View source for Place:Andes

{{Short description|Mountain range in South America}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name= Andes Mountains
| native_name={{Native name|qu|Anti}}
| other_name= {{Lang-es|Cordillera de los Andes}}
| photo= Cordillera de los Andes.jpg
| photo_caption= An aerial view of the Andes between [[Place:Santiago|Santiago]] in {{wipe|Chile}} and Mendoza, Argentina with a large ice field on the southern slope of [[Earth:San José (volcano)|San José volcano]] (left), Marmolejo (right), and [[Earth:Tupungato|Tupungato]] (far right)
| country_type= Countries
| country= {{hlist|{{wipe|Argentina}}|Bolivia|{{wipe|Chile}}|Colombia|Ecuador|Peru|Venezuela}}
| geology= 
| orogeny=
| area_km2=
| area_ref=
| length_km= 8900
| length_orientation=
| length_ref=
| width_km= 330
| width_orientation=
| width_ref=
| highest= [[Earth:Aconcagua|Aconcagua]]
| highest_location= Las Heras Department, Mendoza, Argentina
| elevation_m= 6961
| elevation_ref=
| coordinates   = {{Coord|32|39|11.51|S|070|0|40.32|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline}}
| coordinates_ref=
| range_coordinates= {{Coord|32|S|70|W|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates_ref=
| map_image= Andes.png
| map_caption= Map of South America showing the Andes running along the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific coast) of the continent
}}
[[File:Cono de Arita, Salta. (Argentina).jpg|thumb|"Cono de Arita" in the Puna de Atacama, Salta ({{wipe|Argentina}})]]
[[File:Aconcagua_south_wall_2020.jpg|thumb|Aconcagua]]

The '''Andes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|d|iː|z}} {{respell|AN|deez}}), '''Andes Mountains''' or '''Andean Mountain Range''' ({{Lang-es|Cordillera de los Andes}}; {{Lang-qu|Anti}}) are the [[Earth:List of mountain ranges#Mountain ranges by length|longest continental mountain range]] in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of [[Earth:South America|South America]]. The range is {{Convert|8900.|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, {{Convert|200.|to|700.|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S [[Earth:Latitude|latitude]]), and has an average height of about {{Convert|4000.|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, {{wipe|Chile}} and {{wipe|Argentina}}.

Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high [[Earth:Plateau|plateau]]s—some of which host major cities such as [[Place:Quito|Quito]], [[Place:Bogotá|Bogotá]], Cali, [[Place:Arequipa|Arequipa]], Medellín, Bucaramanga, [[Place:Sucre|Sucre]], Mérida, El Alto and [[Place:La Paz|La Paz]]. The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second-highest after the [[Place:Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan Plateau]]. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the [[Place:Tropical Andes|Tropical Andes]], the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes.

The Andes Mountains are the highest mountain range outside [[Earth:Asia|Asia]]. The highest mountain outside Asia, Argentina's [[Earth:Aconcagua|Aconcagua]], rises to an elevation of about {{Convert|6961|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. The peak of [[Earth:Chimborazo|Chimborazo]] in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the [[Astronomy:Equatorial bulge|equatorial bulge]] resulting from the [[Earth's rotation]]. The world's highest [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]es are in the Andes, including [[Earth:Ojos del Salado|Ojos del Salado]] on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to {{Convert|6893|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges ([[Earth:Cordillera|cordillera]]) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the [[Earth:Americas|Americas]] and [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]].

==Etymology==
The etymology of the word ''Andes'' has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word {{lang|qu|anti}} 'east'<ref name=laime>Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua–Spanish dictionary)</ref> as in ''Antisuyu'' (Quechua for 'east region'),<ref name=laime/> one of the four regions of the Inca Empire.

The term ''[[Earth:Cordillera|cordillera]]'' comes from the Spanish word ''cordel'' 'rope'<ref>{{cite web |title=Cordillera |url=http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cordillera |website=etimologias.dechile.net |access-date=27 December 2015 }}</ref> and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of the North and South American continents.

==Geography==
[[File:ARG-2016-Aerial-Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia)–Valle Carbajal 01.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Valle Carbajal in the Tierra del Fuego. The Andes range is about {{convert|200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about {{convert|640|km|mi|0}} wide.]]
The Andes can be divided into three sections:
; The Southern Andes: in Argentina and {{wipe|Chile}}, south of [[Earth:Llullaillaco|Llullaillaco]].
; The Central Andes: in Peru and Bolivia.
; The Northern Andes: in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. In the northern part of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often treated as part of the Northern Andes.<ref>{{Cite web  |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w9300e/w9300e09.htm |title=Mountains, biodiversity and conservation |website=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=28 January 2019 }}</ref>

