[Insight|insight]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/wisdom |title=wisdom |dictionary=Dictionary.com}}</ref> Wisdom is associated with attributes such as [[Philosophy:Impartiality|unbiased]] judgment, [[Philosophy:Compassion|compassion]], [[Social:Experiential learning|experiential]] self-knowledge, [[Philosophy:Self-transcendence|self-transcendence]], and non-attachment,<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | year = 2017 | title = Wisdom in context. | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 21 | issue = 12 | pages = 1254–1266 | doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066 | pmid = 28346113 | s2cid = 26818408 }}</ref> and virtues such as [[Philosophy:Ethics|ethics]] and [[Philosophy:Altruism|benevolence]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger | first1 = U.M. | last2 = Glück| first2 = J. | year = 2011 | title = Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field. | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 62 | pages = 215–241 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659 | pmid = 20822439 }}</ref><ref name= Walsh2015>{{cite journal |last= Walsh |first=Roger |title= What Is wisdom? Cross-cultural and cross-Disciplinary Syntheses | journal= Review of General Psychology | volume=19 | issue=3 | pages=178–293 |date=June 2015 | doi=10.1037/gpr0000045|s2cid= 146383832 |url= https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4228v47q }}</ref>

Wisdom has been defined in many different ways,<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Trowbridge2011">{{cite journal| last = Trowbridge|first=R.H. |date=May 2011|title=Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology |journal=Research in Human Development |volume=8 |issue=2|pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/15427609.2011.568872|s2cid=145371442}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> and there are several distinct approaches to assessing the characteristics attributed to wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Glück |first=J. | title = Measuring Wisdom: Existing Approaches, Continuing Challenges, and New Developments | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences | volume = 73 | issue = 8 | pages = 1393–1403 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 29281060 | pmc = 6178965 | doi = 10.1093/geronb/gbx140 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Brienza| first1 = J.P. | last2 = Kung| first2 = F.Y.H. | last3 = Santos| first3 = H. | last4 = Bobocel| first4 = D.R. | last5 = Grossmann| first5 = I. |year = 2017 | title = Wisdom, Bias, and Balance: Toward a Process-Sensitive Measurement of Wisdom-Related Cognition. | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | pages = 1093–1126 | pmid = 28933874 | doi = 10.1037/pspp0000171 | s2cid = 29052539 | url = https://psyarxiv.com/p25c2/ }}</ref>

== Definitions ==
[[File:Beowulf - wisdome.jpg|thumb|Early mention of wisdom in ''Beowulf'']]
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines wisdom as "Capacity of judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgment in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense, esp. in practical affairs: opp. to folly;" also "Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition."<ref>{{cite web|title=wisdom, n|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/wisdom_n |work=Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=14 July 2015}}</ref> Charles Haddon Spurgeon defined wisdom as "the right use of [[Philosophy:Knowledge|knowledge]]".<ref>{{citation|first=Charles Haddon|last=Spurgeon|title=The Fourfold Treasure|year=1871|at=№991|quote=Wisdom is, I suppose, the right use of knowledge. To know is not to be wise. Many men know a great deal, and are all the greater fools for it. There is no fool so great a fool as a knowing fool. But to know how to use knowledge is to have wisdom. }}</ref> Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon defined the "attitude of wisdom" as "acting with knowledge while doubting what one knows".{{cn|date=August 2023}}

In social and psychological sciences, several distinct approaches to wisdom exist,<ref name=":2" /> along with techniques of operationalization<ref name=":0" /> and measurement<ref name=":1" /> of wisdom as a psychological construct. Wisdom is the capacity to have [[Philosophy:Foresight (psychology)|foreknowledge]] of something, to know the consequences (positive and negative) of the available courses of action, and take the best of the available options.<ref name="Meacham, J. A. 1990 Pp. 181">{{cite book|last=Meacham|first=J. A.|year=1990|chapter=The loss of wisdom|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last=Sternberg|title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=181, 211}}</ref>

== Mythological perspectives ==
=== History ===
The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important [[Philosophy:Virtue|virtue]], personified as the [[Philosophy:Goddess|goddess]]es [[Unsolved:Metis (mythology)|Metis]] and Athena. Metis was the first wife of [[Religion:Zeus|Zeus]], who, according to [[Biography:Hesiod|Hesiod]]'s [[Religion:Theogony|Theogony]], had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Titan/TitanisMetis.html|title=METIS—Greek Titan Goddess of Wise Counsel|website=Theoi Project|access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref><ref>[[Biography:Hesiod|Hesiod]]. ''Theogony''.</ref> Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.<ref>{{cite web|last=Turnbill|first=Liz|date=12 August 2011|title=Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom and craftsmanship|url=https://goddessgift.com/goddesses/athena/|website=Goddess Gift}}</ref>

