View source for Place:Dutch colonial empire

{{Short description|Overseas territories controlled by the Dutch Republic and the Netherlands}}
{{Pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{native name|nl|Nederlandse koloniale rijk}}
| conventional_long_name = Dutch colonial empire
| lifespan               = 1600s–2010
| event_pre              = First and second expedition to the [[Place:East Indies|East Indies]]
| date_pre               = 1595-1600
| event_start            = Company rule in the East Indies started
| year_start             = 1602
| event1                 = Colonization of the Americas
| date_event1            = 1621
| event2                 = Dutch–Portuguese War
| date_event2            = 1598–1663
| event3                 = Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814
| date_event3            = 1814
| event4                 = Belgian independence
| date_event4            = 1830
| event5                 = Axis occupation of the Netherlands and Dutch East Indies
| date_event5            = 1940–1945
| event6                 = Indonesia independence
| date_event6            = 1949
| event7                 = Dutch New Guinea
| date_event7            = 1949-1962
| event8                 = Kingdom charter
| date_event8            = 1954
| date_event9            = 1975
| event9                 = Suriname independence
| year_end               = 2010
| event_end              = Netherlands Antilles
dissolved
| image_flag             = Flag of the Netherlands.svg
| image_coat             = Royal coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg
| flag_type              = Flag
| symbol_type            = Coat of arms
| image_map              = DutchEmpire15.png
| map_caption            = Map marking territories that at some point were Dutch holdings
{{legend|#1DF73D|Territories administered by or originating from territories administered by the Dutch East India Company}}<br/>
{{legend|#008E16|Territories administered by or originating from territories administered by the Dutch West India Company}}<br />
Tiny orange squares indicate smaller trading posts, the so-called ''handelsposten''.
}}

The '''Dutch colonial empire''' ({{lang-nl|Nederlandse koloniale rijk}}) comprised the overseas territories and trading posts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered companies—mainly the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company—and subsequently by the [[Place:Dutch Republic|Dutch Republic]] (1581–1795), and by the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815.<ref name=Entrepot>{{cite book|last= Israel|first= Jonathan|title= Empires and Entrepots: Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy and the Jews, 1585–1713|date= 2003|pages= x–xii|publisher= Hambledon Press|location= London|isbn= 978-1852850227}}</ref>
It was initially a trade-based system which derived most of its influence from merchant enterprise and from Dutch control of international maritime shipping routes through strategically placed outposts, rather than from expansive territorial ventures.<ref name=Ward>{{cite book|last= Ward|first= Kerry|title= Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date= 2009|pages= 322–342|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge|isbn= 978-0-521-88586-7}}</ref><ref name=Entrepot/> The Dutch were among the earliest empire-builders of Europe, following [[Place:Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Place:Portuguese Empire|Portugal]] and one of the wealthiest nations of that time.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

With a few notable exceptions, the majority of the Dutch colonial empire's overseas holdings consisted of coastal forts, factories, and port settlements with varying degrees of incorporation of their hinterlands and surrounding regions.<ref name=Ward/> Dutch chartered companies often dictated that their possessions be kept as confined as possible in order to avoid unnecessary expense,<ref name="Afstudy">{{cite book | last = Andre du Toit & Hermann Giliomee | title = Afrikaner Political Thought: Analysis and Documents, Volume One (1780–1850) | year = 1983| edition= 1983 | pages= 1–305 | publisher = Claremont: David Philip (Pty) Ltd | isbn= 0908396716}}</ref> and while some such as the Dutch Cape Colony and Dutch East Indies expanded anyway (due to the pressure of independent-minded Dutch colonists), others remained undeveloped, isolated trading centres dependent on an indigenous host-nation.<ref name=Ward/> This reflected the primary purpose of the Dutch colonial empire: commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.<ref name=Ward/>

The imperial ambitions of the Dutch were bolstered by the strength of their existing shipping industry, as well as the key role they played in the expansion of maritime trade between Europe and the Orient.<ref name=Hunt1>{{cite book|last= Hunt|first= John|editor-last= Campbell |editor-first= Heather-Ann |title= Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708 |date= 2005|pages= 2–13|publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press |location= Philadelphia|isbn= 978-1904744955}}</ref> Because small European trading-companies often lacked the capital or the manpower for large-scale operations, the States General chartered larger organisations—the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company—in the early seventeenth century.<ref name=Hunt1/> These were considered the largest and most extensive maritime trading companies at the time, and once held a virtual monopoly on strategic European shipping-routes westward through the [[Earth:Southern Hemisphere|Southern Hemisphere]] around [[Earth:South America|South America]] through the Strait of Magellan, and eastward around [[Earth:Africa|Africa]], past the Cape of Good Hope.<ref name=Hunt1/> The companies' domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution and a cultural flowering in the Netherlands of the 17th&nbsp;century, known as the Dutch Golden Age.<ref name=Hsin-Hui>{{cite book |last= Hsin-Hui |first= Chiu|title= The Colonial 'civilizing Process' in Dutch Formosa: 1624–1662 |date= 2008|pages= 3–8|publisher= Tuta Sub Aegide Pallas |location= Leiden|isbn= 978-9004165076}}</ref> In their search for new trade passages between [[Earth:Asia|Asia]] and [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], Dutch navigators explored and charted distant regions such as {{wipe|Australia}}, [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of [[Earth:North America|North America]].<ref name=Fisher>{{cite book|last= Fisher|first= Ann Richmond|title= Explorers of the New World Time Line|date= 2007|pages= 53–59|publisher= Teaching & Learning Company|location= Dayton, Ohio|isbn= 978-1429113175}}</ref> During the period of [[Finance:Proto-industrialization|proto-industrialization]], the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.<ref name="tong">{{cite book |author=Junie T. Tong |year=2016 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |publisher=CRC Press |page=151 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7}}</ref><ref name="esposito">{{cite book |editor1=John L. Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |volume=1: Abba - Hist. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=174 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3}}</ref><ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). {{cite book |year=2005 | title=Bengal: the unique state | publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. | isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 | quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, maize, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}</ref><ref name="Prakash">Om Prakash, "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051038/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=WHIC&u=seat24826&id=GALE%7B%7B%21%7D%7DCX3447600139&v=2.1&it=r&asid=6b597320 |date=18 November 2022 }}", ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref>