The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Meghan S. |first2=Alan |last2=Levander |first3=Fenglin |last3=Niu |first4=Aibing |last4=Li |title=Upper mantle structure beneath the Caribbean-South American plate boundary from surface wave tomography |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=114 |issue=B1 |page=B01312 |doi=10.1029/2007JB005507 |date=23 June 2008 <!--Revision date--> |url=http://www.gseis.rice.edu/Reprints/047_MillerEL09JGR.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605003245/http://www.gseis.rice.edu/Reprints/047_MillerEL09JGR.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2010 |access-date=21 November 2010  |bibcode=2009JGRB..114.1312M|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Geology==
The Andes are a [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]]–[[Earth:Tertiary|Tertiary]] orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the [[Earth:Asia-Pacific|Asia-Pacific]] region. The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes, caused by the [[Earth:Subduction|subduction]] of [[Earth:Oceanic crust|oceanic crust]] beneath the [[Earth:South American Plate|South American Plate]] as the [[Earth:Nazca Plate|Nazca Plate]] and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02049| doi=10.1038/nature02049| title=Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes| year=2003| last1=Lamb| first1=Simon| last2=Davis| first2=Paul| journal=Nature| volume=425| issue=6960| pages=792–797| pmid=14574402| bibcode=2003Natur.425..792L| s2cid=4354886}}</ref> The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the [[Earth:South American Plate|South American Plate]] due to the subduction of the [[Earth:Nazca Plate|Nazca Plate]] and the [[Earth:Antarctic Plate|Antarctic Plate]]. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several [[Earth:Sedimentary basin|sedimentary basin]]s, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient [[Earth:Craton|craton]]s in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former [[Place:Patagonia#Geology|Patagonia Terrane]]. To the west, the Andes end at the [[Earth:Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean]], although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.

The Andean orogen has a series of bends or [[Earth:Orocline|orocline]]s. The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S.<ref name="Isacks1988" /><ref name="Kley1999">{{Citation
| last  = Kley
| first = J.
| title = Geologic and geometric constraints on a kinematic model of the Bolivian orocline
| journal = Journal of South American Earth Sciences
| volume  = 12
| issue   = 2
| year    = 1999
| pages   = 221–235
| doi=10.1016/s0895-9811(99)00015-2
| bibcode= 1999JSAES..12..221K
}}</ref> At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in {{wipe|Chile}} and {{wipe|Argentina}}.<ref name="Kley1999" /> The Andean segment north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter-clockwise and clockwise respectively.<ref name="Kley1999" /><ref name="Beck1987">{{Citation
| last  = Beck
| first = Myrl E.
| title = Tectonic rotations on the leading edge of South America: The Bolivian orocline revisited
| journal = Geology
| volume  = 15
| issue   = 9
| year    = 1987
| pages   = 806–808
| doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<806:trotle>2.0.co;2
| bibcode= 1987Geo....15..806B
}}</ref> The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to crustal shortening.<ref name="Isacks1988">{{Citation
| last  = Isacks
| first = Bryan L.
| title = Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and Bending of the Bolivian Orocline
| journal = [[Earth:Journal of Geophysical Research|Journal of Geophysical Research]]
| volume  = 93
| issue   = B4
| year    = 1988
| pages   = 3211–3231
| url     = http://geomorphology.sese.asu.edu/Papers/Isacks_Uplift_Andean_Plateau_1988.pdf
| doi=10.1029/jb093ib04p03211
| bibcode= 1988JGR....93.3211I
}}</ref> The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow".<ref name="PrezziVilas">{{cite journal |last1=Prezzi |first1=Claudia B. |last2=Vilas |first2=Juan F.|date=1998 |title=New evidence of clockwise vertical axis rotations south of the Arica elbow (Argentine Puna)  |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=292 |issue= 1|pages=85–100 |doi= 10.1016/s0040-1951(98)00058-4|bibcode=1998Tectp.292...85P}}</ref> Further south lies the Maipo Orocline a more subtle Orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in trend at 33° S.<ref name="Arriagada2013">{{Citation
| last1  = Arriagada
| first1 = César
| last2  = Ferrando
| first2 = Rodolfo
| last3  = Córdova
| first3 = Loreto
| last4  = Morata
| first4 = Diego
| last5  = Roperch
| first5 = Pierrick
| title = The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes
| journal = Andean Geology
| volume  = 40
| issue   = 3
| year    = 2013
| pages   = 419–437
| url     = http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/andgeol/v40n3/art02.pdf
}}</ref> Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline.<ref name="Charrieretal2006">{{cite book |last1=Charrier |first1=Reynaldo|last2=Pinto |first2=Luisa |last3=Rodríguez |first3=María Pía|editor-last=Moreno |editor-first=Teresa |editor2-last=Gibbons |editor2-first=Wes |title=Geology of Chile |publisher=Geological Society of London |date=2006 |pages=5–19 |chapter=3. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile |isbn=978-1-86239-219-9}}</ref>

===Orogeny===
{{main|Earth:Andean orogeny}}
The western rim of the [[Earth:South American Plate|South American Plate]] has been the place of several pre-Andean [[Physics:Orogeny|orogenies]] since at least the late [[Earth:Proterozoic|Proterozoic]] and early [[Earth:Paleozoic|Paleozoic]], when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient [[Earth:Craton|craton]]s of eastern South America, by then the [[Earth:South American Plate|South American part]] of [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]].