[[Unsolved:Apollo|Apollo]] was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (''Musagetes''),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/Mousai.html|title=MOUSAI—Greek Goddesses of Music, Poetry & the Arts|website=Theoi Project|access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref> who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to [[Biography:Plato|Plato]] in his ''Cratylus'', the name of Apollo could also mean "{{transliteration|grc|ballon}}" (archer) and "{{transliteration|grc|omopoulon}}" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Biography:Plato|Plato]]|title=Cratylus|at=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0172%3Atext%3DCrat.%3Apage%3D406 405e-406a]}}</ref> Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "[[Philosophy:Know thyself|know thyself]]" ({{transliteration|grc|gnōthi seauton}}){{Efn|1=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0176:text%3DCharm.:section%3D165a Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's ''Charmides'' (165a)] |name=|group=}} was inscribed (one of the [[Religion:Delphic maxims|Delphic maxims]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Michael|title=Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> He was contrasted with [[Religion:Hermes|Hermes]], who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with [[Religion:Thoth|Thoth]] in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Preus|first=Anthony|date=1998-03-30|title=Thoth and Apollo. Greek Myths of the Origin of Philosophy|journal=Méthexis|volume=11|issue=1|pages=113–125|doi=10.1163/24680974-90000303|issn=0327-0289}}</ref> Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the [[Philosophy:Seven Sages of Greece|Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan H.|last=Griffiths|chapter=Seven Sages|title=Oxford Classical Dictionary|date=29 January 2024 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8|url-access=registration|editor-first1=Simon|editor-last1=Hornblower|editor-first2=Antony|editor-last2=Spawforth|editor-first3=Esther|editor-last3=Eidinow|edition=4th|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8/page/1357/mode/1up 1357]}}</ref>

To [[Biography:Socrates|Socrates]] and [[Biography:Plato|Plato]], [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophy]] was literally the love of wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|philo-[[Philosophy:Sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]}}). This permeates Plato's [[Philosophy:Dialogue|dialogues]]; in ''The Republic'' the leaders of his proposed [[Philosophy:Utopia|utopia]] are [[Philosophy:Philosopher king|philosopher king]]s who understand the [[Philosophy:Form of the Good|Form of the Good]] and possess the courage to act accordingly. [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]], in ''Metaphysics'', defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way ([[Causality|causality]]), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way.{{Efn|1=Note that two thousand years after Aristotle, Isaac Newton was forced to [[Physics:Newton's law of universal gravitation|admit that]] "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity"|name=|group=}} He was the first to make the distinction between {{transliteration|grc|[[Philosophy:Phronesis|phronesis]]}} and {{transliteration|grc|sophia}}.<ref name="Trowbridge2011" />

According to Plato and [[Biography:Xenophon|Xenophon]], the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author=[[Biography:Plato|Plato]]|title=Symposium}}
|2={{cite book|author=[[Biography:Xenophon|Xenophon]]|title=Memorabilia}} }}</ref> According to Plato's [[Philosophy:Apology (Plato)|''Apology'']], Socrates decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge:

{{Verse translation|lang=grc|τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.|I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.}}

This became immortalized in the phrase "[[Philosophy:I know that I know nothing|I know that I know nothing]]" an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own ignorance<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gail|last=Fine|title=Does Socrates Claim to Know that He Knows Nothing?|journal=Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy|volume=35|year=2008|pages=49–88|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199557790.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-955779-0 }}</ref> and to value [[Philosophy:Epistemic humility#Socratic humility theory of wisdom|epistemic humility]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Ryan|first=Sharon|title=Wisdom|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/wisdom/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref>

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the [[Biology:Owl#Symbolism and mythology|owl]], which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.<ref>{{cite web|title=Myths about Roman Goddess Minerva|url=http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|url-status=dead|website=Roman-colosseum.info|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626062447/http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|archive-date=2012-06-26}}</ref>

Buddhist traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni2017">{{cite journal|last1=Karunamuni|first1=N.|last2=Weerasekera|first2=R.|title=Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom|journal=Current Psychology|volume=38|issue=3|pages=627–646|doi=10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7|url=http://mindrxiv.org/mfs63/|year=2019|s2cid=149024504}}</ref><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi">{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html|title=The Noble Eightfold Path|access-date=2009-03-16|publisher=Access to Insight|first=Bhikkhu|last=Bodhi}}</ref> In the Inuit tradition, developing{{ambiguous|reason=developing in whom?|date=August 2023}} wisdom was one of the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do.

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English ''[[Medicine:Wisdom tooth|wisdom tooth]]''. This nickname originated from the classical tradition—the Hippocratic writings used the term {{transliteration|grc|sóphronistér}} (in [[Social:Greek language|Greek]], related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in [[Social:Latin|Latin]] {{lang|la|dens sapientiae}} (wisdom tooth).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Šimon|first=František|title=The history of Latin teeth names|date=2015-12-15|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/223786|journal=Acta medico-historica Adriatica|volume=13|issue=2|pages=365–384|issn=1334-4366|pmid=27604204}}</ref>

== Educational perspectives ==
[[File:Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg|thumb|''Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing'' by Jacob de Wit, 1754]]

Public schools in the U.S. sometimes nod at "character education" which would include training in wisdom.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of Education|date=31 May 2005|title=Character education: our shared responsibility|url=https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html}}</ref>

[[Biography:Nicholas Maxwell|Nicholas Maxwell]], a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2007|title=From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities|publisher=Pentire Press}}</ref> This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/friends-of-wisdom|title=Friends of Wisdom|website=University College London|date=21 February 2019 |quote=an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means}}</ref> He teaches that new knowledge and technological [[Philosophy:Know-how|know-how]] increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.<ref>{{citation|url=https://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/1709/|title=Can Humanity Learn to become Civilized? The Crisis of Science without Civilization|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2000}}</ref>

