View source for Physics:Electronic music

{{Short description|Genre of music that makes use of electronic instruments}}
{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Electronic music
| bgcolor           = silver
| stylistic_origins = * Modernism
* Futurism
| cultural_origins  = 1896, United States
| derivatives       =
* Ambient
* dub
* EDM
* hip hop
* new-age
* new wave
* noise
* psychedelic
| other_topics      = * Avant-garde music
* [[Software:Computer music|computer music]]
* electronics in rock music
* [[Physics:Experimental music|experimental music]]
* [[Engineering:Music technology (electronic and digital)|music technology (electronic and digital)]]
* timeline of electronic music genres
}}

'''Electronic music''' is [[Physics:Music|music]] that employs [[Engineering:Electronic musical instrument|electronic musical instrument]]s, digital instruments, or [[Engineering:Electronics|circuitry-based]] [[Engineering:Music technology|music technology]] in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacoustic music). Pure electronic instruments depended entirely on circuitry-based sound generation, for instance using devices such as an [[Engineering:Electronic oscillator|electronic oscillator]], [[Engineering:Theremin|theremin]], or [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesizer]]. Electromechanical instruments can have mechanical parts such as strings, hammers, and electric elements including magnetic pickups, power amplifiers and [[Engineering:Loudspeaker|loudspeaker]]s. Such electromechanical devices include the [[Engineering:Telharmonium|telharmonium]], [[Engineering:Hammond organ|Hammond organ]], [[Engineering:Electric piano|electric piano]] and the [[Engineering:Electric guitar|electric guitar]].<ref name="holmes3">"The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds. ... two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place: purely electronic music versus electroacoustic music" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=6}})</ref><ref name="holmes1">Electroacoustic music may also use electronic effect units to change sounds from the natural world, such as the sound of waves on a beach or bird calls. All types of sounds can be used as source material for this music. Electroacoustic performers and composers use microphones, tape recorders, and digital samplers to make live or recorded music. During live performances, natural sounds are modified in real-time using electronic effects and audio consoles. The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise (traffic, people talking) and nature sounds to live musicians playing conventional acoustic or electro-acoustic instruments ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=8}})</ref>

The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s, in Egypt and France. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s and [[Algorithmic composition]] with computers was first demonstrated in the same decade.

During the 1960s, digital [[Software:Computer music|computer music]] was pioneered, innovation in live electronics took place, and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence the [[Finance:Music industry|music industry]]. In the early 1970s, Moog synthesizers and Japanese [[Engineering:Drum machine|drum machine]]s helped popularize synthesized electronic music. The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, [[Engineering:Electronic drum|electronic drum]]s, drum machines and turntables, through the emergence of genres such as disco, krautrock, new wave, synth-pop, hip hop and EDM. In the early 1980s mass-produced [[Engineering:Digital synthesizer|digital synthesizer]]s, such as the Yamaha DX7, became popular, and [[MIDI]] (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was developed. In the same decade, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines, electronic popular music came to the fore. During the 1990s, with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology, electronic music production became an established part of [[Social:Popular culture|popular culture]].<ref>"Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical—the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=1}}). "By the 1990s, electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life. It extended from ethereal sound-waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record" ({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=106}}).</ref> <!-- following paragraph and citation questionable: Today, the term electronic music serves to differentiate music that uses electronics as its focal point or inspiration, from music that uses electronics mainly in service of creating an intended production that may have some electronic elements in the sound but does not focus upon them.<ref name="holmes2">"Purely electronic music is created through the generation of sound waves by electrical means. This is done without the use of traditional musical instruments or sounds found in nature, and is the domain of computers, synthesizers, and other technologies" {{harv|Holmes|2002|loc=6}}.</ref> --> Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from [[Physics:Experimental music|experimental art music]] to popular forms such as electronic dance music. Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Pleasure Beats: Rhythm and the Aesthetics of Current Electronic Music|journal = Leonardo Music Journal |pages = 3–6|volume = 12|doi = 10.1162/096112102762295052|first = Ben|last = Neill|year = 2002|s2cid = 57562349 }}</ref>

==Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century==
[[File:Telharmonium - Scientific American 1907 (zoomed 400%, brightened).jpg|thumb|Front page of Scientific American in 1907, demonstrating the size, operation, and popularity of the Telharmonium]]
At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first [[Engineering:Electronic musical instrument|electronic musical instrument]]s.<ref name="holmes_41">{{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=41}}</ref> These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Swezey|first1=Kenneth M.|title=The Encyclopedia Americana – International Edition Vol. 13|date=1995|publisher=Grolier Incorporated|location=Danbury, Connecticut|page=211}}; {{harvnb|Weidenaar|1995|p=82}}</ref> While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the [[Engineering:Telharmonium|Telharmonium]] [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesized]] the sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through [[Engineering:Telephone network|telephone network]]s.<ref name="holmes_47">{{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=47}}</ref>

Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments. Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential ''Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music'' (1907).<ref>{{harvnb|Busoni|1962|p=95}}; {{harvnb|Russcol|1972|pp=35–36}}.</ref> Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery. They predicted expansions in [[Physics:Timbre|timbre]] allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto ''The Art of Noises'' (1913).<ref>"To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity." Quoted in {{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=40}}.</ref><ref name="tvnpyt">{{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=68}}.</ref>

=== Early compositions ===
[[File:Lev Termen playing - cropped.jpg|left|thumb|Leon Theremin demonstrating the theremin in 1927]]
Developments of the [[Physics:Vacuum tube|vacuum tube]] led to electronic instruments that were smaller, [[Engineering:Amplifier|amplified]], and more practical for performance.<ref name="holmes_18">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=18}}</ref> In particular, the [[Engineering:Theremin|theremin]], [[Engineering:Ondes Martenot|ondes Martenot]] and [[Engineering:Trautonium|trautonium]] were commercially produced by the early 1930s.<ref name="holmes_21">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=21}}</ref><ref name="holmes_33">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=33}}; {{citation |author=Lee De Forest |year=1950 |title=Father of radio: the autobiography of Lee de Forest |publisher=Wilcox & Follett |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fatherofradioaut0000defo <!-- quote="Audion Piano". --> 306–307] }}</ref>

From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with [[Engineering:String instrument|string instrument]]s.<ref name="holmes_21"/>

Avant-garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.<ref name="holmes_21"/> The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources<ref name="roads_204">{{harvnb|Roads|2015|p=204}}</ref> that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse.<ref name="holmes_24">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=24}}</ref><ref name="holmes_26">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=26}}</ref><ref name="holmes_28">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=28}}</ref> Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely,<ref name="toop_00">{{harvnb|Toop|2016|p="Free lines"}}</ref> while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music.<ref name="smirnov_00">{{harvnb|Smirnov|2014|p="Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s–2000s"}}</ref>

=== Recording experiments ===
Developments in early [[Engineering:Sound recording and reproduction|recording technology]] paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical [[Engineering:Phonograph|phonograph]].<ref name="holmes_34">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=34}}</ref> Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.<ref name="holmes_45">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=45}}</ref>

The introduction of electrical recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players. Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques, [[Biography:John Cage|John Cage]] composed ''Imaginary Landscape No. 1'' in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.<ref name="holmes_46">{{harvnb|Holmes|2012|p=46}}</ref>

Concurrently, composers began to experiment with newly developed [[Physics:Sound-on-film|sound-on-film]] technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create [[Physics:Sound collage|sound collage]]s, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov. Further, the technology allowed sound to be [[Engineering:Graphical sound|graphically created and modified]]. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular ''Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoa3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265|title=The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music|last=Jones|first=Barrie|date=3 June 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-95018-7|language=en}}</ref>

==Development: 1940s to 1950s==
=== Electroacoustic tape music ===

The first practical audio [[Engineering:Tape recorder|tape recorder]] was unveiled in 1935.<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|2006}}.</ref> Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity.<ref name="engel-weber">{{harvnb|Engel|2006|pp=4 and 7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Krause|2002}} [http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=11304 abstract].</ref> As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo.<ref>{{harvnb|Engel|Hammar|2006|p=6}}.</ref> Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II.<ref>{{harvnb|Snell|2006}}, [http://www.scu.edu/scm/summer2006/sound.cfm scu.edu]</ref> These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948.<ref>{{harvnb|Angus|1984}}.</ref>

In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh, while still a student in [[Place:Cairo|Cairo]], used a cumbersome [[Wire recording|wire recorder]] to record sounds of an ancient ''[[Unsolved:Zār|zaar]]'' ceremony. Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording. What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition.<ref name="wire_2007">{{harvnb|Young|2007|p=24}}</ref> The resulting work was entitled ''The Expression of Zaar'' and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the [[Organization:Computer Music Center|Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]] in the late 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=156–57}}.</ref>

=== Musique concrète ===
{{multiple image |direction=horizontal
 | image1   = Phonogene.jpg|width1=126
 | caption1 = Phonogene (1953), a tape machine for modifying the sound structure, developed by [[Biography:Pierre Schaeffer|Pierre Schaeffer]] et al. <!-- and Jacques Poullin --> at GRMC
 | image2   = Psconcer.jpg |width2=220
 | caption2 = [[Biography:Pierre Schaeffer|Pierre Schaeffer]] presenting the [[Engineering:Acousmonium|Acousmonium]] (1974) that consisted of 80 loudspeakers for tape playback, at GRM
}}
Following his work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Française (RDF), during the early 1940s, [[Biography:Pierre Schaeffer|Pierre Schaeffer]] is credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. In the late 1940s, experiments in sound-based composition using [[Chemistry:Shellac|shellac]] record players were first conducted by Schaeffer. In 1950, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation ([[Pitch shift|pitch shift]]) and tape splicing {{harv|Palombini|1993|loc=14}}.<ref name="lebrecht1">"Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise" ({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=107}}).</ref>

On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer's ''Etude aux chemins de fer''. This was the first "movement" of ''Cinq études de bruits'', and marked the beginning of studio realizations<ref>NB: To the pioneers, an electronic work did not exist until it was "realized" in a real-time performance ({{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=122}}).</ref> and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting [[Engineering:Lathe|lathe]], four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on ''Déserts'', a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised at Columbia University.