The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the [[Earth:Triassic|Triassic]] when [[Earth:Pangaea|Pangaea]] began the break up that resulted in developing several [[Earth:Rift|rift]]s. The development continued through the [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] Period. It was during the [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]] Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the [[Earth:Tectonic uplift|uplifting]], [[Earth:Fault (geology)|faulting]] and [[Earth:Fold (geology)|folding]] of [[Earth:Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] and [[Earth:Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and [[Earth:Erosion|erosion]].

Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Earth:Nazca Plate|Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Earth:Antarctic Plate|Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[Earth:South American Plate|South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Physics:Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major [[Earth:Earthquake|earthquake]]s and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south, a major [[Earth:Transform fault|transform fault]] separates [[Earth:Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Earth:Scotia Plate|Scotia Plate]]. Across the {{convert|1000|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.

The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth being [[Earth:Thrust fault|overridden]] by the Andes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=J.O.S. |last2=Rizzotto |first2=G.J. |last4=McNaughton |first4=N.J.|last3=Potter |first3=P.E.|last5=Matos |first5=R.S.|last6=Hartmann |first6=L.A.|last7=Chemale Jr. |first7=F.|last8=Quadros |first8=M.E.S.|date=2008 |title=Age and autochthonous evolution of the Sunsás Orogen in West Amazon Craton based on mapping and U–Pb geochronology |journal=Precambrian Research |volume=165 |issue=3–4 |pages=120–152 |doi= 10.1016/j.precamres.2008.06.009|bibcode=2008PreR..165..120S}}</ref>
The Sierras de Córdoba, where the effects of the ancient [[Earth:Pampean orogeny|Pampean orogeny]] can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the [[Earth:Andean orogeny|Andean orogeny]] in the [[Earth:Tertiary|Tertiary]].<ref name=Rapelaetal1998>{{cite book |last1=Rapela |first1=C.W. |last2=Pankhurst |first2=R.J|last3=Casquet |first3=C.|last4=Baldo |first4=E.|last5=Saavedra |first5=J.|last6=Galindo |first6=C.|last7=Fanning |first7=C.M. |date=1998 |editor2-last=Rapela |editor2-first=C.W. |editor1-last=Pankhurst |editor1-first=R.J|chapter=The Pampean Orogeny of the southern proto-Andes: Cambrian continental collision in the Sierras de Córdoba  |chapter-url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181.full.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181.full.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Proto-Andean Margin of Gondwana |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |volume=142 |issue=1 |pages=181–217 |doi= 10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.142.01.10|s2cid=128814617 |access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Further south in southern [[Place:Patagonia|Patagonia]] the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an [[Earth:Extensional tectonics|extensional]] [[Earth:Back-arc basin|back-arc basin]] in the [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]] to being a compressional foreland basin in the [[Earth:Cenozoic|Cenozoic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=T.J. |date=1991 |title=Transition from back-arc to foreland basin development in the southernmost Andes: Stratigraphic record from the Ultima Esperanza District, Chile |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=98–111 |doi= 10.1130/0016-7606(1991)103<0098:tfbatf>2.3.co;2|bibcode=1991GSAB..103...98W}}</ref>

===Volcanism===
{{Main|Earth:Andean Volcanic Belt}}
[[File:Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Earth:Rift valley|Rift Valley]] near Quilotoa, Ecuador]]
[[File:Central Andes Mountains, Salar de Arizaro, Argentina.jpg|thumb|upright|This photo from the ISS shows the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert]]

The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the [[Earth:Subduction|subduction]] of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=González-Maurel|first1=Osvaldo|last2=le Roux|first2=Petrus|last3=Godoy|first3=Benigno|last4=Troll|first4=Valentin R.|last5=Deegan|first5=Frances M.|last6=Menzies|first6=Andrew|date=15 November 2019|title=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196|journal=Lithos|language=en|volume=346–347|pages=105162|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2019.105162|bibcode=2019Litho.34605162G|s2cid=201291787|issn=0024-4937}}</ref> While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes. Despite being a typical location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of [[Earth:Mid-ocean ridge|mid-ocean ridge]]s and [[Earth:Seamount|seamount]] chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and [[Biology:Magma|magma]] ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.

===Ore deposits and evaporates===
The Andes Mountains host large [[Earth:Ore|ore]] and [[Chemistry:Salt|salt]] deposits and some of their eastern [[Earth:Fold and thrust belt|fold and thrust belt]]s act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of [[Chemistry:Hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]]s. In the forelands of the [[Earth:Atacama Desert|Atacama Desert]] some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occur making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of [[Chemistry:Copper|copper]] in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the [[Earth:Dry lake|salars]] of Atacama and Uyuni, the former being the largest source of [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] today and the latter the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and [[Earth:Neogene|Neogene]] plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian [[Chemistry:Tin|tin]] belt as well as the famous, now mostly depleted, deposits of [[Earth:Cerro Rico|Cerro Rico de Potosí]].