== Psychological perspectives ==
Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sternberg|first=R. J.|year=1985|title=Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=49|issue=3 |page=607–62|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607 }}</ref> Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = S. C. | last2 = Greene | first2 = J. A. | year = 2006 | title = The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete | url = http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170705112332/http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2017-07-05 | journal = Journal of College Student Development | volume = 47 | pages = 1–19 | doi=10.1353/csd.2006.0002| citeseerx = 10.1.1.502.7954 | s2cid = 35496789 }}</ref>

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bluck|first1=Susan|last2=Glück|first2=Judith |title=A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Sternberg|editor-first2=Jennifer|editor-last2=Jordan|pages= 84–109|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|year=2005|location=New York, U.S.A.|doi= 10.1017/cbo9780511610486.005|chapter=From the Inside Out: People's Implicit Theories of Wisdom|doi-broken-date=29 January 2024 |isbn= 9780511610486}}</ref> 
<ref name=":2"/> Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,<ref name=":2"/> but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain [[Philosophy:Metacognition|meta-cognitive]] processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baltes|first1=Paul B.|last2=Staudinger|first2=Ursula M.|year=2000|title=Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence|journal=American Psychologist|volume=55|issue=1|pages=122–136|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122|pmid=11392856|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0"/> These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=The Kingfisher Story Collection|date=2022|publisher=Amazon Digital Services|isbn=979-8353946595}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vervaeke|first=John|title=The Cognitive Science of Wisdom|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|publisher=Mind Matters Conference|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sternberg|first=Robert J.|title=Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-80238-3 }}</ref> Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Na | first2 = J. | last3 = Varnum | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Park | first4 = D.C. | last5 =Kitayama | first5 = S. | last6 = Nisbett | first6 = R.E. | year = 2010 | title = Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. | url = https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2010/03/23/1001715107.full.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 16 | pages = 7246–50 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7246G | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 | pmid = 20368436 | pmc = 2867718 | doi-access = free }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger| first1 = U.M. | last2 = Lopez| first2 = D.F | last3 = Baltes| first3 = P.B. | year = 1997 | title = The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 23 | issue = 11 | pages = 1200–1214 | doi = 10.1177/01461672972311007 | s2cid = 145148320}} }}</ref>

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|first1=P.B.|last1=Baltes|first2=J.|last2=Glück|first3=U.|last3=Kunzmann|chapter=Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development|title=Handbook of Positive Psychology|editor-first1=C.R.|editor-last1=Snyder|editor-first2=S.J.|editor-last2=Lopez|pages=327–347|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
|2={{cite journal | pmc = 2937249 | pmid=20233730 | doi=10.1093/geront/gnq022 | volume=50 | issue=5 | title=Expert consensus on characteristics of wisdom: a Delphi method study | date=October 2010 | journal=Gerontologist | pages=668–80 | last1 = Jeste | first1 = D.V. | last2 = Ardelt | first2 = M. | last3 = Blazer | first3 = D. | last4 = Kraemer | first4 = H.C. | last5 = Vaillant | first5 = G. | last6 = Meeks | first6 = T.W.}} }}</ref> Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Brienza| first2 = J.P. | last3 = Bobocel| first3 = D.R.|year = 2017 | title = Wise deliberation sustains cooperation | journal = Nature Human Behaviour | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | page = 0061 | doi = 10.1038/s41562-017-0061 | s2cid = 38342840 }}</ref>

Some researchers of [[Social:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] have defined wisdom as the coordination of "knowledge and experience" and "its deliberate use to improve well being."<ref name="CSV106">{{cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Christopher|last2=Seligman|first2= Martin E. P. |title=Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|year=2004|location=Oxford|page=106|isbn=978-0-19-516701-6|title-link=Character Strengths and Virtues (book)}}</ref> Under this definition, wisdom is further refined as having the following facets:<ref name="CSVperspective">{{cite book|last=Harter|first=Andrew C.|title=Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification|editor=Peterson, Christopher |editor2=Seligman, Martin E. P.|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|chapter=Perspective [Wisdom]|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=181–196|isbn=978-0-19-516701-6|title-link=Character Strengths and Virtues (book)}}</ref>

* Problem-solving with [[Philosophy:Self-knowledge (psychology)|self-knowledge]] and {{clarify|reason=Does "sustainable" mean actions that can be sustained for a long duration, or actions of a sort that can be done repeatedly, or something else?|text=sustainable|date=August 2023}} actions.
* [[Philosophy:Ambiguity tolerance–intolerance|Tolerance towards uncertainty]] in life with {{clarify|reason=acceptance of what? the uncertainty? the life? whatever comes up in life?|text=unconditional acceptance|date=August 2023}}.
* to understand one's own emotions {{clarify|reason=unclear what this tangle of words is meant to express|text=(or to be emotionally oriented), morals...etc. and others feelings|date=August 2023} 
This theoretical model has not been tested empirically{{clarify|reason=how would such a broad link be an exception to the statement that the above model has not been tested empirically? or what other meaning is being intended by this phrase?|text=, with an exception of a broad link between wisdom-related reasoning and well-being|date=August 2023}}.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Na | first2 = J. | last3 = Varnum | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Park | first4 = D.C. | last5 =Kitayama | first5 = S. | last6 = Nisbett | first6 = R.E. | year = 2010 | title = Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. | url = https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2010/03/23/1001715107.full.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 16 | pages = 7246–50 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7246G | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 | pmid = 20368436 | pmc = 2867718 | doi-access = free }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Kunzmann| first1 = U. | last2 = Glück| first2 = J.|year = 2018 | title = Wisdom and Emotion}} }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Gerlach| first2 = T.M. | last3 = Denissen| first3 = J.J. |year = 2016 | title = Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges. | journal = Social Psychological and Personality Science | volume = 7| issue = 7 | pages = 611–622 | doi = 10.1177/1948550616652206 | s2cid = 148246126 }}</ref>

Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford [[Philosophy:Impartiality|unbiased]], sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:
# intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
# appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
# sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
# compromise or integration of different perspectives<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title=Wisdom and how to cultivate it: Review of emerging evidence for a constructivist model of wise thinking|last=Grossmann|first=Igor|date=2017-07-20|doi = 10.31234/osf.io/qkm6v|url=https://psyarxiv.com/qkm6v/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=Henri C.|last2=Huynh|first2=Alex C.|last3=Grossmann|first3=Igor|year=2017|title=Wisdom in a complex world: A situated account of wise reasoning and its development|journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|volume=11|issue=10|pages=e12341|doi=10.1111/spc3.12341|issn=1751-9004|url=https://psyarxiv.com/pdtxv/ }}</ref>
Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20230411-illeism-the-ancient-trick-to-help-you-think-more-wisely |title=Illeism: The ancient trick to help you think more wisely |publisher=BBC |date=2023-04-14 |access-date=2023-07-04}}
|2={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://aeon.co/ideas/why-speaking-to-yourself-in-the-third-person-makes-you-wiser |title=Why speaking to yourself in the third person makes you wiser |publisher=Aeon |date=2019-08-07 |access-date=2020-07-10}} }}</ref> Grossmann says contextual factors—such as culture, experiences, and social situations—influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after [[Biography:Solomon|King Solomon]], who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)<ref name=":4" />

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kunzmann|first1=U.|last2=Glück|first2=J.|year=2018|title=Wisdom and Emotion.}}</ref> Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Oakes|first2=Harrison|last3=Santos|first3=Henri C.|year=2018|title=Wise Reasoning Benefits from Emodiversity, Irrespective of Emotional Intensity.|url=https://osf.io/jy5em|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=148|issue=5|pages=805–823|doi=10.1037/xge0000543|pmid=30688474|s2cid=59306284|via=PsyArXiv}}</ref>

=== Measuring wisdom ===

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.<ref name="Wisdom in context">{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I.|year = 2017 | title = Wisdom in context. | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–257| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066| pmid = 28346113| s2cid = 26818408}}</ref> Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to {{clarify|reason=in what way?|text=biased|date=August 2023}} responses,<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor| first1 = M. | last2 = Bates| first2 = G. | last3 = Webster| first3 = J.D. |year = 2011 | title = Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS). | journal = Experimental Aging Research | volume = 37| issue = 2 | pages = 129–141 | doi = 10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508 | pmid = 21424954 | s2cid = 205555336 }}</ref> something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glück| first1 = J. | last2 = König| first2 = S. | last3 = Naschenweng| first3 = K. | last4 = Redzanowski| first4 = U. | last5 = Dorner-Hörig| first5 = L. | last6 = Straßer|first6 = I | last7 = Wiedermann|  first7 = W |year = 2013 | title = How to measure wisdom: Content, reliability, and validity of five measures. | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4| pages = 405 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00405 | pmid = 23874310 | pmc = 3709094 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baltes| first1 = P.B. | last2 = Staudinger| first2 = U. |year = 2000 | title = Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 55| issue = 1 | pages = 122–136 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122 | pmid = 11392856 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4 | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/191074 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Wisdom in context"/> Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.<ref name=":1"/> Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.<ref name="Wisdom in context"/> For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=I.|last2=Karasawa|first2=M.|last3=Izumi|first3=S.|last4=Na|first4=J.|last5=Varnum|first5=M.E.|last6=Kitayama|first6=S|last7=Nisbett|first7=R.E|year=2012|title=Aging and wisdom: Culture matters.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1059–1066|doi=10.1177/0956797612446025|pmid=22933459|hdl=11244/25191|s2cid=4829751|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and within-cultural variability,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brienza|first1=Justin P.|last2=Grossmann|first2=Igor|title=Social class and wise reasoning about interpersonal conflicts across regions, persons and situations|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284|issue=1869|pages=1869|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1870|pmid=29263284|pmc=5745406|year=2017}}</ref> and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Kross|first2=Ethan|year=2017|title=Exploring Solomon's Paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=25|issue=8|pages=1571–1580|doi=10.1177/0956797614535400|pmid=24916084|s2cid=3539860}}</ref> and in daily life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.<ref name="CSVperspective" /><ref name="Orwoll">{{cite book|last1=Orwoll|first1=L.|last2=Perlmutter|first2=M. |title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last= Sternberg|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=1990|pages=160–177|isbn=978-0-521-36718-9}}</ref> This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.<ref name="Orwoll" /> The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.<ref name="Wisdom in context"/> Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.<ref name="Meacham, J. A. 1990 Pp. 181"/>

