View source for Physics:Breaking wave

{{Short description|Unstable wave}}
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{{Original research|date=June 2017}}
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[[File:Large breaking wave.jpg|thumb|300px|{{center|Plunging breaker}}]]
[[File:Surfers at Mavericks.jpg|thumb|300px|{{center|Large wave breaking}}]]

In [[Physics:Fluid dynamics|fluid dynamics]] and nautical terminology, a '''breaking wave''' or '''breaker''' is a [[Wave|wave]] with enough energy to "'''break'''" at its peak, reaching a critical level at which linear energy transforms into [[Wave turbulence|wave turbulence]] energy with a distinct forward curve.  At this point, simple physical models that describe wave dynamics often become invalid, particularly those that assume linear behaviour.

The most generally familiar sort of breaking wave is the breaking of water surface waves on a coastline. Wave breaking generally occurs where the amplitude reaches the point that the crest of the wave actually overturns. Certain other effects in fluid dynamics have also been termed "breaking waves", partly by analogy with water surface waves. In [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorology]], atmospheric [[Gravity wave|gravity wave]]s are said to break when the wave produces regions where the [[Earth:Potential temperature|potential temperature]] decreases with height, leading to energy dissipation through [[Earth:Convective instability|convective instability]]; likewise, Rossby waves are said to break<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2008/2008GL033578.shtml|title=AGU – American Geophysical Union|website=AGU}}</ref> when the [[Earth:Potential vorticity|potential vorticity]] gradient is overturned. Wave breaking also occurs in [[Software:Plasma|plasma]]s,<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Arkhipenko |first1=V.I. |last2=Gusakov |first2=E.Z. |last3=Pisarev |first3=V.A. |last4=Simonchik |first4=L.V. |title=Dynamics of the Plasma Wave Breaking Phenomena |conference=29th EPS Conference on Plasma Phys. and Contr. Fusion |date=June 2002 |location=Montreux, Switzerland |url=https://crppwww.epfl.ch/~duval/P5_009.pdf |access-date=5 November 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928115532/https://crppwww.epfl.ch/~duval/P5_009.pdf }}</ref> when the particle velocities exceed the wave's phase speed. Another application in plasma physics is plasma expansion into a vacuum, in which the process of wave breaking and the subsequent development of a fast ion peak is described by the Sack-Schamel equation.

A [[Earth:Reef|reef]] or spot of shallow water such as a [[Earth:Shoal|shoal]] against which waves break may also be known as a breaker.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

==Types==
[[File:Breaking wave types.svg|thumb|Classification of breaking wave types]]
[[File:Breaking wave in wavemaker.ogv|thumb|Breaking wave on a slope in a laboratory [[wave channel]] (movie)]]
[[File:Breaking waves.gif|thumb|Animation showing how the slope of the seafloor along the coast affects breaking waves]]

Breaking of water surface waves may occur anywhere that the amplitude is sufficient, including in mid-ocean.  However, it is particularly common on beaches, because wave heights are amplified in the region of shallower water because the group velocity is lower there {{xref|(see also: [[Physics:Waves and shallow water|Waves and shallow water]])}}.

There are four basic types of breaking water waves. They are spilling, plunging, collapsing, and surging.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = Van Nostrand Reinhold
| isbn = 978-0-442-25402-5
| last1 = Sarpkaya
| first1 = Turgut
| last2 = Isaacson
| first2= Michael
| title = Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures
| year = 1981
| page = 277
}}</ref>

===Spilling breakers===
When the ocean  floor has a gradual slope, the wave will steepen until the crest becomes unstable, resulting in turbulent whitewater spilling down the face of the wave.  This continues as the wave approaches the shore, and the wave's energy is slowly dissipated in the whitewater.  Because of this, spilling waves break for a longer time than other waves, and create a relatively gentle wave.  Onshore wind conditions make spillers more likely.

===Plunging breakers===
A plunging wave occurs when  the ocean floor is steep or has sudden depth changes, such as from a reef or sandbar.  The crest of the wave becomes much steeper than a spilling wave, becomes vertical, then curls over and drops onto the trough of the wave, releasing most of its energy at once in a relatively violent impact.   A plunging wave breaks with more energy than a significantly larger spilling wave.  The wave can trap and compress the air under the lip, which creates the "crashing" sound associated with waves.  With large waves, this crash can be felt by beachgoers on land.  Offshore wind conditions can make plungers more likely.

If a plunging wave is not parallel to the beach (or the ocean floor), the section of the wave which reaches shallow water will break first, and the breaking section (or curl) will move laterally across the face of the wave as the wave continues.  This is the "tube" that is so highly sought after by surfers (also called a "barrel", a "pit", and "the greenroom", among other terms).  The surfer tries to stay near or under the crashing lip, often trying to stay as "deep" in the tube as possible while still being able to shoot forward and exit the barrel before it closes.   A plunging wave that is parallel to the beach can break along its whole length at once, rendering it unrideable and dangerous.  Surfers refer to these waves as "closed out".

===Collapsing===
Collapsing waves are a cross between plunging and surging, in which the crest never fully breaks, yet the bottom face of the wave gets steeper and collapses, resulting in foam.