==History==
{{Main|History:History of Andean South America}}
The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by hunter-gatherers, experienced the development of [[Earth:Agriculture|agriculture]] and the rise of politically centralised civilizations, which culminated in the establishment of the century-long Inca Empire. This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining economy.

In the tide of anti-imperialist nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a series of independence wars in the 19th century when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states.

==Climate and hydrology==
[[File:Andes1a.JPG|thumb|Central Andes]]
[[File:Andes bolivianos.jpg|thumb|Bolivian Andes]]

The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of {{convert|18|C|F|0}} in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. [[Earth:Rainforest|Rainforest]]s exist just kilometres away from the snow-covered peak of [[Earth:Cotopaxi|Cotopaxi]]. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The [[Earth:Snow line|snow line]] depends on the location. It is at between {{convert|4500.|and|4800.|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to {{convert|4800.|-|5200.|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to {{convert|4500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} on Aconcagua at 32°S, {{convert|2000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}} at 40°S, {{convert|500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} at 50°S, and only {{convert|300|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} in [[Earth:Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuego]] at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.<ref>
{{cite web
 | title =Climate of the Andes
 | url =http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm| access-date =9 December 2007| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071214073114/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm| archive-date =14 December 2007| url-status =dead| df =dmy-all}}
</ref>

The Andes of Chile and {{wipe|Argentina}} can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the [[Earth:Atacama Desert|Atacama Desert]] to the area of the Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the [[Physics:Ablation|ablation]] area or in the [[Earth:Glacier ice accumulation|accumulation area]].

In the high Andes of Central Chile and Mendoza Province, [[Earth:Rock glacier|rock glacier]]s are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to [[Physics:Solar radiation|solar radiation]].<ref>Jan-Christoph Otto, Joachim Götz, Markus Keuschnig, Ingo Hartmeyer, Dario Trombotto, and Lothar Schrott (2010). Geomorphological and geophysical investigation of a complex rock glacier system—Morenas Coloradas valley (Cordon del Plata, Mendoza, Argentina)</ref> In these regions glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers.<ref name=Corte1976/> The lowest active rock glacier occur at 900 m a.s.l. in [[Earth:Aconcagua|Aconcagua]].<ref name=Corte1976>{{Cite journal|title=Rock glaciers|journal=[[Earth:Biuletyn Peryglacjalny|Biuletyn Peryglacjalny]]|last=Corte|first=Arturo E.|volume=26|pages=175–197|year=1976}}</ref>

Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly {{convert|7000.|m|adj=on}} highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example, the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach {{cvt|10.|km}} in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to {{cvt|2060.|m}} and on the west side to about {{cvt|1220.|m}} above sea level.<ref name="Kuhle, M. 2011">Kuhle, M. (2011): The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence. Development in Quaternary Science, Vol. 15 (Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look, Eds: Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D.), 735–738. (Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam).</ref><ref>Brüggen, J. (1929): Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden. Geol. Rundsch. 20, 1–35, Berlin.</ref> The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua ({{cvt|6961|m}}), Cerro Tupungato ({{cvt|6550.|m}}) and Nevado Juncal ({{cvt|6110.|m}}) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to {{cvt|112.5|km}} long, over {{cvt|1250.|m}} thick and overspanned a vertical distance of {{cvt|5150.|m}}. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from {{cvt|4600.|m}} to {{cvt|3200.|m}} at glacial times.<ref name="Kuhle, M. 2011"/><ref>Kuhle, M. (1984): Spuren hocheiszeitlicher Gletscherbedeckung in der Aconcagua-Gruppe (32–33° S). In: Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie Teil 1 11/12, Verhandlungsblatt des Südamerika-Symposiums 1984 in Bamberg: 1635–1646.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1986): Die Vergletscherung Tibets und die Entstehung von Eiszeiten. In: Spektrum der Wissenschaft 9/86: 42–54.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1987): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. In: GeoJournal 14 (4); Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 393–421.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1988): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. In: Chinese Translation Bulletin of Glaciology and Geocryology 5 (4): 1–17 (in Chinese language).</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1989): Ice-Marginal Ramps: An Indicator of Semiarid Piedmont Glaciations. In: GeoJournal 18; Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 223–238.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1990): Ice Marginal Ramps and Alluvial Fans in Semi-Arid Mountains: Convergence and Difference. In: Rachocki, A.H., Church, M. (eds.): Alluvial fans: A field approach. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chester-New York-Brisbane-Toronto-Singapore: 55–68.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (1990): The Probability of Proof in Geomorphology—an Example of the Application of Information Theory to a New Kind of Glacigenic Morphological Type, the Ice-marginal Ramp (Bortensander). In: GeoJournal 21 (3); Kluwer, Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: 195–222.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (2004): The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glacier cover of the Aconcagua group and adjacent massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America). In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciation— Extent and Chronology. Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. Development in Quaternary Science, vol. 2c. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 75–81.</ref>