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index<ref>{{cite web |title=Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index |website=U.C. San Diego Health Sciences |url=https://survey.alchemer.com/s3/5991949/Jeste-Thomas-Wisdom-Index}}</ref> is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dr. Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a 7-question survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, [[Decision-making|decisiveness]], emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, [[Philosophy:Self-reflection|self-reflection]], social advising, and (to a lesser degree) [[Philosophy:Spirituality|spirituality]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The 7-Item Wisdom Scale: A Fast Way to See If You're Wise |author=Christopher Bergland |website=Psychology Today |date=5 Dec 2021 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/202112/fast-way-see-if-youre-wise}}</ref>

== Sapience ==

Sapience ("{{transliteration|grc|sophia}}" in Greek) is "transcendent wisdom", "ultimate reality", or the ultimate truth of things.<ref name="Trowbridge2011"/><ref name="Walsh2015"/><ref name="Aggregates">{{cite journal|last=Karunamuni|first=N.D.|date=May 2015|title=The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind|journal=SAGE Open|volume=5|issue=2|pages=215824401558386|doi=10.1177/2158244015583860|doi-access=free}}</ref> This more cosmic, "big picture" definition is often how wisdom ("true wisdom" or "Wisdom" with a capital W) is considered in a religious context.<ref name="Trowbridge2011"/><ref name="Walsh2015"/> It transcends mere practical wisdom and may include deep understanding of [[Philosophy:Self-knowledge (psychology)|self]], interconnectedness, conditioned origination, and [[Philosophy:Phenomenology|phenomenological]] insight.<ref name="Karunamuni2017"/><ref name="Trowbridge2011"/><ref name="Walsh2015"/> A person with this type of wisdom can act with appropriate [[Philosophy:Value judgment|judgment]], a broad understanding of situations, and greater appreciation/compassion towards other living beings.<ref name="Karunamuni2017"/>

The word ''sapience'' is derived from the [[Social:Latin|Latin]] {{lang|la|sapientia}}, meaning "wisdom".<ref name="LewisShortLatinDictionary">{{cite book|title=Latin Dictionary|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|year=1963|isbn=978-0-19-864201-5|last1=Lewis|first1=C.T.|last2=Short|first2=C. }}</ref> The corresponding verb {{lang|la|sapere}} has the original meaning of "to taste", hence "to perceive, to discern" and "to know"; its present participle {{lang|la|sapiens}} was chosen by [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Carl Linnaeus]] for the Latin binomial for the human species, ''Homo sapiens''.

== Religious perspectives ==
{{Further|Philosophy:Sophia (wisdom)}}

=== Ancient Near East ===
In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, [[Religion:Enki|Enki]], also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed {{clarify|reason=who is designating? what is functioning? what makes a designation providential?|text=the provident designation of functions|date=August 2023}} and the ordering of the cosmos, and it{{ambiguous|reason=what is "it"? the wisdom? the designation?|date=August 2023}} was achieved by humans by following {{transliteration|sux|me}}s (in [[Social:Sumerian language|Sumerian]]: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pdfy-OBb9_axzoPvTFsq4|title=The God Enki in Sumerian Royal Ideology and Mythology|last=Espak|first=Peeter|publisher=Tartu University Press|year=2014|series=Dissertationes Theologiae Universitatis Tartuensis|volume=19|location=Tartu|isbn=9789949195220}}</ref> In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from [[History:3rd millennium BC|{{BCE|the third millennium}}]], there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from {{BCE|2600}} (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to [[Religion:Utu|Shamash]]" which includes the following:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bonechi|first=Marco|year=2016|title=87) The Pregnant Woman in the Archaic Hymn to Shamash of Sippar|url=http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801055234/http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-01 |url-status=live|journal=Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires |issue=4 |pages=147–150}}</ref>

{{quote|Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! [[Religion:Sin (mythology)|Sin]], his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence}}

The concept of [[Philosophy:Logos|Logos]]—manifest word of the divine thought—was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and [[Philosophy:Ancient Greek philosophy|Ancient Greece]].<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last=Uždavinys|first=Algis|title=Philosophy as a Rite of Rebirth: From Ancient Egypt to Neoplatonism|publisher=The Prometheus Trust|year=2008|isbn=9781898910350|url=https://themathesontrust.org/publications-files/MTexcerpt-PhilosophyRebirth.pdf}}</ref> It was important in the thinking of [[Biography:Heraclitus|Heraclitus]], and in the [[Religion:Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic traditions]]. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/6411568|title=Mesopotamian precursors to the Stoic concept of logic|last=Lawson, Jack Newton.|journal=Melammu Symposia 2. Myth and Mythologies: Methodological Approaches to Intercultural Influences|year=2001|publisher=[Melammu Project]|oclc=714111111}}</ref>