In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. "Schaeffer used a [[Engineering:Public address system|PA system]], several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before."<ref>{{harvnb|Snyder|1998}}</ref> Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on ''Symphonie pour un homme seul'' (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, ''Orpheus'', for concrete sounds and voices.

By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF.{{sfn|Lange|2009|p=173}}{{incomplete short citation|date=March 2021}}

===Elektronische Musik===
[[File:Stockhausen 1991 Studio.jpg|thumb|Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR, Cologne, in 1991]]
Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.

1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's ''Déserts'', for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky: ''Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony'' and ''A Poem in Cycles and Bells'', both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."<ref name="qtrckp">{{harvnb|Kurtz|1992|pp=75–76}}.</ref>

At the German premiere of ''Déserts'' in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen.<ref name="qtrckp" /> The title ''Déserts'' suggested to Varèse not only "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness."<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|1972}}.</ref>

In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world, was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951.<ref>{{harvnb|Eimert|1972|p=349}}.</ref> The brainchild of [[Biography:Werner Meyer-Eppler|Werner Meyer-Eppler]], Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In his 1949 thesis ''Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache'', Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, ''elektronische Musik'' was sharply differentiated from French ''musique concrète'', which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.<ref>{{harvnb|Eimert|1958|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Ungeheuer|1992|p=117}}.</ref>

In 1954, Stockhausen composed his ''Elektronische Studie II''—the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano, a studio at the NHK in Tokyo founded by Toshiro Mayuzumi, and the Philips studio at Eindhoven, the Netherlands, which moved to the University of Utrecht as the Institute of Sonology in 1960.

"With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, it became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism {{sic}}"<ref>({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=75}}): "... at Northwest German Radio in Cologne (1953), where the term 'electronic music' was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete..."</ref> on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in ''Mixtur'' (1964) and ''Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester'' (1967).<ref>{{harvnb|Stockhausen|1978|pp=73–76, 78–79}}</ref> Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space", sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".<ref>"In 1967, just following the world premiere of ''Hymnen'', Stockhausen said about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced—especially in the realm of electronic music—into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star", or "like in outer space." Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which is not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space'" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=145}}).</ref>
More recently, Stockhausen turned to produce electronic music in his own studio in Kürten, his last work in the medium being ''Cosmic Pulses'' (2007).

===Japanese electronic music===
{{multiple image |direction=horizontal |align=right
 | image1 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Console.jpg |width1=114
 | image2 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Tone Cabinet.jpg |width2=102
 | footer = Yamaha Magna Organ and the designated tone cabinet (1935)<ref name=Yamaha1935/>
}}

The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan, Yamaha Magna Organ was built in 1935.<ref name=Yamaha1935>Before the Second World War in Japan, several "electrical" instruments seem already to have been developed (''see :ja:電子音楽#黎明期''), and in 1935 a kind of "''electronic''" musical instrument, the Yamaha Magna Organ, was developed. It seems to be a multi-timbral keyboard instrument based on electrically blown free reeds with pickups, possibly similar to the electrostatic reed organs developed by Frederick Albert Hoschke in 1934 then manufactured by Everett and Wurlitzer until 1961.
{{unordered list|
{{cite news
 | script-title=ja:一時代を画する新楽器完成 浜松の青年技師山下氏
 |trans-title=An epoch-defining new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer Mr.Yamashita in Hamamatsu
 | url        = http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/das/jsp/ja/ContentViewM.jsp?METAID=00078861&TYPE=PRINT_FILE&POS=1
 | language   = ja
 | newspaper  = Hochi Shimbun
 | date       = 8 June 1935}}
|{{cite book
 | script-title=ja:新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介
 |trans-title=New Electric Musical Instrument – Introduction of the Magna Organ
 | url        = http://blog.goo.ne.jp/1971913/e/42d486d769c1ce9c2c5a426e00f18b68
 | language   = ja
 | date = October 1935
 | publisher  = 日本樂器製造株式會社 ([[Company:Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]) | location = Hamamatsu
 | quote      = 特許第一〇八六六四号, 同　第一一〇〇六八号, 同　第一一一二一六号}}
}}
</ref> however after World War II, {{wipe|Japan}}ese composers such as Minao Shibata knew of the development of electronic musical instruments. By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment. Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later.<ref name="holmes_106">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=106}}.</ref>

Following the foundation of electronics company [[Company:Sony|Sony]] in 1946, composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=106, 115}}.</ref> Takemitsu had ideas similar to musique concrète, which he was unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesizer]]s and predicted a drastic change in music.<ref>{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|pp=64–66}}.</ref> Sony began producing popular [[Physics:Magnetic tape|magnetic tape]] recorders for government and public use.<ref name="holmes_106"/><ref name="fujii_66">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=66}}.</ref>

The avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=106–7}}.</ref> The first electronic tape pieces by the group were "Toraware no Onna" ("Imprisoned Woman") and "Piece B", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama.<ref name="holmes_107">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=107}}.</ref> Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for [[Social:Radio|radio]], film, and theatre. They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack.<ref>{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|pp=66–67}}.</ref> Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō, such as Yasushi Akutagawa, Saburo Tominaga, and Shirō Fukai, were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953.<ref name="fujii_66" />

Musique concrète was introduced to Japan by Toshiro Mayuzumi, who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert. From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama.<ref name="holmes_107" /><ref name="fujii_64">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=64}}.</ref> However, Schaeffer's concept of ''sound object'' was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance.<ref name="fujii_65">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=65}}.</ref> This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve-tone techniques,<ref name="fujii_65" /> evident in Yoshirō Irino's 1951 dodecaphonic piece "Concerto da
Camera",<ref name="fujii_64" /> in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's "X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956.<ref name="holmes_108">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=108}}.</ref>

Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, NHK established an electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1955, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities. The NHK Studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot, [[Engineering:Monochord|Monochord]] and Melochord, sine-wave oscillators, tape recorders, ring modulators, [[Band-pass filter|band-pass filter]]s, and four- and eight-channel [[Mixing console|mixer]]s. Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, Toshi Ichiyanagi, and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces "Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number", "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece "Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast".<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=108 & 114–5}}.</ref><ref name="loubet_11">{{harvnb|Loubet|1997|p=11}}</ref>

===American electronic music===
In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published ''Imaginary Landscape, No. 1'', using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more "Imaginary Landscapes" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed a ''William {{sic}} Mix'' at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration.{{Clarify|date=October 2014}}<!--Three years before 1954 is 1951. Feldman here is said vaguely to have collaborated with Cage "later" than 1951. In fact, Feldman was associated with Cage mainly from 1949 to 1953. So what exactly is this "alleged collaboration"?--> ''Williams Mix'' was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival, where it made a "strong impression".<ref>{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=136}}</ref>

The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the [[Philosophy:New York School (art)|New York School]] ([[Biography:John Cage|John Cage]], Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman),<ref name="NYschool2">{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=2}}.</ref> and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."<ref name="NYschool3">{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=4}}.</ref>

Cage completed ''Williams Mix'' in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.<ref name="NYschool1">"Carolyn Brown [Earle Brown's wife] was to dance in Cunningham's company, while Brown himself was to participate in Cage's 'Project for Music for Magnetic Tape.'... funded by Paul Williams (dedicatee of the 1953 ''Williams Mix''), who—like Robert Rauschenberg—was a former student of Black Mountain College, which Cage and Cunnigham had first visited in the summer of 1948" ({{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=20}}).</ref> The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Louis and Bebe Barron.

===Columbia-Princeton Center===

In the same year [[Organization:Columbia University|Columbia University]] purchased its first tape recorder—a professional [[Company:Ampex|Ampex]] machine—to record concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.

Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another."<ref name="nwclfn">{{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=92}}.</ref> Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."<ref name="nwclfn" /> On Thursday, 8 May 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included ''Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition'', and ''Underwater Valse''. In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments."<ref name="nwclfn" />
Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds."<ref name="urajla">{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=48}}.</ref>

Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations."<ref name="urajla" /> They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)."<ref name="urajla" />

Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions."<ref name="urajla" />

Two months later, on 28 October, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's ''Fantasy in Space'' (1952)—"an impressionistic virtuoso piece"<ref name="urajla" /> using manipulated recordings of flute—and ''Low Speed'' (1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range."<ref name="urajla" /> Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, New York. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations."<ref>{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=49}}.</ref>

The score for ''Forbidden Planet'', by Louis and Bebe Barron,<ref name="norman2">"From at least Louis and Bebbe Barron's soundtrack for ''The Forbidden Planet'' onwards, electronic music—in particular synthetic timbre—has impersonated alien worlds in film" ({{harvnb|Norman|2004|p=32}}).</ref> was entirely composed using custom-built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 (but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word).{{Clarify|date=January 2020|reason=Was this done at the Columbia-Princeton Center?}}

===Australia===
[[File:CSIRAC.jpg|thumb|CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, displayed at the Melbourne Museum]]

The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March, of which no known recordings exist, only the accurate reconstruction.<ref>{{harvnb|Doornbusch|2005|p=25}}.</ref> However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951.<ref name="Fildes2008">{{harvnb|Fildes|2008}}</ref> The music program was written by [[Biography:Christopher Strachey|Christopher Strachey]].

===Mid-to-late 1950s===

The impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using [[Algorithm|algorithm]]ic composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly."<ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|1975|p=347}}.</ref> Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music. [[Vocoder]] technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composed ''Gesang der Jünglinge'', the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the ''Book of Daniel''. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the [[Engineering:Clavivox|Clavivox]] [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesizer]] by Raymond Scott with subassembly by [[Biography:Robert Moog|Robert Moog]].

In 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album, ''Song Of The Second Moon'', recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|2018}}</ref> The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's ''Poème électronique'', which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair. That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an {{wipe|Argentina}} composer, composed ''Transición II''. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on the piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.