==Flora==
[[File:20100116 Sonso 002.JPG|thumb|Laguna de Sonso tropical dry forest in Northern Andes]]
The Andean region cuts across several [[Earth:Natural region|natural]] and floristic regions, due to its extension, from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet [[Earth:Cape Horn|Cape Horn]] passing through the hyperarid [[Earth:Atacama Desert|Atacama Desert]]. [[Earth:Rainforest|Rainforest]]s and tropical dry forests<ref>{{Cite web|title = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest Ecoregions|url = http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm|website = wwf.panda.org|access-date = 27 December 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425205410/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm|archive-date = 25 April 2012|url-status = dead}}</ref> used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several [[Place:Interandean Valles|Interandean Valles]], they are typically dominated by [[Biology:Deciduous|deciduous]] woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.

About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being [[Biology:Endemism|endemic]] to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other [[Biology:Biodiversity hotspot|hotspot]].<ref name = "biodiv"/> The small tree ''[[Biology:Cinchona pubescens|Cinchona pubescens]]'', a source of [[Chemistry:Quinine|quinine]] which is used to treat [[Medicine:Malaria|malaria]], is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are [[Biology:Tobacco|tobacco]] and [[Biology:Potato|potato]]es. The high-altitude ''[[Biology:Polylepis|Polylepis]]'' forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and {{wipe|Chile}}. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of {{convert|4500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in [[History:Modern history|modern times]] the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.<ref>{{cite web
  |title=Pants of the Andies
  |url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_plant_page.htm
  |access-date=9 December 2007
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215105448/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_plant_page.htm
  |archive-date=15 December 2007
|url-status=dead
  }}</ref>

==Fauna==
[[File:Tunki Tanpupata.jpg|thumb|A male Andean cock-of-the-rock, a species found in humid Andean forests and the national bird of Peru]]
[[File:Ausangate-hillside-MT.jpg|thumb|Herds of alpacas near Ausangate mountain]]
The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are [[Biology:Endemism|endemic]] to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for [[Biology:Amphibian|amphibian]]s.<ref name="biodiv">[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx Tropical Andes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821222457/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx |date=21 August 2010 }} – biodiversityhotspots.org</ref>
The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of [[Biology:Mammal|mammal]]s (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of [[Biology:Reptile|reptile]] (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).<ref name="biodiv"/>

The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) [[Biology:Chinchilla|chinchilla]]s, two threatened members of the [[Biology:Rodent|rodent]] order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions.<ref name=NeoMammals3>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (2000). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 3: The Central Neotropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-19542-1}}</ref><ref name=NeoMammals2>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (1992). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 2: The Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-70682-5}}</ref> The [[Biology:Andean condor|Andean condor]], the largest bird of its kind in the [[Earth:Western Hemisphere|Western Hemisphere]], occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.<ref name=HAndesBirds>Fjeldsaa, J.; & Krabbe, N. (1990). ''Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America.'' {{ISBN|978-87-88757-16-3}}</ref> Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, [[Biology:Cougar|cougar]], foxes in the genus ''Pseudalopex'',<ref name=NeoMammals3/><ref name=NeoMammals2/> and, for birds, certain species of [[Biology:Tinamou|tinamou]]s (notably members of the genus ''[[Biology:Nothoprocta|Nothoprocta]]''), [[Biology:Andean goose|Andean goose]], giant coot, [[Biology:Flamingo|flamingo]]s (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea, [[Biology:Andean flicker|Andean flicker]], [[Biology:Diademed sandpiper-plover|diademed sandpiper-plover]], [[Biology:Geositta|miners]], [[Biology:Phrygilus|sierra-finches]] and [[Biology:Diuca|diuca-finches]].<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

[[Earth:Lake Titicaca|Lake Titicaca]] hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe<ref name=HAndesBirds/> and Titicaca water frog.<ref name=ThreatenedAmph>Stuart, Hoffmann, Chanson, Cox, Berridge, Ramani and Young, editors (2008). ''Threatened Amphibians of the World.'' {{ISBN|978-84-96553-41-5}}</ref> A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above {{convert|4000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}, but far higher [[Biology:Species richness|diversities]] can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("[[Biology:Cloud forest|cloud forest]]s") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina.<ref name=HAndesBirds/> These forest-types, which includes the [[Place:Yungas|Yungas]] and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened [[Biology:Mountain tapir|mountain tapir]], [[Biology:Spectacled bear|spectacled bear]] and [[Biology:Yellow-tailed woolly monkey|yellow-tailed woolly monkey]].<ref name=NeoMammals3/>

Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain toucans, [[Biology:Quetzal|quetzal]]s and the [[Biology:Andean cock-of-the-rock|Andean cock-of-the-rock]], while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids commonly are seen – in contrast to several vocal but typically [[Biology:Crypsis|cryptic]] species of wrens, [[Biology:Tapaculo|tapaculo]]s and [[Biology:Antpitta|antpitta]]s.<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

A number of species such as the [[Biology:Royal cinclodes|royal cinclodes]] and [[Biology:White-browed tit-spinetail|white-browed tit-spinetail]] are associated with ''Polylepis'', and consequently also threatened.<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

==Human activity==

The Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through [[Social:Imperialism|imperialistic]] [[Social:Militarism|militarism]] as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.<ref>D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing, 2003</ref> The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today.