[[Religion:Sia (god)|Sia]] was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. [[Religion:Thoth|Thoth]], married to Maat (in [[Social:Egyptian language|ancient Egyptian]]: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.<ref>{{cite web|first=Joshua J.|last=Mark|date=2016-04-14|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/885/egyptian-gods---the-complete-list/|title=Egyptian Gods—The Complete List|website=[[Organization:World History Encyclopedia|World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2019-01-29}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

=== Zoroastrianism ===
In the [[Social:Avesta|Avesta]] [[Religion:Gathas|Gathas]], hymns traditionally attributed to [[Biography:Zoroaster|Zoroaster]], [[Religion:Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazda]] means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1983|chapter=Ahura Mazdā|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|editor-first=Ehsan|editor-last=Yarshater|volume=1|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse/page/684/mode/2up 684]–687|isbn=978-0-7100-9099-7 }}</ref> In [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]], the order of the universe and morals is called {{transliteration|ae|[[Philosophy:Asha|asha]]}} (in [[Social:Avestan|Avestan]], truth, righteousness), which is determined by this [[Philosophy:Omniscience|omniscient]] Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura ([[Religion:Amesha Spenta|Amesha Spenta]]). It is related to another ahura deity, [[Religion:Amesha Spenta|Spenta Mainyu]] (active Mentality).<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1975|title=A History of Zoroastrianism|volume=I|location=Leiden/Köln|publisher=Brill}}</ref> It says in Yazna 31:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://avesta.org/yasna/yasna.htm#y31| title = Yazna 31 |website=Sacred Liturgy and Gathas/Hymns of Zarathushtra}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.|sign=|source=}}

=== Hebrew Bible and Judaism ===

[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 138.png|thumbnail|Solomon and Lady Wisdom by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860]]In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in {{bibleref2|2 Chronicles|1:10}}. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with [[Social:Proverb|wise sayings]], is attributed to Solomon. In {{bibleref2|Proverbs|9:10}}, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Proverbs|2:6}}</ref> In {{bibleref2|Proverbs|1:20}}, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In {{bibleref2|Proverbs|8:22–31}}, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.

[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 109.png|thumb|right|''Solomon's Wisdom'', 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]]King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ecclesiastes|1:2–18}}</ref> Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/james|title=Book of James Overview - Insight for Living Ministries|website=www.insight.org|access-date=2016-11-17}}</ref>

The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. {{transliteration|he|Nolad}} is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).<ref>Wolpe, David, perf. [https://www.sinaitemple.org/learning_with_the_rabbis/sermons/mp3/2012/Sermon081812.mp3 "Re'eh: What it Means to Choose."] ''Rabbi David Wolpe''. Sinai Temple, 11 August 2012. web. 16 Aug 2013.</ref>

=== Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism ===
{{main|Philosophy:Sophia (wisdom)|Philosophy:Sophia (Gnosticism)}}

=== Christian theology ===
In [[Religion:Christian theology|Christian theology]], "wisdom" (From [[Social:Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{lang|he|חכמה}} transliteration: {{transliteration|he|chokmâh}} pronounced: khok-maw', [[Social:Greek language|Greek]]: {{transliteration|grc|Sophia}}, [[Social:Latin language|Latin]]: {{lang|la|Sapientia}}) describes an aspect of God, or the [[Religion:Theology|theological]] concept regarding the wisdom of [[Religion:God|God]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 096.png|thumb|right|250px|''David and [[Religion:Abigail|Abigail]]'', Abigail was a "wise woman" who helped David. 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld.]]
Christian thought opposes secular wisdom and Godly wisdom. [[Biography:Paul the Apostle|Paul the Apostle]] states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|1:17–31}}</ref> Wisdom is considered one of the [[Religion:Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit|seven gifts of the Holy Spirit]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Isaiah|11:2–3}}</ref> {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|12:8–10}} gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.

The Epistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you".<ref>{{bibleverse|James|1:5}}</ref> James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."<ref>{{bibleverse|James|3:17}}</ref> James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.

Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.

=== Indian religions ===
{{further|Philosophy:Prajñā (Buddhism)|Philosophy:Prajñā (Hinduism)|Philosophy:Prajnaparamita}}
In the [[Philosophy:Indian philosophy|Indian traditions]], wisdom can be called {{transliteration|sa|[[Philosophy:Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajña]]}} or {{transliteration|sa|[[Philosophy:Vijñāna|vijñana]]}}.

Developing wisdom is of central importance in [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".<ref name="Karunamuni2017" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the [[Philosophy:Four Noble Truths|Four Noble Truths]] and by following the [[Philosophy:Noble Eightfold Path|Noble Eightfold Path]].<ref name="Karunamuni2017" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> This path lists [[Philosophy:Mindfulness|mindfulness]] as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni2017" />

Buddhist scriptures teach that a wise people conduct themselves well.<ref>''AN'' 3:2</ref> A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.<ref>''AN'' 4:115</ref> Wisdom is the [[Chemistry:Antidote|antidote]] to the self-chosen [[Philosophy:Kleshas (Buddhism)|poison]] of [[Philosophy:Ignorance|ignorance]]. The [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.<ref>''[[Religion:Dhammapada|Dhammapada]]'' v. 256</ref>
* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 257</ref>
* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 258</ref>
* By quietude alone one does not become a [[Philosophy:Wise old man|sage]] ({{transliteration|sa|muni}}) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a {{transliteration|sa|muni}} by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 268–69</ref>

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature ([[Philosophy:Buddha-nature|Buddha-nature]] or [[Philosophy:Tathāgata|Tathagata]]) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the [[Philosophy:Kleshas (Buddhism)|kleshas]]: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth Patriarch of [[Religion:Chan Buddhism|Chán Buddhism]], Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra, "Mind without dispute is self-nature discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self-nature wisdom."