[[File:RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer.jpg|thumb|RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]]

In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the [[Engineering:RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer|RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], the first programmable [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesizer]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=145–46}}.</ref> Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, Halim El-Dabh, Bülent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the [[Company:RCA|RCA]] Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhea|1980|p=64}}.</ref> One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's Halim El-Dabh who,<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=153}}.</ref> after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944,<ref name="wire_2007"/> became more famous for ''Leiyla and the Poet'', a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless fusion of electronic and [[Social:Folk music|folk music]], in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by serial composers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh's ''Leiyla and the Poet'', released as part of the album ''Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center'' in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from Neil Rolnick, Charles Amirkhanian and Alice Shields to rock musicians [[Biography:Frank Zappa|Frank Zappa]] and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=153–54 & 157}}</ref>

Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC (Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète) Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, Beatriz Ferreyra, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou. Later arrivals included Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle.<ref>{{harvnb|Gayou|2007a|p=207}}</ref>

==Expansion: 1960s==

These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as [[Engineering:Synthesizer|synthesizer]] technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's ''Gargoyles'' for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's ''Kontakte'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In ''Kontakte'', Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film."<ref>{{harvnb|Kurtz|1992|p=1}}.</ref>

The [[Engineering:Theremin|theremin]] had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film [[Engineering:Soundtrack|soundtrack]] music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'').<ref>{{harvnb|Glinsky|2000|p=286}}.</ref>

In the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series ''Doctor Who''. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period<ref>{{cite web|url=http://delia-derbyshire.net|title=Delia Derbyshire Audiological Chronology}}</ref> was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic ''Doctor Who'' theme, composed by Ron Grainer.

[[File:Josef Tal - LeCaine Creative.jpg|thumb|Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c.&nbsp;1965) with Hugh Le Caine's Creative Tape Recorder (a sound synthesizer) aka "Multi-track"]]

In 1961 Josef Tal established the ''Centre for Electronic Music in Israel'' at The Hebrew University, and in 1962 Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his ''Creative Tape Recorder'' in the centre.<ref>{{harvnb|Gluck|2005|pp=164–65}}.</ref> In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, and VolkswagenStiftung a research project (Talmark) aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.<ref>{{harvnb|Tal|Markel|2002|pp=55–62}}.</ref>

Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his ''Composition for Synthesizer'' (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.

{{quote|For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"<ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|1975|p=124}}.</ref>}}

The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of ''Déserts''. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel.<ref>{{harvnb|Bayly|1982–1983|p=150}}.</ref>

The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://didierdanse.net/electronic_1960.html|title=Electronic music|website=didierdanse.net|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref><!--Source for the link between CPEMC and the founding of SFTMC needed.-->

Later, the Center moved to [[Organization:Mills College|Mills College]], directed by Pauline Oliveros, where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music.<ref name="oliveros1">"A central figure in post-war electronic art music, Pauline Oliveros [b. 1932] is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center (along with Morton Subotnick, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin), which was the resource on the U.S. west coast for electronic music during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, where she was its first director, and is now called the Center for Contemporary Music." from CD liner notes, "Accordion & Voice", Pauline Oliveros, Record Label: Important, Catalog number IMPREC140: 793447514024.</ref>

Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first “Audium” concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.<ref name="frankenstein1964">{{harvnb|Frankenstein|1964}}.</ref> In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), ''San Francisco Chronicle'' music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".<ref name="frankenstein1964" /> In 1967, the first Audium, a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.<ref>{{harvnb|Loy|1985|pp=41–48}}.</ref> “In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's ''Poeme Electronique'' (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stanley Schaff's {{sic}} ''Audium'' installation, currently active in San Francisco”.<ref>{{harvnb|Begault|1994|p=208}}, [http://www.cse.yorku.ca/course_archive/2005-06/W/6335/feb20/Begault_2000_3d_Sound_Multimedia.pdf online reprint].</ref> Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff “sculpts” sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.<ref>{{harvnb|Hertelendy|2008}}.</ref>

A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized [[Engineering:Moog modular synthesizer|Moog modular synthesizer]] is the 1968 ''Switched-On Bach'' album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.

In 1969 David Tudor brought a [[Engineering:Moog modular synthesizer|Moog modular synthesizer]] and Ampex tape machines to the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad with the support of the Sarabhai family, forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio. Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, Gita Sarabhai, SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973<ref>{{cite web |title=Electronic India 1969–73 revisited – The Wire |url=https://www.thewire.co.uk/in-writing/interviews/electronic-india-moog-interview-paul-purgas |website=The Wire Magazine – Adventures In Modern Music |language=en}}</ref>

Along with the Moog modular synthesizer, other makes of this period included ARP and Buchla.

Pietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.

===Computer music===
{{Main|Software:Computer music}}

Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,<ref name="Algorhythmic Listening 1949-1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing">{{cite web |title=Algorhythmic Listening 1949–1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing |url=http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |work=AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072033/http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> but there is no evidence that they actually did it.<ref name="Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA">{{cite journal|title=MuSA 2017 – Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA |url=https://www.academia.edu/34234640 |journal=MuSA Conference|access-date=18 October 2017 |date=9 July 2017|last1=Doornbusch |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref name="Doornbusch">{{cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|title= Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia and England |journal=Organised Sound|year=2017|volume=22|issue=2|pages=297–307 [11]|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|doi=10.1017/S1355771817000206|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March"<ref>{{Cite web| last = Doornbusch | first = Paul| title = The Music of CSIRAC | publisher = Melbourne School of Engineering, Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering| url = http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120118000725/http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> of which no known recordings exist.
However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by [[Biography:Christopher Strachey|Christopher Strachey]] on the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Ba, Ba Black Sheep", and "In the Mood" and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music. This recording can be heard at [http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html this Manchester University site]. Researchers at the [[Organization:University of Canterbury|University of Canterbury]], Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on [[Company:SoundCloud|SoundCloud]].<ref name="Turing">{{cite web|title=First recording of computer-generated music – created by Alan Turing – restored |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/26/first-recording-computer-generated-music-created-alan-turing-restored-enigma-code |work={{wipe|The Guardian}} |access-date=28 August 2017 |date=26 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="BL-2016-09">{{cite web|title=Restoring the first recording of computer music – Sound and vision blog|url=http://blogs.bl.uk/sound-and-vision/2016/09/restoring-the-first-recording-of-computer-music.html|publisher=British Library|access-date=28 August 2017|language=en|date=13 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Fildes2008" />

The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC V]], a direct digital synthesis language<ref>{{harvnb|Mattis|2001}}.</ref>

Laurie Spiegel developed the [[Algorithmic composition|algorithmic musical composition]] [[Software|software]] "[[Software:Music Mouse|Music Mouse]]" (1986) for [[Engineering:Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Engineering:Amiga|Amiga]], and [[Company:Atari|Atari]] computers.

===Stochastic music===
{{importance section|date=October 2012|reason=not about the stated subject of this article: electronic sound production}}
An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. Iannis Xenakis began what is called ''musique stochastique'', or ''stochastic music'', which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ''ST/4'' for string quartet and ''ST/48'' for orchestra (both 1962),<ref>{{harvnb|Xenakis|1992|pp=}}{{Page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> ''Morsima-Amorsima'', ''ST/10'', and ''Atrées''. He developed the computer system [[Engineering:UPIC|UPIC]] for translating graphical images into musical results and composed ''Mycènes Alpha'' (1978) with it.

===Live electronics===

In Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed ''Mikrophonie I'' for tam-tam, hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and ''Mixtur'' for orchestra, four [[Physics:Sine wave|sine-wave]] generators, and four ring modulators. In 1965 he composed ''Mikrophonie II'' for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.<ref>{{harvnb|Stockhausen|1971|pp=51, 57, 66}}.</ref>

In 1966–67, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach "[[Engineering:Circuit bending|circuit bending]]"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by [[Biography:John Cage|John Cage]]'s aleatoric music {{sic}}<!--Following the link will show why this term is being misused about Cage.--> concept.<ref name="circuit">"This element of embracing errors is at the centre of Circuit Bending, it is about creating sounds that are not supposed to happen and not supposed to be heard ({{harvnb|Gard|2004}}). In terms of musicality, as with electronic art music, it is primarily concerned with timbre and takes little regard for pitch and rhythm in a classical sense. ... . In a similar vein to Cage's aleatoric music, the art of Bending is dependent on chance, when a person prepares to bend they have no idea of the outcome" ({{harvnb|Yabsley|2007}}).</ref>

Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.<ref>Cosey Fanni Tutti. [http://www.brainwashed.com/tg/cosey.html "Throbbing Gristle Personnel: Cosey Fanni Tutti"] (extract from Throbbing Gristle's 1986 album ''CD1''. Brainwashed.com. Retrieved 21 April 2021.{{failed verification|date=April 2021|reason=None of that is mentioned there.}}</ref>

Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album ''Switched-On Bach'' on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

In June 2018, Suzanne Ciani released ''LIVE Quadraphonic'', a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rancic|first=Michael|date=29 August 2018|url=https://nowtoronto.com/music/features/suzanne-ciani-interview|title=Analog synth pioneer Suzanne Ciani reflects on her life in waves|location=Toronto|work=NOW Magazine|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