Devastated by European diseases and by civil war, the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, [[Place:Cañari|Cañari]]s) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was [[Astronomy:Machu Picchu|Machu Picchu]], which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and [[Social:Aymara language|Aymara language]] families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.

===Cities===

In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are [[Place:Bogotá|Bogotá]], with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and [[Place:Santiago|Santiago]], Medellín, Cali, and [[Place:Quito|Quito]]. [[Place:Lima|Lima]] is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the [[Finance:Andean Community of Nations|Andean Community of Nations]].

[[Place:La Paz|La Paz]], Bolivia's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately {{convert|3650|m|0|abbr=on}}. Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto, extend up to {{convert|4200|m|0|abbr=on}}.

Other cities in or near the Andes include Bariloche, Catamarca, Jujuy, Mendoza, Salta, San Juan, Tucumán, and Ushuaia in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosí, [[Place:Sucre|Sucre]], Sacaba, Tarija, and Yacuiba in Bolivia; [[Place:Arequipa|Arequipa]], Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancayo, Huánuco, Huaraz, Juliaca, and Puno in Peru; [[Place:Ambato, Ecuador|Ambato]], [[Place:Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]], [[Place:Ibarra, Ecuador|Ibarra]], [[Place:Latacunga|Latacunga]], [[Place:Loja, Ecuador|Loja]], [[Place:Riobamba|Riobamba]] and [[Place:Tulcán|Tulcán]] in Ecuador; Armenia, Cúcuta, Bucaramanga, Duitama, Ibagué, Ipiales, Manizales, Palmira, Pasto, Pereira, Popayán, Sogamoso, Tunja, and Villavicencio in Colombia; and Barquisimeto, La Grita, Mérida, San Cristóbal, Tovar, Trujillo, and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of [[Place:Caracas|Caracas]], Valencia, and Maracay are in the Venezuelan Coastal Range, which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America.
{{Gallery
|File:La Paz Skyline.jpg|[[Place:La Paz|La Paz]], Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world
|File:Santiago depois da chuva (11).JPG|Santiago de Chile
|File:Cerros orientales Bogota.jpg|[[Place:Bogotá|Bogotá]]
|File:FACHADA ASAMBLEA NACIONAL. QUITO, 20 DE FEBRERO 2020. 01.jpg|[[Place:Quito|Quito]]
|File:Mérida3.jpg|View of  Mérida, Venezuela
}}

===Transportation===

Cities and large towns are connected with [[Engineering:Asphalt concrete|asphalt]]-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle.<ref name="andesmap">{{Cite web |url=http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |title=Andes travel map |access-date=20 June 2010 |archive-date=24 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [[Engineering:Highway|highway]]s and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [[Engineering:Civil engineering|civil engineering]] practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492-jujuy-apuesta-a-captar-las-cargas-de-brasil-en-transito-hacia-chile|title=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli  |newspaper=La Nación |publisher=La Nación newspaper|access-date=22 July 2011|date=7 August 2009  }}</ref> Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.

However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region.

There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.

For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been a completely landlocked country ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.

Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [[Biology:Donkey|Donkey]]s, mules, and horses are also useful.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg|thumb|Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans]]

The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced [[Earth:Irrigation|irrigation]] techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The [[Biology:Potato|potato]] holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. [[Biology:Maize|Maize]] was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of [[Chemistry:Chicha|chicha]], important to Andean native people. Currently, [[Biology:Tobacco|tobacco]], [[Biology:Cotton|cotton]] and coffee are the main export crops. [[Chemistry:Coca|Coca]], despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of [[Biology:Cocaine|cocaine]].

===Irrigation===
[[File:Women irrigators in the Andes.jpg|thumb|Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes]]

In unirrigated land, [[Earth:Pasture|pasture]] is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat).

Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to {{cvt|3800|m|||}}). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like [[Biology:Onion|onion]] and [[Biology:Carrot|carrot]].<ref>W. van Immerzeel, 1989. ''Irrigation and erosion/flood control at high altitudes in the Andes.'' Published in Annual Report 1989, pp. 8–24, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: [https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/andes.pdf]</ref>

===Mining===
[[File:Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg|thumb|left|Chilean huasos, 19th century]]
The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the [[Earth:Mineralization (geology)|mineralizations]] of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and {{wipe|Argentina}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.argentine-embassy-uk.org/docs_eng/links/links_information_argentina.shtml|title=Information on Argentina|website=Argentine Embassy London}}</ref> derive their names from the silver of Potosí.