In [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]] and [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|esoteric Buddhist]] lineages, Mañjuśrī is considered an embodiment of Buddha wisdom.

In [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], wisdom is considered a state of mind and soul with which a person achieves [[Philosophy:Moksha|liberation]]. The god of wisdom is [[Biology:Ganesha|Ganesha]] and the goddess of knowledge is [[Religion:Saraswati|Saraswati]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}

The Sanskrit verse to attain knowledge is:<ref>[[Religion:Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 1.3.28</ref>
{{Verse transliteration-translation|lang=sa|असतो मा सद्गमय
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः|Asatō mā sadgamaya
tamasō mā jyōtirgamaya
mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
[[Philosophy:Om|Om]] śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ|Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Lead me from darkness to light.
Lead me from death to immortality.
May there be peace, peace, and peace.}}

Wisdom in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, as the basis for the entire Creation: ultimate [[Philosophy:Self-awareness|self-awareness]] as the one who witnesses the entire creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual may, through right conduct and right living, come to realize their true relationship with the creation and the {{transliteration|sa|Paramatma}}.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}

=== Islam ===
{{main|Philosophy:Hikmah}}
The Islamic term for wisdom is {{transliteration|ar|hikmah}}. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], notably in Sura 2:269, Sura 22:46, and Sura 6:151.

The Sufi philosopher [[Biography:Ibn Arabi|Ibn Arabi]] considers ''al-Hakim'' ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shahzad|first=Qaiser|year=2004|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837323|url-access=subscription|title=Ibn 'Arabī's Contribution to the Ethics of Divine Names|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=43|number=1|pages=5–38|jstor=20837323 }}</ref> Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and [[Religion:Islamic philosophy|philosophy]]. The first Arab philosopher, [[Biography:Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi]] says at the beginning of his book:<ref>{{Citation|last=Adamson|first=Peter|title=Al-Kindi|year=2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/al-kindi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.|sign=|source=[[Biography:Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi]], ''On First Philosophy''}}

=== Chinese religion ===
The Buddhist term {{transliteration|sa|[[Philosophy:Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]]}} was translated into Chinese as
{{lang|zh|智慧}} (pinyin {{transliteration|zh|zhìhuì}}, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent").

According to the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', [[Biography:Confucius|Confucius]] said:
<blockquote>
Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be shameful is akin to courage ({{transliteration|zh|zhi}}, {{transliteration|zh|ren}}, {{transliteration|zh|yong}}... three of [[Biography:Mencius|Mengzi]]'s sprouts of virtue).{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}}{{dubious|date=February 2022}}
</blockquote>
Compare this with the Confucian classic ''[[Philosophy:Great Learning|Great Learning]]'', which begins with: "The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good." This is comprable to the Roman virtue [[Philosophy:Prudence|prudence]], especially if one interprets "clear character" as "clear conscience". (From Chan's Sources of Chinese Philosophy).{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}}

In [[Philosophy:Taoism|Taoism]], wisdom is adherence to the [[Philosophy:Three Treasures (Taoism)|three treasures]]: charity, simplicity, and humility.{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}}
"He who knows other men is discerning [智]; he who knows himself is intelligent [明]." ({{lang|zh|知人者智，自知者明。}}[[Philosophy:Tao Te Ching|Tao Te Ching]] 33).<ref>[https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing#n11624 Chinese Text Project], trans. James Legge.</ref>

In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between [[Biology:Asanga|Asanga]], [[Biography:Vasubandhu|Vasubandhu]] and Xuanzang.{{Explain|reason=what are these continuities, how do they illustrate the linkage?|date=August 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jannel |first1=Romaric |title=Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom: Learning, Reasoning, and Cultivating in Yogācāra Thought |journal=Religions |date=May 2022 |volume=13 |issue=6 |page=486 |doi=10.3390/rel13060486 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Others ===
In Norse mythology, the god [[Religion:Odin|Odin]] is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.<ref name=Faulkes>{{cite book|translator-last=Faulkes|translator-first=Anthony|editor-last=Faulkes|editor-first=Anthony|year=1987|title=Edda|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|publisher=Everyman's Library|isbn=0-460-87616-3}}</ref>
In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the [[Norse cosmology|realms of existence]], suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Larrington|editor-first=Carolyne|translator-last=Larrington|translator-first=Carolyne|year=1996|title=Poetic Edda|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|publisher=Oxford World's Classics|isbn=0-19-283946-2}}</ref> He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of [[Religion:Æsir|gods]] and mortals alike.<ref name=Faulkes/>