===Japanese instruments===
[[File:YAMAHA Electone D-1.jpg|thumb|160px|Early electronic organ: Yamaha Electone D-1 (1959)]]
In the 1950s,<ref name=CrodaOrgan2017>{{cite web |title=クロダオルガン修理 |trans-title=Croda Organ Repair |url=http://crodaorganservice.com/ |language=ja |website=CrodaOrganService.com |date=May 2017 |quote={{smaller|''クロダオルガン株式会社（昭和３０年&thinsp;{{smaller|&#x5B;1955年&#x5D;}}創業、２００７年に解散）は約５０年の歴史のあいだに自社製造のクロダトーン...の販売、設置をおこなってきましたが、{{smaller|&#x5B;2007年&#x5D;}}クロダオルガン株式会社廃業...'' [In English: "Kuroda Organ Co., Ltd. (founded in 1955, dissolved in 2007) has been selling and installing its own manufactured Kurodatone ... during about 50 years of history, but [in 2007] the Croda Organ Closed business ..."]}}}}</ref><ref name=DiamondDir1993p752>{{cite book |chapter=Vicotor Company of Japan, Ltd. |title=Diamond's Japan Business Directory |language=ja |publisher=Diamond Lead Company |date=1993 |isbn=978-4-924360-01-3 |page=752 |quote=[JVC] Developed Japan's first electronic organ, 1958}}. {{em|Note}}: the first model by [[Company:JVC|JVC]] was "EO-4420"  in 1958. See also the Japanese Wikipedia article: "w:ja:ビクトロン#機種".</ref> Japanese [[Engineering:Electronic musical instrument|electronic musical instrument]]s began influencing the international [[Finance:Music industry|music industry]].<ref name=Palmieri2004>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Palmieri |title=The Piano: An Encyclopedia |series=Encyclopedia of keyboard instruments |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-135-94963-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SQaUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT406&dq=Yamaha%20Electone%201959 406] |quote=the development [and release] in 1959 of an all-transistor Electone electronic organ, first in a successful series of Yamaha electronic instruments. It was a milestone for Japan's music industry.}}. {{em|Note}}: the first model by [[Company:Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]] was [[Company:List of Yamaha Corporation products#Electronic organs|"D-1"]] in 1959."</ref><ref name="cambridge">Russell Hartenberger (2016), [https://books.google.com/books?id=G2WSCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 ''The Cambridge Companion to Percussion'', p. 84], Cambridge University Press</ref> Ikutaro Kakehashi, who founded Ace Tone in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.<ref name="sos_roland">{{citation |last=Reid |first=Gordon |year=2004 |title=The History Of Roland Part 1: 1930–1978 |journal=Sound on Sound |issue=November |url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov04/articles/roland.htm |access-date=19 June 2011 }}</ref> At NAMM 1964, he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.<ref name="sos_roland"/><ref>Matt Dean (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=9RmN7w8kVpAC&pg=PA390 ''The Drum: A History'', page 390], Scarecrow Press</ref><ref name="fact2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.factmag.com/2016/09/22/the-14-drum-machines-that-shaped-modern-music/|title=The 14 drum machines that shaped modern music|date=22 September 2016}}</ref>

[[Image:KORG Donca Matic DA-20 (1963) clip1.jpg|thumb|120px|{{resize|95%|{{nowrap|Early&thinsp;[[Engineering:Drum machine|drum&thinsp;machine]]}}: Korg Donca Matic DA-20 (1963)}}]]
In 1963, Korg released the Donca-Matic DA-20, an electro-mechanical [[Engineering:Drum machine|drum machine]].<ref name=DoncaMatic/> In 1965, Nippon Columbia patented a fully electronic drum machine.<ref name=US3482027>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.ms/patents/US3482027|title=Automatic rhythm instrument}}</ref> Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with the Korg Mini Pops, which was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone electric organ.<ref name=DoncaMatic>
{{cite web
 | title     = Donca-Matic (1963)
 | url       = http://www.korg.co.jp/SoundMakeup/Museum/Doncamatic/
 | work      = Korg Museum
 | publisher = Korg
}}</ref> Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for "natural metallic percussion" sounds and incorporating controls for drum "breaks and fill-ins."<ref name="cambridge"/>

In 1967, Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi patented a preset rhythm-pattern generator using [[Diode matrix|diode matrix]] circuit<ref name=uspat3651241>
{{cite patent
 | country = US
 | number  = 3651241
 | status  = patent
 | title   = Automatic Rhythm Performance Device
 | inventor= Ikutaro Kakehashi (Ace Electronics Industries, Inc.)
 | fdate   = 3 June 1971
 | gdate   = 1972-03-21

[[Image:Technics SL-1200MK2-2.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Engineering:Direct-drive turntable|Direct-drive turntable]]: {{nowrap|Technics SL-1200}} (introduced in 1972)]]
Turntablism has origins in the invention of [[Engineering:Direct-drive turntable|direct-drive turntable]]s. Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LApZ8KV7bZAC&pg=PA43 ''The World of DJs and the Turntable Culture'', page 43], Hal Leonard Corporation, 2003</ref> The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at [[Company:Panasonic|Matsushita]] (now [[Company:Panasonic|Panasonic]]),<ref>''Billboard'', 21 May 1977, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT140 page 140]</ref> based in {{wipe|Osaka}}, {{wipe|Japan}}. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.<ref name="oxford">Trevor Pinch, Karin Bijsterveld, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KuRfLG0IedYC&pg=PA515 ''The Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies'', page 515], [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]</ref> In 1969, Matsushita released it as the [[Company:Technics (brand)|SP-10]],<ref name="oxford"/> the first direct-drive turntable on the market,<ref name="reverb">{{cite web|title=History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall|url=https://reverb.com/news/history-of-the-record-player-part-ii-the-rise-and-fall|website=Reverb.com|access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref> and the first in their influential [[Company:Technics (brand)|Technics]] series of turntables.<ref name="oxford"/> It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 and [[Engineering:Technics SL-1200|SL-1200]] in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted by hip hop musicians,<ref name="oxford"/> with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.<ref name="wired">[https://www.wired.com/2002/05/blackbox/ Six Machines That Changed The Music World], ''Wired'', May 2002</ref>

===Jamaican dub music===

In Jamaica, a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s, dub music, rooted in sound system culture. Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris, King Tubby, Errol Thompson, Lee "Scratch" Perry, and Scientist, producing reggae-influenced [[Physics:Experimental music|experimental music]] with electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties.<ref name="veal">{{cite book|first = Michael |last =Veal |date =2013|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kYtiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP54 |title = Dub: Soundscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae| pages= 26–44|chapter=Electronic Music in Jamaica|publisher =Wesleyan University Press|isbn =978-0-8195-7442-8 }}</ref> Their experiments included forms of tape-based composition comparable to aspects of ''musique concrète'', an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable to minimalism, the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media, [[Disc jockey#Reggae Deejays|deejays]] toasting over pre-recorded music comparable to live electronic music,<ref name="veal"/> remixing music,<ref name="cambridge20"/> turntablism,<ref name="cambridge49">Nicholas Collins, Julio d' Escrivan Rincón (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=AJbdPZv1DjgC&pg=PA49 ''The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music'', page 49], {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}</ref> and the mixing and scratching of vinyl.<ref>Andrew Brown (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-UJLXXBqUQC&pg=PA127 ''Computers in Music Education: Amplifying Musicality'', page 127], [[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]</ref>

Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.<ref name="cambridge20">Nicholas Collins, Margaret Schedel, Scott Wilson (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bQeAtG97BmEC&pg=PA20 ''Electronic Music: Cambridge Introductions to Music'', page 20], {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}</ref> King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western [[Place:Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] was a key site of dub music creation.<ref>[http://www.factmag.com/2014/04/16/dubbing-is-a-must-a-beginners-guide-to-jamaicas-most-influential-genre/ Dubbing Is A Must: A Beginner's Guide To Jamaica's Most Influential Genre], ''Fact''.</ref>

==Late 1960s to early 1980s==
===Rise of popular electronic music===
In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including the Beach Boys and the Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the [[Engineering:Theremin|theremin]] and [[Company:Mellotron|Mellotron]], to supplement and define their sound. In his book ''Electronic and Experimental Music'', Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording "Tomorrow Never Knows" as the song that "ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music" due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.{{sfn|Holmes|2012|p=468}} Also in the late 1960s, the music duo Silver Apples and experimental rock bands like White Noise and the United States of America, are regarded as pioneers to the electronic rock and electronica genres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Tom Doyle |title=Silver Apples: Early Electronica |url=https://www.soundonsound.com/people/silver-apples-early-electronica |website=Sound on Sound |publisher=SOS Publications Group |access-date=5 October 2020 |date=October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Theodore Stone |title=The United States of America and the Start of an Electronic Revolution |url=https://www.popmatters.com/united-states-of-america-band-2565048516.html |website=PopMatters |access-date=5 October 2020 |date=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Alexis Petridis |title=Silver Apples' Simeon Coxe: visionary who saw music's electronic future |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/sep/09/silver-apples-simeon-coxe-visionary-electronic-music |work=The Guardian |access-date=5 October 2020 |date=9 September 2020}}</ref>

Gershon Kingsley's "Popcorn" composed in 1969 was the first international electronic dance hit popularised by Hot Butter in 1972 (which leads to a wave of bubblegum pop the following years).

[[File:Keith Emerson StPetersburg Aug08.jpg|thumb|upright|Keith Emerson performing in St. Petersburg in 2008]]
By the end of the 1960s, the [[Engineering:Moog synthesizer|Moog synthesizer]] took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, Neu!, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier.<ref>{{harvnb|Bussy|2004|pp=15–17}}.</ref> Their synthesiser-heavy "krautrock", along with the work of [[Biography:Brian Eno|Brian Eno]] (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.<ref name=Bogdanov2002Prog>{{harvnb|Unterberger|2002|pp=1330–1}}.</ref>

Ambient dub was pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists, using DJ-inspired ambient electronics, complete with drop-outs, echo, equalization and psychedelic electronic effects. It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements of world music, deep basslines and harmonic sounds.<ref name="Holmes2008p403">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=403}}.</ref> Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Toop|first1=David|title=Ocean of Sound|date=1995|publisher=Serpent's Tail|isbn=978-1-85242-382-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/oceanofsoundaeth0000toop/page/115 115]|url=https://archive.org/details/oceanofsoundaeth0000toop/page/115}}</ref> Other notable artists within the genre include Dreadzone, Higher Intelligence Agency, The Orb, Ott, Loop Guru, Woob and Transglobal Underground.<ref name="ttp">{{cite book |title=The Techno Primer: The Essential Reference for Loop-based Music Styles |last=Mattingly |first=Rick |year=2002 |publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation |isbn=0-634-01788-8 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VT7_x7m-RWcC |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref>

Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970s introduced Jamaica's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America. One such technique that became popular in hip hop culture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation, extending the b-dancers' favorite section.<ref>Nicholas Collins, Margaret Schedel, Scott Wilson (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bQeAtG97BmEC&pg=PA105 ''Electronic Music: Cambridge Introductions to Music'', page 105], {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}</ref> The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument, and occasionally the most virtuosic, in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="cambridge49"/>

Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including Isao Tomita's ''Electric Samurai: Switched on Rock'' (1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs,<ref name="jenkins_2007"/> and Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974).<ref name="Benzaiten">{{Discogs release|1303605|Osamu Kitajima – Benzaiten}}</ref> The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre, Vangelis, Tomita and Klaus Schulze were a significant influence on the development of new-age music.<ref name="Holmes2008p403" /> The ''hi-tech'' appeal of these works created for some years the trend of listing the electronic musical equipment employed in the album sleeves, as a distinctive feature. Electronic music began to enter regularly in radio programming and top-sellers charts, as the French band Space with their 1977 single ''Magic Fly''.<ref name='guinness18'>{{cite book |year= 2005|editor1-last= Roberts|editor1-first= David|title=Guinness World Records – British Hit Singles & Albums|edition= 18|publisher= Guinness World Records Ltd.|page= 472|isbn=1-904994-00-8}}</ref>

In this era, the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project (who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital [[Vocoder|vocoder]] in 1975, ''The Raven'') used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s. Jeff Wayne achieved a long-lasting success<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/2QnbffHjH7pqfpKF20PQy7B/the-top-40-best-selling-studio-albums-of-all-time | title= The Top 40 Best-Selling Studio Albums of All Time | publisher=BBC |year=2018 | access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of ''The War of the Worlds''.