In the 18th century, the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780–1784, in which the Dutch Republic lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]] and [[Place:French colonial empire|French colonial empire]], along with the conquest of the Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey by the British East India Company.<ref name="ray">{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |publisher=Routledge |pages=57, 90, 174 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}</ref><ref name=Hobkirk>{{cite book|last= Hobkirk|first= Michael|title= Land, Sea or Air?: Military Priorities- Historical Choices|date= 1992|pages= 77–80|publisher= Palgrave-Macmillan|location= Basingstoke|isbn= 978-0312074937}}</ref><ref>Dalio, Ray. [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/big-cycles-over-last-500-years-ray-dalio/ "The Big Cycles of the Dutch and British Empires and Their Currencies"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001130930/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/big-cycles-over-last-500-years-ray-dalio/ |date=1 October 2020 }}, ''[[Company:LinkedIn|LinkedIn]]'', 21 May 2020</ref> Nevertheless, major portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following [[Social:World War II|World War II]], namely the East Indies and Dutch Guiana.<ref name=DR1>{{cite book|last= Jones|first= Guno|editor-last1= Essed|editor-first1= Philomena|editor-last2= Hoving|editor-first2= Isabel|title= Dutch Racism|date= 2014|pages= 315–316|publisher= Rodopi B.V.|location= Amsterdam|isbn= 978-9042037588}}</ref> Three former colonial territories in the [[Place:West Indies|West Indies]] islands around the Caribbean Sea—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—remain as constituent countries represented within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.<ref name=DR1/>

== Former Dutch colonial possessions ==
This list does not include several former trading posts stationed by Dutch, such as Dejima in Japan.

* Dutch East Indies with company rule (1603–1949), Dutch Malacca (1641–1795, 1818–1825), and Dutch New Guinea (until 1962)
* Dutch India (1605–1825)
* [[Place:Dutch Gold Coast|Dutch Gold Coast]] (1612–1872)
* Dutch Antilles (1954–2010)
* New Netherlands (1614–1667, 1673–1674)
* Dutch Guianas (1616–1975)
* Dutch Formosa (1624–1662), and Keelung (Fort Noord-Holland; 1663–1668)
* Dutch Virgin Islands (1625–1680)
* Dutch Bengal (1627–1825)
* Dutch Brazil (1630–1654)
* Dutch Mauritius (1638–1710)
* Dutch Ceylon (1640–1796)
* Dutch Cape Colony (1652–1806)
* Dutch Malabar (1665–1795)
* Dutch Surinam (1667–1954)
* New Holland (Acadia) (1674–1678)

==History==

===Origins (1590s–1602)===
In the 1560s, the Eighty Years' War broke out in the Habsburg Netherlands.{{efn|Controversy exists as to precise the origins of the Eighty Years' War.}} A coalition of rebel provinces united in the Union of Utrecht declared independence from the [[Place:Spanish Empire|Spanish Empire]] with the 1581 Act of Abjuration, in 1588 establishing the ''de facto'' independent northern [[Place:Dutch Republic|Dutch Republic]] (alias the United Provinces), whose sovereignty was recognised by the Treaty of Antwerp (1609). The eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Victimario Histórico Militar|url=http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9.htm}}</ref> The war was largely fought on the European continent, but war was also conducted against Phillip II's overseas territories, including Spanish colonies and the Portuguese metropoles, colonies, [[History:Factory (trading post)#Portuguese Feitorias (c. 1445)|trading posts]] and forts belonging at that time to the King of Spain and Portugal.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} The port of [[Place:Lisbon|Lisbon]] in Portugal had since 1517 been the main European market for products from India, drawing merchants from across Europe to purchase exotic commodities. But as a result of Portugal's incorporation in the Iberian Union with Spain by Philip II in 1580, all Portuguese territories were thereafter Spanish Habsburg branch territory, and thus all Portuguese markets were closed to the United Provinces. Thus, in 1595, the Dutch decided to set sail on their own to acquire products for themselves, making use of the "secret" knowledge of the Portuguese trade routes, which Cornelis de Houtman had managed to acquire in Lisbon.<ref name="autogenerated5">Vidal, Prudencio. (1888)</ref>