In [[Social:Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí Faith]] scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."<ref>{{cite book|title=Bahai Reference Library|chapter=Asl-i-Kullu’l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)|chapter-url=https://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/tb-11.html|series=Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas|publisher=US Bahá’í Publishing Trust|year=1988|edition=pocket-size|access-date=19 March 2013}}</ref> Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".<ref>{{cite book|translator-last=Browne|author=ʻAbduʹl-Bahá|translator-first=Edward G.|title=A traveler's narrative|year=1980|publisher=Bahá'i Publ. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-0877431343|page=46|edition=New and corr.}}</ref> One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.<ref>{{cite book|last=Esslemont|first=J.E.|title=Bahá'u'lláh and the new era: an introduction to the Bahá'í faith|year=2006|publisher=Bahá'í Pub. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-1931847278}}</ref>

==== Pop culture ====

In the Star Wars universe, wisdom is valued. George Lucas incorporated [[Philosophy:Spirituality|spirituality]] and morals, recurrent in mythological and philosophical themes, into the films; one of his inspirations was [[Biography:Joseph Campbell|Joseph Campbell]]'s [[Philosophy:The Hero with a Thousand Faces|The Hero of a Thousand Faces]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Campbell|title=The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work|edition=3rd|editor-first=Phil|editor-last=Cousineau|location=Novato, California|publisher=New World Library|year=2003|pages=186–187}}</ref> The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise sage or "Oriental Monk",<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|title=Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture|last=Iwamura|first= Jane Naomi|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1090089521}}
|2={{Cite book|title=Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being|last=Niemiec|first= Ryan M.|isbn=9780889374430|oclc=844533648|year=2014|publisher=Hogrefe }} }}</ref> and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/life/star-wars-who-said-it-yoda-or-a-jewish-sage-1.5436169|url-access=subscription|title=Star Wars: Who Said It? Yoda or a Jewish Sage|work=Haaretz|date=2017-09-12}}
|2={{cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/may-the-fourth-be-with-you-the-wisdom-of-star-wars-in-40-iconic-quotes.html|title=May the Fourth Be With You: the Wisdom of Star Wars in 40 Iconic Quotes|last=Daum|first=Kevin|date=2017-05-04|website=Inc.com|access-date=2019-08-16}} }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=The Tao of Yoda: based upon the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu|last=Kreger|first=D. W.|year=2013|publisher=Windham Everitt|isbn=9780983309925|oclc=861507203}}</ref> Psychologist D. W. Kreger's book ''The Tao of Yoda'' adapts the wisdom of the [[Philosophy:Tao Te Ching|Tao Te Ching]] in relation to Yoda's thinking.<ref name=":6" /> Knowledge is canonically considered one of the pillars of the films' Jedi knights, something expanded upon in the non-canon book ''The Jedi Path'',<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Scott|first=Cavan|title=Dooku: Jedi Lost (Star Wars)|isbn=9780593102817|oclc=1099657064}}
|2={{Cite book|title=Jedi path|last=Wallace|first=Daniel|year=2010|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429648779|oclc=1083368300}} }}</ref> and wisdom can serve as a tenet for [[Religion:Jediism|Jediism]]. The Jedi Code states: "Ignorance, yet knowledge."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weisman|first1=Greg|last2=Larraz|first2=Pepe|title=Kanan 7: First Blood, Part I: The Corridors of Coruscant|publisher=Marvel Comics|year=2015}}</ref> In a psychology populational study published by Grossmann and team in 2019, respondents considered Yoda to be wiser than Spock, a fictional character from the Star Trek series, due to Spock's blind spot for emotion, which was positively associated with wise reasoning in people:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-scientific-reason-yoda-is-wiser-than-spock|title=The Scientific Reason Yoda Is Wiser Than Spock|last=Dockrill|first=Peter|website=ScienceAlert|date=30 January 2019 |access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref> "Yoda embraces his emotions and aims to achieve a balance between them. Yoda is known to be emotionally expressive, to share a good joke with others, but also to recognize sorrow and his past mistakes".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Oakes|first2=Harrison|last3=Santos|first3=Henri Carlo|year=2019|title=Wise Reasoning Benefits from Emodiversity, Irrespective of Emotional Intensity|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326115367|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=148|issue=5|pages=805–823|doi=10.1037/xge0000543|pmid=30688474|s2cid=59306284}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em|small=yes}}
* {{annotated link|Analogy}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Bildung}}
* {{annotated link|Religion:Book of Wisdom}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Consciousness}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Human condition}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Metacognition}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Perspicacity}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Philosophy}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Sage}}
* Sapiens (disambiguation)
* {{annotated link|Organization:School of Hard Knocks}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Sentience}}
{{Div col end}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|chapter=Sermon V.—Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity: In what true wisdom consists |title=Sermons for all the Sundays in the year|year=1882|publisher=Dublin|first=Alphonus|last=Liguori|}}
* Sternberg, R. and Gluck, J. (2021). ''Wisdom: The Psychology of Wise Thoughts, Words, and Deeds'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
* Tsai, Cheng-hung (2023). ''Wisdom: A Skill Theory'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Wisdom}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|wisdom}}
* {{InPho|idea|1544}}
* {{cite SEP|url-id=wisdom|title=Wisdom}}
* [http://www.wisdomresearch.org Center for Practical Wisdom] at the [[Organization:University of Chicago|University of Chicago]]


[[Category:Wisdom| ]]
[[Category:Virtue]]

{{Sourceattribution|Wisdom}}