Film soundtracks also benefit from the electronic sound. In 1977, Gene Page recorded a disco version of the hit theme by John Williams from Steven Spielberg film ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind''. Page's version peaked on the R&B chart at #30 in 1978. The score of 1978 film ''Midnight Express'' composed by Italian synth-pioneer Giorgio Moroder won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979, as did it again in 1981 the score by Vangelis for ''Chariots of Fire''.

After the arrival of punk rock, a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. The American duo Suicide, who arose from the punk scene in New York, utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on their eponymous 1977 album.<ref>{{citation|title=Suicide: No Compromise|author=D. Nobakht |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-946719-71-6 |page=136 }}</ref>

Synth-pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track "Hiroshima Mon Amour" on ''Ha!-Ha!-Ha!'',<ref name="Maginnis">{{harvnb|Maginnis|2011}}</ref> Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self-titled album (1978), The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single ''Video Killed the Radio Star'',<ref name = "BugglesbyGeoffDownes">"'The Buggles' by Geoffrey Downes" (liner notes). ''The Age of Plastic'' 1999 reissue.</ref> Gary Numan with his solo debut album ''The Pleasure Principle'' and single ''Cars'' in 1979,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.0189a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=ccntousk30frf6h4jsn237nm12|title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada|publisher=Collectionscanada.gc.ca|access-date=8 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113072100/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.0189a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=ccntousk30frf6h4jsn237nm12|archive-date=13 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single ''Electricity'' featured on their eponymous debut album, Depeche Mode with their first single ''Dreaming of Me'' recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album ''Speak & Spell'',<ref>{{cite magazine|first= Betty |last= Paige |title= This Year's Mode(L) |magazine= Sounds |date= 31 January 1981 |url= http://www.sacreddm.net/1980s/sou310181/sou310181maina.htm |archive-date= 24 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110724052454/http://www.sacreddm.net/1980s/sou310181/sou310181maina.htm}}</ref> A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single ''Talking'',<ref>{{cite web|title= BBC – Radio 1 – Keeping It Peel – 06/05/1980 A Flock of Seagulls |publisher= BBC Radio 1 |access-date= 12 June 2018 |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/johnpeel/sessions/1980s/1981/May06aflockofseagulls/}}</ref> New Order with ''Ceremony''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neworder.com/newordernow/2018/12/19/movement-definitive-edition.html|title=Movement 'Definitive Edition'|date=19 December 2018|website=New Order|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> in 1981, and The Human League with their 1981 hit ''Don't You Want Me'' from their third album ''Dare''.<ref name="synthpop">{{harvnb|Anonymous|2010}}.</ref>

[[File:New Order, Chile 2019 (39751785423).jpg|thumb|New Order performing in Chile in 2019]]
The definition of [[MIDI]] and the development of [[Digital audio|digital audio]] made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier,<ref>{{harvnb|Russ|2009|p=66}}.{{Verify source|date=June 2011}}<!--The item added to the list of references is the third edition of 2009; the second edition was published in 2004, almost certainly with different pagination. Which is this meant to cite, and is the page number the correct one?--></ref> with [[Engineering:Audio engineer|audio engineer]]s, producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers. Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments but was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers. These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade.<ref name=synthpop /> Along with aforementioned successful pioneers, key acts included Yazoo, Duran Duran, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Talk Talk, Japan, and Eurythmics.

Synth-pop was taken up across the world, with international hits for acts including Men Without Hats, Trans-X and Lime from Canada, Telex from Belgium, Peter Schilling, Sandra, Modern Talking, Propaganda and Alphaville from Germany, Yello from Switzerland and Azul y Negro from Spain. Also, the synth sound is a key feature of Italo-disco.

Some synth-pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology, as Americans Devo and Spaniards Aviador Dro.

Keyboard synthesizers became so common that even heavy metal rock bands, a genre often regarded as the ''opposite'' in aesthetics, sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides, achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983 ''Jump''<ref>{{Citation|first=Rick|last=Beato|title=What Makes This Song Great? Ep.61 VAN HALEN (#2)|date=28 April 2019|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XhKSXeT2OI|access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref> by Van Halen and 1986 ''The Final Countdown''<ref>{{cite book|first= Anders |last= Tengner |author2= Michael Johansson |title= Europe – den stora rockdrömmen |year= 1987 |publisher= Wiken |isbn= 91-7024-408-1 |language= sv}}</ref> by Europe, which feature synths prominently.

===Proliferation of electronic music research institutions===
{{ill|Elektronmusikstudion|sv|vertical-align=sup}} (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.

[[File:L'été à Paris (9276072323).jpg|thumb|IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky, Paris]]
STEIM is a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. STEIM has existed since 1969. It was founded by Misha Mengelberg, Louis Andriessen, Peter Schat, Dick Raaymakers, {{ill|Jan van Vlijmen|nl|Jan van Vlijmen|vertical-align=sup}}, Reinbert de Leeuw, and Konrad Boehmer. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in The Netherlands.

IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the [[Sogitec 4X]] computer system,<ref name="Schutterhoef2007">{{harvnb|Schutterhoef|2007}} {{cite web|title=Sogitec 4X|url=http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104025834/http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X|archive-date=4 November 2013|access-date=13 January 2010}}.</ref> featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's ''Répons'' (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.

[[Biography:Barry Vercoe|Barry Vercoe]] describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:
[[File:IRCAM 4X.jpg|thumb|[[Sogitec 4X]] (c. 1983)<ref>
{{cite web
 | author    = Nicolas Schöffer
 | date      = December 1983
 | language  = fr
 | title     = Variations sur 600 Structures Sonores – Une nouvelle méthode de composition musicale sur l'ordinateur 4X
 | url       = http://www.olats.org/schoffer/var600.htm
 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120417214621/http://www.olats.org/schoffer/var600.htm
 | archive-date=17 April 2012
 | work      = Leonardo On-Line
 | publisher = Leonardo/International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology (ISAST)
 | quote     = {{lang|fr|L'ordinateur nous permet de franchir une nouvelle étape quant à la définition et au codage des sons, et permet de créer des partitions qui dépassent en complexité et en précision les possibilités d'antan. La methode de composition que je propose comporte plusieurs phases et nécessite l'emploi d'une terminologie simple que nous définirons au fur et à mesure : Trames, paves, briques et modules.}}}}</ref> at IRCAM machine room in 1989]]
{{quote|At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno's [[Sogitec 4X|4X]] audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On a Guggenheim at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician, playing Handel flute sonatas, Boulez's ''Sonatine'' for flute and piano and by 1984 my own ''Synapse II'' for flute and computer—the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my {{em|Synthetic Performer}}. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating ''learning from rehearsals'' (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called [[Software:Max|MAX]].<ref>{{harvnb|Vercoe|2000|pp=xxviii–xxix}}.</ref>}}

===Keyboard synthesizers===
[[File:Minimoog.JPG|thumb|Mini-Moog synthesizer]]
Released in 1970 by Moog Music, the [[Engineering:Minimoog|Mini-Moog]] was among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.<ref name="Montanaro2004-minimoog">
"In 1969, a portable version of the studio Moog called the Minimoog Model D, became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular music and electronic art music" {{harvnb|Montanaro|2004|p=8}}.</ref>
Patrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.<ref name=zussman>{{harvnb|Zussman|1982|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1 1, 5]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sofer|Lynner|1977|p=[http://www.cyndustries.com/synapse/synapse.cfm?pc=39&folder=jan1977&pic=23 23]}} "Yes, I used [ Moog modular equipment ] until I went with Herbie (Hancock) in 1970. Then I used a [ ARP ] 2600 because I couldn't use the Moog on stage. It was too big and cranky; every time we transported it, we would have to pull a module out, and I knew I couldn't do that on the road, so I started using ARP's."</ref>

In 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an [[Engineering:EMS Synthi 100|EMS Synthi 100]] synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's ''Fünf deutsche Tänze'' (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's ''Sirius'' (1975–76), and John McGuire's ''Pulse Music III'' (1978).<ref>{{harvnb|Morawska-Büngeler|1988|pp=52, 55, 107–108}}</ref>

Thanks to [[Engineering:Miniaturization|miniaturization of electronics]] in the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and "[[Cable management|cable spaguetty]]" employed along with the 1960s and 1970s. First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).

===Digital synthesis===
In 1975, the Japanese company [[Company:Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]] licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at [[Organization:Stanford University|Stanford University]] since 1971.<ref name="holmes_257">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=257}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chowning|1973}}.</ref> Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during [[Physics:Frequency modulation|frequency modulation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=257–8}}.</ref>

In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.<ref>{{harvnb|Roads|1996|p=226}}.</ref> In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX7, which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.<ref name="holmes_257"/> The DX7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an [[Oversampling|overachieving]] [[Sampling rate|sampling rate]] of 57&nbsp;kHz.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=258–9}}.</ref>
[[File:YAMAHA_DX7.jpg|thumb|Yamaha DX7, a model for many digital synthesizers of the 1980s]]

The [[Engineering:Korg Poly-800|Korg Poly-800]] is a synthesizer released by Korg in 1983. Its initial list price of $795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than $1000. It had 8-voice polyphony with one [[Engineering:Digitally controlled oscillator|Digitally controlled oscillator]] (DCO) per voice.