Currently, mining in the Andes of {{wipe|Chile}} and Peru places these countries as the first and second major producers of [[Chemistry:Copper|copper]] in the world. Peru also contains the 4th largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally [[Chemistry:Tin|tin]] although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the [[Finance:Price revolution|economy]] of 17th-century Europe.

There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish [[Chemistry:Silver|silver]] mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current [[Earth:Porphyry copper deposit|porphyry copper deposit]]s of [[Earth:Chuquicamata|Chuquicamata]] and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold, and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important. The Andes have a vast supply of lithium; Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile have the three largest reserves in the world respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium: What Role Does Tesla Play In The Demand For This Precious Metal? - Commodity.com |url=https://commodity.com/precious-metals/lithium/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=commodity.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Peaks==
This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).

===Argentina===
[[File:Aconcagua_(aerial).jpg|thumb|right|The Aconcagua, Argentina, the highest mountain in the Americas]]
* [[Earth:Aconcagua|Aconcagua]], {{convert|6961|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cerro Bonete|Cerro Bonete]], {{convert|6759|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Galán|Galán]], {{convert|5912|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Mercedario, {{convert|6720|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Monte Pissis|Pissis]], {{convert|6795|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===The border between Argentina and Chile===
* [[Earth:Cerro Bayo Complex|Cerro Bayo]], {{convert|5401|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Cerro Fitz Roy, {{convert|3375|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} or 3,405&nbsp;m, [[Place:Patagonia|Patagonia]], also known as Cerro Chaltén
* [[Earth:Cerro Escorial|Cerro Escorial]], {{convert|5447|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cordón del Azufre|Cordón del Azufre]], {{convert|5463|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Falso Azufre|Falso Azufre]], {{convert|5890|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Incahuasi|Incahuasi]], {{convert|6620|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Lastarria|Lastarria]], {{convert|5697|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Llullaillaco|Llullaillaco]], {{convert|6739|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]], {{convert|5264|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Marmolejo, {{convert|6110|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Ojos del Salado|Ojos del Salado]], {{convert|6893|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Olca|Olca]], {{convert|5407|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas|Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas]], {{convert|6127|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Socompa|Socompa]], {{convert|6051|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Nevado Tres Cruces, {{convert|6749|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (south summit) (III Region)
* [[Earth:Tronador|Tronador]], {{convert|3491|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Tupungato|Tupungato]], {{convert|6570|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Nacimiento, {{convert|6492|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Bolivia===
[[File:Nevado Sajama.jpg|thumb|right|[[Earth:Nevado Sajama|Sajama]], Bolivia]]
* Janq'u Uma, {{convert|6427|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Cabaraya, {{convert|5860|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Chacaltaya, {{convert|5422|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Wayna Potosí, {{convert|6088|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Illampu, {{convert|6368|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Illimani, {{convert|6438|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Laram Q'awa, {{convert|5182|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Macizo de Pacuni, {{convert|5400|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Nevado Anallajsi|Nevado Anallajsi]], {{convert|5750|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Nevado Sajama|Nevado Sajama]], {{convert|6542|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Patilla Pata|Patilla Pata]], {{convert|5300|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
* Tata Sabaya, {{convert|5430|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Border between Bolivia and Chile===
[[File:Sopka Cerro Parinacota 6342 m.n.m. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Parinacota, Bolivia/Chile]]
* [[Earth:Acotango|Acotango]], {{convert|6052|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Michincha, {{convert|5305|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Iru Phutunqu, {{convert|5163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Licancabur|Licancabur]], {{convert|5920|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Olca|Olca]], {{convert|5407|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Parinacota, {{convert|6348|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Paruma|Paruma]], {{convert|5420|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Pomerape|Pomerape]], {{convert|6282|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Chile===
[[File:Massif Reflected.jpg|thumb|right|View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park, Chile]]
* Monte San Valentin, {{convert|4058|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Cerro Paine Grande, {{convert|2884|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Cerro Macá, c.{{convert|2300|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Monte Darwin, c.{{convert|2500|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Volcan Hudson, c.{{convert|1900|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c.{{convert|1100|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Mount Tarn, c.{{convert|825|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Polleras, c.{{convert|5993|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Acamarachi|Acamarachi]], c.{{convert|6046|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Colombia===
[[File:Volcan Huila 9-12-2008 (1).jpg|thumb|right|Nevado del Huila, Colombia]]
* [[Earth:Nevado del Huila|Nevado del Huila]], {{convert|5365|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Nevado del Ruiz|Nevado del Ruiz]], {{convert|5321|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Nevado del Tolima|Nevado del Tolima]], {{convert|5205|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico Pan de Azúcar, {{convert|5200|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Ritacuba Negro, {{convert|5320|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cumbal Volcano|Nevado del Cumbal]], {{convert|4764|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cerro Negro de Mayasquer|Cerro Negro de Mayasquer]], {{convert|4445|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Ritacuba Blanco, {{convert|5410|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Nevado del Quindío, {{convert|5215|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Puracé|Puracé]], {{convert|4655|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Santa Isabel (volcano)|Santa Isabel]], {{convert|4955|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Doña Juana, {{convert|4150|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Galeras|Galeras]], {{convert|4276|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Azufral, {{convert|4070|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Ecuador===
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|right|Chimborazo near Riobamba, Ecuador]]
* Antisana, {{convert|5752|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]], {{convert|5790|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Chiles, {{convert|4723|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Chimborazo, {{convert|6268|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Corazón (volcano)|Corazón]], {{convert|4790|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Cotopaxi|Cotopaxi]], {{convert|5897|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:El Altar|El Altar]], {{convert|5320|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Illiniza|Illiniza]], {{convert|5248|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Pichincha Volcano|Pichincha]], {{convert|4784|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Quilotoa|Quilotoa]], {{convert|3914|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Reventador|Reventador]], {{convert|3562|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Sangay|Sangay]], {{convert|5230|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Tungurahua|Tungurahua]], {{convert|5023|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Peru===
[[File:Beauty of mount Huandoy, Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|Huandoy, Peru]]
[[File:Alpamayo 12.jpg|thumb|right|Alpamayo, Peru]]
* Alpamayo, {{convert|5947|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Artesonraju, {{convert|6025|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Carnicero, {{convert|5960|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Chumpe, {{convert|6106|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Earth:Coropuna|Coropuna]], {{convert|6377|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* El Misti, {{convert|5822|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* El Toro, {{convert|5830|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Huandoy, {{convert|6395|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Huascarán, {{convert|6768|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Jirishanca, {{convert|6094|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pumasillo, {{convert|5991|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Rasac, {{convert|6040|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Rondoy, {{convert|5870|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Sarapo, {{convert|6127|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Salcantay, {{convert|6271|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Seria Norte, {{convert|5860|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Siula Grande, {{convert|6344|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Huaytapallana, {{convert|5557|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Yerupaja, {{convert|6635|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Yerupaja Chico, {{convert|6089|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Venezuela===
[[File:PicoHumboldt.png|thumb|Pico Humboldt at sunset]]
* Pico Bolívar, {{convert|4978|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico Humboldt, {{convert|4940|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico Bonpland, {{convert|4880|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico La Concha, {{convert|4920|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico Piedras Blancas, {{convert|4740|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico El Águila, {{convert|4180|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico El Toro {{convert|4729|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico El León {{convert|4740|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* Pico Mucuñuque {{convert|4609|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