===Surging===
Surging breakers originate from long period, low steepness waves and/or steep beach profiles. The outcome is the rapid movement of the base of the wave up the swash slope and the disappearance of the wave crest. The front face and crest of the wave remain relatively smooth with little foam or bubbles, resulting in a very narrow [[Earth:Surf zone|surf zone]], or no breaking waves at all. The short, sharp burst of wave energy means that the swash/backwash cycle completes before the arrival of the next wave, leading to a low value of Kemp's phase difference (< 0.5). Surging waves are typical of reflective beach states. On steeper beaches, the energy of the wave can be reflected by the bottom back into the ocean, causing [[Physics:Standing wave|standing wave]]s.

{{clear}}

==Physics==
{{multiple image
 | direction = vertical
 | width = 300
 | footer = Different breaking-wave types, drawn after photos from a lab experiment, can be associated with the value of the [[Physics:Iribarren number|Iribarren number]].
 | image1 = Spilling breaker.gif
 | alt1 = Spilling breaker
 | caption1 = Spilling breaker
 | image2 = Plunging breaker.gif
 | alt2 = Plunging breaker
 | caption2 = Plunging breaker
 | image3 = Collapsing breaker.gif
 | alt3 = Collapsing breaker
 | caption3 = Collapsing breaker
 | image4 = Surging breaker.gif
 | alt4 = Surging breaker
 | caption4 = Surging breaker
}}
As ocean surface waves enter shallow water, the water particle velocities begin to move faster relative to the speed of the waveform. As a result, the waveform becomes unstable and the crest of the wave overturns, which is known as the wave breaking process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=Jonathan |title=Quantifying statistical characteristics of breaking waves in an idealized fringing reef environment: experiment and non-hydrostatic XBeach simulation |journal=International Journal of Ocean and Coastal Engineering |date=March 2025 |volume=6 |issue=1n04 |doi=10.1142/S2529807025500010}}</ref> During breaking, a deformation (usually a bulge) forms at the wave crest, either leading side of which is known as the "toe".{{clarify|description of the toe is unclear|date=July 2025}} Parasitic capillary waves are formed, with short wavelengths. Those above the "toe" tend to have much longer wavelengths. This theory is anything but perfect,{{clarify|which theory?|date=July 2025}} however, as it is linear. There have been a couple non-linear theories of motion (regarding waves). One put forth uses a perturbation method to expand the description all the way to the third order, and better solutions have been found since then. As for wave deformation, methods much like the [[Boundary element method|boundary integral method]] and the [[Boussinesq approximation (water waves)|Boussinesq model]] have been created.

It has been found that high-frequency detail present in a breaking wave plays a part in crest deformation and destabilization. The same theory expands on this, stating that the valleys of the capillary waves create a source for [[Vorticity|vorticity]]. It is said that [[Physics:Surface tension|surface tension]] (and [[Physics:Viscosity|viscosity]]) are significant for waves up to about {{convert|7|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in wavelength.<ref>{{cite book | first = M. J. | last = Lighthill |  title = Waves in fluids | publisher =Cambridge University Press | year = 1978 | isbn = 0-521-29233-6 | oclc = 2966533 |pages=223–225 & 232–235 }}</ref>

These models are flawed, however, as they can't take into account what happens to the water after the wave breaks. Post-break eddy forms and the turbulence created via the breaking is mostly un-researched. Understandably, it might be difficult to glean predictable results from the ocean.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

After the tip of the wave overturns and the jet collapses, it creates a very coherent and defined horizontal [[Vortex|vortex]]. The plunging breakers create secondary eddies down the face of the wave. Small horizontal random eddies that form on the sides of the wave suggest that, perhaps, prior to breaking, the water's velocity is more or less two dimensional. This becomes three dimensional upon breaking.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

The main vortex along the front of the wave diffuses rapidly into the interior of the wave after breaking, as the eddies on the surface become more viscous. [[Advection]] and [[Physics:Molecular diffusion|molecular diffusion]] play a part in [[Physics:Vortex stretching|stretching the vortex]] and redistributing the vorticity, as well as the formation turbulence cascades. The energy of the large vortices are, by this method, transferred to much smaller isotropic vortices.

Experiments have been conducted to deduce the evolution of turbulence after break, both in deep water and on a beach.

A theoretical limit on the steepness of non-breaking waves in finite depth is given by the Miche criterion, derived by French engineer Robert Miche in 1944.<ref>{{Citation |last=Miche |first=M. |year=1944 |title=Mouvements ondulatoires de la mer en profondeur constante ou décroissante. Forme limite de la houle lors de son déferlement. Application aux digues maritimes. |journal=Annales des Ponts et Chaussées |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=25–78 |language=fr |trans-title=Wave motions of the sea in constant or decreasing depth: limiting form of the wave at breaking. Application to maritime structures.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Holthuijsen |first=L.H. |year=2007 |title=Waves in Oceanic and Coastal Waters |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=242 |isbn=978-1139462525}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Goda |first=Y. |year=2010 |title=Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures |edition=3rd |publisher=World Scientific |page=213 |isbn=978-9814282406 |}}</ref>

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Physics:Iribarren number}}
*{{annotated link|Wave turbulence}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
*[http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/ocean/ocean.html#OceanWaves Oceans and margins, Earth Science Australia]
*{{YouTube|BQptkdzvmjE|Super Slow Motion Laboratory Wave Breaking: Side View.}}
*{{YouTube|A-Mrp3_hc38|Super Slow Motion Laboratory Wave Breaking: Underwater View of Turbulence.}}

{{Physical oceanography}}
{{Coastal geography}}
{{Underwater diving|scidiv}}

[[Category:Water waves]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

{{Sourceattribution|Breaking wave}}