The [[Engineering:Casio CZ synthesizers#CZ-101|Casio CZ-101]] was the first and best-selling phase distortion synthesizer in the [[Company:Casio|Casio]] [[Engineering:Casio CZ synthesizers|CZ]] line. Released in November 1984, it was one of the first (if not the first) fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under $500.

The Roland D-50 is a digital synthesizer produced by Roland and released in April 1987. Its features include subtractive synthesis, on-board effects, a joystick for data manipulation, and an analogue synthesis-styled layout design. The external Roland PG-1000 (1987–1990) programmer could also be attached to the D-50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds.

===Samplers===
A [[Engineering:Sampler (musical instrument)|sampler]] is an electronic or digital [[Engineering:Musical instrument|musical instrument]] which uses sound recordings (or "samples") of real instrument sounds (e.g., a piano, violin or trumpet), excerpts from recorded songs (e.g., a five-second bass guitar riff from a funk song) or found sounds (e.g., sirens and ocean waves). The samples are loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer. These sounds are then played back using the sampler program itself, a [[Engineering:MIDI keyboard|MIDI keyboard]], [[Engineering:Music sequencer|sequencer]] or another triggering device (e.g., electronic drums) to perform or compose music. Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory, the information can be quickly accessed. A single sample may often be [[Pitch shift|pitch-shifted]] to different pitches to produce musical scales and chords.

[[Image:Fairlight green screen.jpg|thumb|152px|Fairlight CMI (1979–)]]
Before computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape. When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound. The [[Company:Mellotron|Mellotron]] was the most notable model, used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most. To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument. The emergence of the [[Digital signal processing|digital]] sampler made sampling far more practical.

The earliest digital sampling was done on the EMS Musys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing), and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969.

The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the [[Engineering:Sampler (musical instrument)#Computer Music Melodian|Computer Music Melodian]] by Harry Mendell (1976).

First released in 1977–78,<ref name="dartmouth">
{{cite web
 | title	= History of Masters Program in Digital Musics
 | url  	= http://digitalmusics.dartmouth.edu/?page_id=7
 | archive-url	= https://web.archive.org/web/20091012182849/http://digitalmusics.dartmouth.edu/?page_id=7
 | archive-date	= 12 October 2009
 | publisher	= Dartmouth College
}}</ref> the [[Engineering:Synclavier#Synclavier I|Synclavier I]] using FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha,<ref>{{cite magazine
 |author           = Eric Grunwald
 |title            = Bell Tolls for FM Patent, but Yamaha Sees "New Beginning"
 |url              = https://otl.stanford.edu/documents/0302_su94.pdf
 |magazine         = Stanford Technology Brainstorm
 |publisher        = Office of Technology Licensing (OTL), [[Organization:Stanford University|Stanford University]]
 |volume           = 3
 |issue            = 2
 |date =Summer 1994
 |quote            = The technique for synthesizing electronic music, invented by Music Professor John Chowning, brought in over $20 million through an exclusive license to Yamaha Corporation of Japan, which used the technology in its DX-7 synthesizer, enormously popular in the 1980s.
 |access-date      = 6 October 2017
 |archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20170505095843/http://otl.stanford.edu/documents/0302_su94.pdf
 |archive-date     = 5 May 2017
 |url-status         = dead
}}</ref> and sold mostly to universities, proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.

The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced Fairlight CMI, first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample-based synthesis.<ref name="russ">Martin Russ, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X9h5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 ''Sound Synthesis and Sampling'', page 29] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111921/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X9h5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |date=21 October 2017 }}, CRC Press</ref>

===Birth of MIDI===
{{Main|MIDI}}
In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface ([[MIDI]]) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially Sequential Circuits, Oberheim, Roland—and later, other participants that included [[Company:Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]], Korg, and Kawai.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=227}}.</ref> A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the [[Organization:Audio Engineering Society|Audio Engineering Society]] in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.

MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.

MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.

Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for [[Sogitec 4X|4X]] called [[Software:Max|Max]] (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to [[Software:Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for [[Company:Opcode Systems|Opcode]])<ref>{{harvnb|Ozab|2000}} [http://www.atpm.com/6.05/barline.shtml].</ref> for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.

===Sequencers and drum machines===
The early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers, the most influential being the [[Engineering:Roland TB-303|Roland TB-303]], a bass synthesizer and [[Engineering:Music sequencer|sequencer]] released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music,<ref>{{harvnb|Vine|2011}}.</ref> particularly acid house.<ref name="guardian_2011"/> One of the first to use it was Charanjit Singh in 1982, though it wouldn't be popularized until Phuture's "Acid Tracks" in 1987.<ref name="guardian_2011">{{harvnb|Aitken|2011}}.</ref> [[Engineering:Music sequencer|Music sequencer]]s began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples.<ref name="jenkins_2007">{{harvnb|Jenkins|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c3EHIpo0DKwC&pg=PA133 133–34]}}</ref> In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using [[Computer|computer]]-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music,<ref name="billboard_1979">{{harvnb|Anonymous|1979}}.</ref> making their early use of the [[Engineering:Microprocessor|microprocessor]]-based Roland MC-8 Microcomposer sequencer.<ref name="discogs_ymo_lp">{{Discogs release|453067|Yellow Magic Orchestra – Yellow Magic Orchestra}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |year=1981 |title=Sound International |journal=Sound International |issue=33–40 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj5LAAAAYAAJ |access-date=21 June 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2011|reason=None of the following terms produce any result at the linked item: 'yellow', 'magic', 'orchestra', 'MC-8', 'microcomposer', 'sequencer', '1978'.}}

[[Engineering:Drum machine|Drum machine]]s, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with [[Engineering:Electronic drum|electronic drum]]s and a synthesizer.<ref name="Benzaiten"/> In 1977, Ultravox's "Hiroshima Mon Amour" was one of the first singles to use the [[Physics:Metronome|metronome]]-like percussion of a Roland TR-77 drum machine.<ref name="Maginnis"/> In 1980, Roland Corporation released the TR-808, one of the first and most popular programmable [[Engineering:Drum machine|drum machine]]s. The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of Marvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing" and Afrika Bambaataa's "Planet Rock" in 1982.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|2008}}.</ref> The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice for Derrick May and Juan Atkins.<ref name="Blashill">{{harvnb|Blashill|2002|p={{Page needed|date=April 2014}}}}</ref>

===Chiptunes===
{{main|Software:Chiptune}}
The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer's [[Engineering:Sound chip|sound chip]]s and [[Engineering:Sound card|sound card]]s' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.

Common cheap popular sound chips of the firsts [[Engineering:Home computer|home computer]]s of the 1980s include the SID of the [[Engineering:Commodore 64|Commodore 64]] and General Instrument AY series and clones (as the Yamaha YM2149) used in [[Engineering:ZX Spectrum|ZX Spectrum]], Amstrad CPC, [[Engineering:MSX|MSX]] compatibles and [[Engineering:Atari ST|Atari ST]] models, among others.

==Late 1980s to 1990s==
=== Rise of dance music ===
Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys, Erasure and The Communards, achieving success along much of the 1990s.

The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Today, electronic dance music has radio stations,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siriusxm.com/electricarea|title=Electric Area|work=SiriusXM}}</ref> websites,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dancingastronaut.com/|title=Dancing Astronaut – EDM, trap, techno, deep house, dubstep|work=Dancing Astronaut}}</ref> and publications like ''Mixmag'' dedicated solely to the genre. Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop music<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/11/house-music-pop-music_n_922912.html "House Music: How It Sneaked Its Way Into Mainstream Pop"] by Kia Makarechi, ''The Huffington Post'', 11 August 2011</ref> and the rise of large-scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival.

===Advancements===
Other recent developments included the Tod Machover (MIT and IRCAM) composition ''Begin Again Again'' for "hypercello", an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. Max Mathews developed the "Conductor" program for real-time tempo, dynamic, and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score. Morton Subotnick released a multimedia CD-ROM ''All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis''.

==2000s and 2010s==
[[File:Plekklindid weekend.jpg|thumb|Weekend Festival, an electronic music event in Pärnu, Estonia, in 2016]]
As computer technology has become more accessible and [[Software:Music software|music software]] has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional [[Engineering:Performance|musical performance]] practices:<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|pp=111–13}}.</ref> for instance, laptop performance (''[[Engineering:Laptronica|laptronica]]''),<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|pp=80–81}}.</ref> [[Live coding|live coding]]<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|p=115}}; {{harvnb|Collins|2003}}</ref> and [[Algorave]]. In general, the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.

Beginning around the year 2000, some software-based virtual studio environments emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's [[Software:Reason|Reason]] and [[Software:Ableton Live|Ableton Live]] finding popular appeal.<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|2009}}—Best Audio Editing Software of the Year—1st Abelton Live, 4th Reason. Best Audio DJ Software of the Year—Abelton Live.</ref> Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in [[Engineering:Microprocessor|microprocessor]] technology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation,<ref>{{harvnb|Chadabe|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called "plugins") can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform. Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1). In many cases, these software-based instruments are sonically indistinguishable from their physical counterpart.{{Clarify|date=May 2018}}<!--Does "physical" mean an acoustic instrument (bassoon, piano, etc.), or a "hardware" synth?-->{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}

===Circuit bending===
[[Engineering:Circuit bending|Circuit bending]] is the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects. It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name "circuit bending" in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deahl|first=Dani|date=14 September 2018|title=Hacking a Furby in the name of music|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/14/17844906/circuit-bending-hacking-a-furby-in-the-name-of-music|access-date=11 July 2020|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref>

===Modular synth revival===
Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs. Eurorack became a popular system.