==See also==
* ''Andean Geology''—a [[Scientific journal|scientific journal]]
* [[Earth:Andesite line|Andesite line]]
* Apu (god)
* Mountain passes of the Andes
* [[Earth:List of mountain ranges|List of mountain ranges]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|display-authors=1|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8|title=The Andes|series=Frontiers in Earth Sciences|year=2006|isbn=978-3-540-24329-8|last1=Oncken|first1=Onno|last2=Chong|first2=Guillermo|last3=Franz|first3=Gerhard|last4=Giese|first4=Peter|last5=Götze|first5=Hans-Jürgen|last6=Ramos|first6=Victor A.|last7=Strecker|first7=M.R|last8=Wigger|first8=Peter}}
* Biggar, J. (2005). ''The Andes: A Guide For Climbers''. 3rd. edition. Andes: Kirkcudbrightshire. {{ISBN|0-9536087-2-7}}
* de Roy, T. (2005). ''The Andes: As the Condor Flies.'' Firefly books: Richmond Hill. {{ISBN|1-55407-070-8}}
* Fjeldså, J. & N. Krabbe (1990). ''The Birds of the High Andes.'' Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen: {{ISBN|87-88757-16-1}}
* Fjeldså, J. & M. Kessler (1996). ''Conserving the biological diversity of Polylepis woodlands of the highlands on Peru and Bolivia, a contribution to sustainable natural resource management in the Andes.'' NORDECO: Copenhagen. {{ISBN|978-87-986168-0-1}}
{{Refend}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Biggar|first=John|title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers|edition=3|publisher=Andes Publishing|location=Scotland|year=2005|url=http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-guidebooks.asp|isbn=978-0-9536087-2-0}}
* {{cite book|first=Ed|last=Darack|title=Wild Winds: Adventures in the Highest Andes|publisher=Cordee / DPP|year=2001|isbn=978-1-884980-81-7|language=en}}

==External links==
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Andes |volume= II |page=15-18 |short= 1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050922180841/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Andes/intro.html University of Arizona: Andes geology]
* [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm Blueplanetbiomes.org: Climate and animal life of the Andes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214073114/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm |date=14 December 2007 }}
* [http://www.discover-peru.org/peru-geography-regions-and-microclimates-andes/ Discover-peru.org: Regions and Microclimates in the Andes]
* [http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/southamerica.html Peaklist.org: Complete list of mountains in South America with an elevation at/above {{convert|1500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}]

{{Regions of the world|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Regions of South America]]

{{Sourceattribution|Andes}}