==See also==
* [[Engineering:Clavioline|Clavioline]]
* [[Engineering:Electronic sackbut|Electronic sackbut]]
* List of electronic music genres
* [[New Interfaces for Musical Expression]]
* [[Engineering:Ondioline|Ondioline]]
* Sound sculpture
* Spectral music
* Tracker music
* Timeline of electronic music genres
;Live electronic music
* List of electronic music festivals
* Live electronic music
* Sound installation
* Audium (theater)

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{citation |last=Loy |first=Gareth |date=Summer 1985|title=About Audium—A Conversation with Stanley Shaff|journal=Computer Music Journal|volume=9|issue=2|pages=41–48 |url=http://www.audium.org/omhpp.cgi?src=article.cmj.hpp |doi=10.2307/3679656 |access-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624215731/http://www.audium.org/omhpp.cgi?src=article.cmj.hpp |archive-date=24 June 2017 |url-status=dead |jstor=3679656 }}
* {{citation |last=Luening|first=Otto|year=1968 |title=An Unfinished History of Electronic Music |journal=Music Educators Journal|volume=55 |issue=3 (November) |pages=42–49, 135–142, 145 |doi=10.2307/3392376|jstor=3392376 |s2cid=143454942 }}
* {{citation|last=Maginnis |first=Tom |year=2011 |title=The Man Who Dies Every Day: Ultravox: Song Review |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{AllMusic|song|t258253|pure_url=yes|access-date=30 December 2011}} |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5x6MRJwaq?url=http://www.allmusic.com/song/t258253 |archive-date=11 March 2011}} (at webcitation.org)
* {{citation |last=Mattis |first=Olivia |year=2001 |chapter=Mathews, Max V(ernon) |title=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians |others=edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell |location=London: Macmillan}}
* {{citation |last=Montanaro |first=Larisa Katherine |year=2004 |title=A Singer's Guide to Performing Works for Voice and Electronics |work=DMA thesis |location=Austin |publisher=The University of Texas at Austin |url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2004/montanarolk042/montanarolk042.pdf |access-date=28 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911010735/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2004/montanarolk042/montanarolk042.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}
* {{anchor|CITEREFMorawska-B.C3.BCngeler1988}}{{citation |last=Morawska-Büngeler |first=Marietta |year=1988 |title=Schwingende Elektronen: Eine Dokumentation über das Studio für Elektronische Musik des Westdeutschen Rundfunk in Köln 1951–1986 |location=Cologne-Rodenkirchen |publisher=P. J. Tonger Musikverlag}}
* {{citation |last=Norman |first=Katharine |year=2004 |title=Sounding Art: Eight Literary Excursions through Electronic Music |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd |isbn=0-7546-0426-8}}
* {{citation |last=Ozab |first=David |year=2000 |title=Beyond the Barline: One Down, Two to Go |publisher=ATPM (About This Particular Macintosh) website |issue=May |url=http://www.atpm.com/6.05/barline.shtml |access-date=13 January 2010 }}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Palombini|1993}}|reference=Palombini, Carlos (1993). "Machine Songs V: Pierre Schaeffer: From Research into Noises to Experimental Music". ''Computer Music Journal'' 17, no. 3 (Autumn): 14–19. {{doi|10.2307/3680939}}. {{JSTOR|3680939}}.}}
* {{citation|last=Rhea |first=Tom |title=The RCA Synthesizer & Its Synthesists|work=Contemporary Keyboard|volume=6|date=1980 |pages=64ff |publisher=GPI Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WkJAQAAMAAJ |access-date=5 June 2011|issue=10 (October)}} <!--Inclusive page numbers of this article are needed.-->
* {{citation |last=Roads |first=Curtis |year=1996 |title=The Computer Music Tutorial |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |id=(cloth) (pbk) |isbn=0-262-18158-4}}
* {{citation |last=Roads |first=Curtis |year=2015 |title=Composing Electronic Music: A New Aesthetic |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537324-0}}
* {{citation |last=Russ |first=Martin |year=2009 |title=Sound Synthesis and Sampling |edition=third |publisher=Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier; Oxford and Burlington: Focal |isbn=978-0-240-52105-3}}
* {{citation |last=Russcol |first=Herbert |year=1972 |title=The Liberation of Sound: An Introduction to Electronic Music |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice-Hall}}
* {{citation |last=Schutterhoef |first=Arie van |year=2007 |title=Sogitec 4X |publisher=Knorretje, een Nederlandse Wiki over muziek, geluid, soft- en hardware. |url=http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X |access-date=13 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104025834/http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}
* {{citation |last=Schwartz |first=Elliott |year=1975 |title=Electronic Music |location=New York |publisher=Praeger}}
* {{citation |last=Smirnov |first=Andrey |year=2014 |title=Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s–2000s |url=https://www.musikkons.dk/fileadmin/pdf_musikkons.dk/Kalender/Efteraar2014/DIEM_Smirnov_notes.pdf |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103155232/https://www.musikkons.dk/fileadmin/pdf_musikkons.dk/Kalender/Efteraar2014/DIEM_Smirnov_notes.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |last=Snell |first=Karen Crocker |year=2006 |title=The Man Behind The Sound |magazine=Santa Clara Magazine|issue=Summer |publisher=Santa Clara University |url=http://www.scu.edu/scm/summer2006/sound.cfm |access-date=13 January 2010 }}
* {{citation|last=Snyder |first=Jeff |year=1998 |title=Pierre Schaeffer: Inventor of Musique Concrete |url=http://csunix1.lvc.edu/~snyder/em/schaef.html |access-date=<!-- May 2002 --> |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515172405/http://csunix1.lvc.edu/~snyder/em/schaef.html |archive-date=15 May 2008}}
* {{citation |last1=Sofer |first1=Danny |last2=Lynner |first2=Doug |year=1977 |title=Pat Gleeson interview |journal=Synapse: The Electronic Music Magazine|volume=1 |issue=5 (January–February) |pages=21–24, 35}}
* {{citation |last=Stockhausen |first=Karlheinz |year=1971 |title=Texte zur Musik |volume=3 |others=edited by Dieter Schnebel. DuMont Dokumente. |location=Cologne |publisher=DuMont Buchverlag |isbn=3-7701-0493-5}}
* {{citation |last=Stockhausen |first=Karlheinz |year=1978 |title=Texte zur Musik, 1970–1977 |volume=4|editor=Christoph von Blumröder|series=DuMont Dokumente|location=Cologne |publisher=DuMont Buchverlag |isbn=3-7701-1078-1}}
* {{citation |last1=Tal |first1=Josef |last2=Markel |first2=Shlomo |year=2002 |title=Musica Nova in the Third Millennium |location=Tel-Aviv |publisher=Israel Music Institute |isbn=965-90565-0-8}}. Also published in German, as {{citation |title=Musica Nova im dritten Millenium |year=2002 |location=Tel-Aviv |publisher=Israel Music Institute. |isbn=965-90565-0-8}}
* {{citation |last=Toop |first=David |year=2016 |title=Into the Maelstrom: Music, Improvisation and the Dream of Freedom |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-5013-1451-3}}
* {{citation |last=Ungeheuer |first=Elena |year=1992 |title=Wie die elektronische Musik "erfunden" wurde...: Quellenstudie zu Werner Meyer-Epplers musikalischem Entwurf zwischen 1949 und 1953 |series=Kölner Schriften zur neuen Musik 2. |location=Mainz and New York |publisher=Schott |isbn=3-7957-1891-0}}
* {{citation |last=Unterberger |first=R |year=2002 |chapter=Progressive rock |others=in V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine, eds |title=All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul |edition=3rd |location=Milwaukee, WI |publisher=Backbeat Books |isbn=0-87930-653-X}}
* {{citation |last=Vercoe |first=Barry |year=2000 |chapter=Forward |title=The Csound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming |others=edited by Richard Boulanger |pages=xxvii–xxx |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-52261-6 |chapter-url=http://www.csounds.com/vercoe/index.html#HISTORY}}
* {{citation |last=Vine |first=Richard |title=Tadao Kikumoto Invents the Roland TB-303 |newspaper=The Guardian |issue=14 June |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/jun/15/tadao-kikumoto-roland |access-date=23 December 2011 |location=London |date=15 June 2011}}
* {{citation |last=Weidenaar |first=Reynold |year=1995 |title=Magic Music from the Telharmonium: The Story of the First Music Synthesizer |location=Metuchen, New Jersey|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc. |isbn=0-8108-2692-5}}
* {{citation |last=Xenakis |first=Iannis |title=Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition |edition=revised, expanded |series=Harmonologia Series, No. 6|year=1992|isbn=978-1-57647-079-4|location=Stuyvesant, New York|publisher=Pendragon Press}}
* {{citation|last=Yabsley|first=Alex|year=2007|title=Back to the 8 Bit: A Study of Electronic Music Counter-Culture|publisher=Gamemusic4all.com |issue=3 February|url=http://www.gamemusic4all.com/backto8bit%204.html|access-date=5 June 2011}}
* {{citation |last=Young |first=Rob |year=2007 |title=Once Upon a Time: In Cairo |journal=The Wire |volume=277 |issue=March 2007 |page=24 |url=http://www.thewire.co.uk/issues/277/?show=full|access-date=30 December 2011}}.<!-- [https://books.google.com/books?id=lvo4AQAAIAAJ The Wire, Volumes 275–280], 2007, p. 24 (Accessed 2011-06-05) -->
* {{citation |last=Zussman |first=John Unger |year=1982 |title=Jazzing It Up at the NCC: Hancock and Apple II Make Music Together |magazine=InfoWorld|volume=4 |issue=26 (5 July) |pages=1, 5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&q=patrick+gleeson+synthesizer&pg=PA1}}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=40em}}
* {{citation |last=Ankeny |first=Jason |year=2010 |title=Kraftwerk: Biography |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p4706|pure_url=yes|access-date=5 June 2011}}|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Ankeny |first=Jason |year=2020 |title=Yellow Magic Orchestra: Biography |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p5886|tab=biography|pure_url=yes|access-date=5 June 2011}}|ref=none}}
* {{citation |author=Anonymous |year=2001 |title=Theremin |encyclopedia=BBC [[H2g2|h2g2]] encyclopaedia project |issue=2 April |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A520831 |access-date=20 May 2008|ref=none}}. Guide ID: A520831 (Edited).
* {{citation |author=Anonymous |year=2007 |title=Inventing the Wire Recorder |publisher=Recording History: The History of Recording Technology|website=recording-history.org|url=http://www.recording-history.org/HTML/wire2.php |access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514170031/http://www.recording-history.org/HTML/wire2.php |archive-date=14 May 2013|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Bassingthwaighte |first=Sarah Louise |year=2002 |title=Electroacoustic Music for the Flute |work=DMA dissertation |location=Seattle |publisher=[[Organization:University of Washington|University of Washington]] |url=http://subliminal.org/flute/dissertation/ |access-date=29 December 2011|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last=Blumröder|first=Christoph von|title=Die elektroakustische Musik: Eine kompositorische Revolution und ihre Folgen|language=de|series=Signale aus Köln. Beiträge zur Musik der Zeit|volume=22|publisher=Verlag Der Apfel|location=Vienna|year=2017|isbn=978-3-85450-422-1|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last1=Bogdanov |first1=Vladimir |editor=Chris Woodstra |editor2=Stephen Thomas Erlewine |editor3=John Bush <!-- (editors) --> |year=2001 |title=The All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music |series=AMG Allmusic Series |location=San Francisco |publisher=Backbeat Books |isbn=0-87930-628-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Brick |first=Howard |year=2000 |title=Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell University Press. |isbn=0-8014-8700-5|ref=none}} (Originally published: New York: Twayne, 1998)
* {{citation |last=Bush |first=John |year=<!-- n.d.(a) --> |title=Tomita: Biography |website=billboard.com |url=http://www.billboard.com/artist/tomita/25745#/artist/tomita/bio/25745 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114172642/http://www.billboard.com/artist/tomita/25745#/artist/tomita/bio/25745 |archive-date=14 November 2011 |url-status=dead|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Bush |first=John |year=<!-- n.d.(b) --> |title=Snowflakes Are Dancing: Electronic Performances of Debussy's Tone Paintings, Isao Tomita |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{AllMusic|class=album|id=r108784|tab=review|pure_url=yes|access-date=5 June 2011}}|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Bush |first=John |year=2009 |title=Song Review: 'Blue Monday' |publisher=Allmusic website |url={{AllMusic|class=song|id=t1003217|pure_url=yes|access-date=13 January 2010}}|ref=none}}
* {{citation|last=Chadabe|first=Joel|year=1997 |title=Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall|ref=none}}
* Chekalin, Mikhael (n.d.). "[http://www.eurock.com/Display.aspx?Content=ChekalinMusic.aspx A. Patterson Light & Sound]", [https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/eurock-live!-best-electronic/id259843945 itunes.apple.com Best of Electronic Music]
* {{citation|last=Crab |first=Simon |year=2005 |title=The Hammond Novachord (1939) |publisher=120 Years of Electronic Music|website=120years.net|url=http://120years.net/machines/novachord/index.html |access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722235914/http://120years.net/machines/novachord/index.html |archive-date=22 July 2011|ref=none}}
* {{citation |author= Cummins, James |year=2008 |title=Ambrosia: About a Culture—An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Clark-Nova Books |isbn=978-0-9784892-1-2|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Donhauser |first=Peter |year=2007 |title=Elektrische Klangmaschinen |location=Vienna |publisher=Boehlau|ref=none}}
* Dorschel, Andreas, Gerhard Eckel, and Deniz Peters (eds.) (2012). ''Bodily Expression in Electronic Music: Perspectives on Reclaiming Performativity''. Routledge Research in Music 2. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-89080-9}}.
* {{cite book|last=Emmerson|first=Simon|year=1986|title=The Language of Electroacoustic Music|location=London|publisher=Macmillan|ref=none}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Emmerson|editor-first=Simon|year=2000|title=Music, Electronic Media, and Culture|location=Aldershot, Hampshire; Burlington, Vermont|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=0-7546-0109-9|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Griffiths |first=Paul |year=1995 |title=Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945 |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |id=(cloth) (pbk) |isbn=0-19-816578-1|ref=none}}
* {{citation|last=Hammar |first=Peter |year=1999 |title=John T. Mullin: The Man Who Put Bing Crosby on Tape |magazine=Mix Online|issue=1 October |url=http://mixonline.com/mag/audio_john_mullin_man/ |access-date=13 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131000509/http://mixonline.com/mag/audio_john_mullin_man/ |archive-date=31 January 2010|ref=none}}
* {{citation |editor-last=Heifetz|editor-first=Robin J.|year=1989 |title=On The Wires of Our Nerves: The Art of Electroacoustic Music |location=Cranbury, New Jersey|publisher=Associated University Presses |isbn=0-8387-5155-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/onwiresofournerv00heif|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Kahn |first=Douglas |year=1999 |title=Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=MIT Press |id=New edition 2001 |isbn=0-262-11243-4|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Kettlewell |first=Ben |year=2001 |title=Electronic Music Pioneers |location=[N.p.] |publisher=Course Technology, Inc. |isbn=1-931140-17-0|ref=none}}
* {{citation |editor1-last=Licata |editor1-first=Thomas|year=2002 |title=Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-31420-9|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Ortonng |first=Otto |year=1964 |title=Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music |journal=Journal of Music Theory|volume=8 |issue=1 (Spring) |pages=89–98 |doi=10.2307/842974|jstor=842974|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Macan |first=Edward L |year=1997 |title=Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-509887-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rockingclassicse0000maca|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Manning |first=Peter |year=2004 |title=Electronic and Computer Music |edition=Revised and expanded |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=(cloth) (pbk) |isbn=0-19-514484-8|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Peyser |first=Joan |year=1995 |title=The Music of My Time |publisher=White Plains, New York: Pro/AM Music Resources; London: Kahn and Averill |isbn=978-0-912483-99-3|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Prendergast |first=Mark |year=2001 |title=The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age |location=New York |others=Forward {{sic}} by Brian Eno. |publisher=Bloomsbury |id=(hardcover eds.) (paper) |isbn=978-0-7475-4213-1|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Rappaport |first=Scott |year=2007 |title=Digital Arts and New Media Grad Students Collaborate Musically across Three Time Zones |work=UC Santa Cruz Currents Online |issue=2 April |url=http://currents.ucsc.edu/06-07/04-02/collaboration.asp|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Reid |first=Gordon |year=2004 |title=The History Of Roland Part 1: 1930–1978 |journal=Sound on Sound |issue=November |url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov04/articles/roland.htm |access-date=19 June 2011|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Reynolds|first=Simon|year=1998|title=Energy Flash: A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture|location=London|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=0-330-35056-0|ref=none}} (US title: {{citation|title=Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture|location=Boston|publisher=Little, Brown|year=1998|isbn=0-316-74111-6|url=https://archive.org/details/generationecstas00reyn|ref=none}}; New York: Routledge, 1999 {{ISBN|0-415-92373-5}})
* {{citation|last=Rosen|first=Jody|title=Researchers Play Tune Recorded before Edison|newspaper=The New York Times|date=27 March 2008|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/27soun.html|ref=none}}
* {{citation|last=Russolo|first=Luigi|year=1913|chapter=L'arte dei rumori: manifesto futurista|title=Manifesti del movimento futurista 14|location=Milan|publisher=Direzione del movimento futurista|ref=none}}. English version as {{citation|author=Russolo|chapter=The Art of Noise: Futurist Manifesto 1913|translator=Robert Filliou|title=A Great Bear Pamphlet 18|location=New York|publisher=Something Else Press|year=1967|ref=none}}. Second English version as {{citation|author=Russolo|chapter=The Art of Noises|others=translated from the Italian with an introduction by Barclay Brown|title=Monographs in Musicology no. 6|location=New York|publisher=Pendragon Press|year=1986|isbn=0-918728-57-6|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Schaefer |first=John |year=1987 |title=New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music |location=New York |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-06-097081-2|title-link=New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Shanken |first=Edward A. |year=2009 |title=Art and Electronic Media |location=London |publisher=Phaidon |isbn=978-0-7148-4782-5|ref=none}}
* {{citation |editor1-last=Shapiro |editor1-first=Peter|year=2000 |title=Modulations: a History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound |location=New York |publisher=Caipirinha Productions |isbn=1-891024-06-X |url=https://archive.org/details/modulationshisto00shap|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Sicko |first=Dan |year=1999 |title=Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk |location=New York |publisher=Billboard Books |isbn=0-8230-8428-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/technorebelsrene00sick|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Stevenson |first=Joseph |year=2004 |title=Tomita: Biography |publisher=AllMusic|url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=q6265|tab=biography|pure_url=yes|access-date=5 June 2011}}|ref=none}}
* Strange, Allen (1983), ''Electronic Music: Systems, Technics, and Controls'', second ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co. {{ISBN|978-0-697-03602-5}}.
* {{citation |last=Tyson |first=Jeff |year=n.d. |title=How Movie Sound Works |publisher=Entertainment.howstuffworks.com |url=http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/movie-sound1.htm |access-date=28 March 2010|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Verboven|first=Jos |year=2014 |title=The Music Sequencer: What Is It and What Can It Do?|url=http://brainvoyagermusic.com/sequencer/|website=Electronic Music of Brainvoyager|publisher=Brainvoyager|access-date=17 April 2016|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Watson |first=Scott |year=2005 |title=A Return to Modernism |journal=Music Education Technology Magazine |issue=February |url=http://metmagazine.com/mag/return_modernism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110172626/http://metmagazine.com/mag/return_modernism/ |archive-date=10 January 2008|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Wells |first=Thomas |year=1981 |title=The Technique of Electronic Music |publisher=New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-872830-8|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Dave |year=2000 |title=Crosby, Stills and Nash: The Authorized Biography |others=Photography by Henry Diltz |location=New York |publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=0-306-80974-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/crosbystillsnash00zimm|ref=none}}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=electronic music}}
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* [http://www.music.psu.edu/Faculty%20Pages/Ballora/INART55/timeline.html History of Electroacoustic Music – Timeline]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19961104001141/http://www.emf.org/ Electronic Music Foundation]
* [https://totosono.info/en History and Development of Electronic Music]



{{DEFAULTSORT:Electronic Music}}
[[Category:Audio engineering]]
[[Category:Sound]]

{{Sourceattribution|Electronic music|1}}