The coastal provinces of Holland and Zeeland had been important hubs of the European maritime trade network for centuries prior to Spanish rule. Their geographical location provided convenient access to the markets of France, Scotland, Germany, England and the Baltic.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=6}} By the 1580s, the Eighty Years' War led many financiers and traders to emigrate from Antwerp, a major city in Brabant and then one of Europe's most important commercial centres, to Dutch cities, particularly [[Place:Amsterdam|Amsterdam]],{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=19}} which became Europe's foremost centre for shipping, banking, and insurance.<ref>Taylor (2001), p. 248.</ref> Efficient access to capital enabled the Dutch in the 1580s to extend their trade routes beyond northern Europe to new markets in the Mediterranean and the [[Place:Levant|Levant]]. In the 1590s, Dutch ships began to trade with {{wipe|Brazil}} and the [[Place:Dutch Gold Coast|Dutch Gold Coast]] of Africa, towards the Indian Ocean, and the source of the lucrative [[Finance:Spice trade|spice trade]].{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=20}} This brought the Dutch into direct competition with Portugal, which had dominated these trade routes for several decades, and had established colonial outposts on the coasts of Brazil, Africa and the Indian Ocean to facilitate them. The rivalry with Portugal, however, was not entirely economic: from 1580, after the death of the King of Portugal, Sebastian I, and much of the Portuguese nobility in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir, the Portuguese crown had been joined to that of Spain in an "Iberian Union" under the heir of Emperor Charles V, Philip II of Spain. By attacking Portuguese overseas possessions, the Dutch forced Spain to divert financial and military resources away from its attempt to quell Dutch independence.<ref>Scammel (1989), p.20.</ref> Thus began the several decade-long Dutch–Portuguese War.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

In the 1590s, the ''voorcompagnieën'' ("pioneer companies") emerged, which were given "express instructions to focus on trade and engage in violence only in self-defense".{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}} In 1594, the ''Compagnie van Verre'' ("Company of Far Lands") was founded in Amsterdam, with the aim of sending two fleets to the spice islands of Maluku.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=22}} The first fleet sailed in 1596 and returned in 1597 with a cargo of pepper, which more than covered the costs of the voyage. The second voyage (1598–1599), returned its investors a 400% profit.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=23}} The success of these voyages led to the founding of a number of companies competing for the trade. The competition was counterproductive to the companies' interests as it threatened to drive up the price of spices at their source in Indonesia whilst driving them down in Europe.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=23}}{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}} Simultaneously, some Dutch company ships in the 1590s had been starting to raid and plunder Spanish and Portuguese vessels or their Asian allies in order to seize their spices instead, a phenomenon which had to be rationalised and theoretically justified as a legitimate act of war against enemy ships.{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}}

=== Establishment of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (1602–1609) ===
{{Quote box
| class = letterhead
| title = 
| quote = "The present deputies of the East India Company are seriously admonished to look into and give orders to the effect that the ships, which are already equipped or afterwards shall be equipped to sail to the East Indies, can have charge and instruction to damage the enemies and inflict harm on their persons, ships and goods by all means possible, so that they may with reputation not only continue their trade, but also expand it and make it grow, otherwise by neglecting this they will certainly lose it. For this was the principal reason why the Gentlemen States General have undertaken the union of the Companies and awarded them a charter and authorisation to inflict damage on the enemies."
| source = – States-General resolution 1 November 1603{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=39}}
| width  = 20%
| title_bg = none
| tstyle = text-align: left;
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}}
As a result of the problems caused by inter-company rivalry, the Dutch East India Company ({{lang-nl|Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie}}, VOC) was founded in 1602. The charter awarded to the Company by the States-General granted it sole rights, for an initial period of 21&nbsp;years, to Dutch trade and navigation east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. The directors of the company, the "''Heeren XVII''", were given the legal authority to establish "fortresses and strongholds", to sign treaties, to enlist both an army and a navy, and to wage defensive war.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=24}} The company itself was founded as a joint stock company, similarly to its English rival that had been founded two years earlier, the English East India Company.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Shortly after the VOC was founded, the problem of justifying attacks on Spanish and Portuguese ships became more acute when in February 1603, the Portuguese [[Engineering:Carrack|carrack]] ''[[Engineering:Santa Catarina (ship)|Santa Catarina]]'' was captured off the coast of Singapore by three VOC ships under the command of Jacob van Heemskerck.{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}} When Heemskerck returned to Amsterdam in 1604 with the enormous booty from the ''Santa Catarina'', this caused a major controversy in the Dutch Republic about the legality, utility, and moral permissibility of this act.{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}} As a result, in September 1604 jurist [[Biography:Hugo Grotius|Hugo Grotius]] wrote a treatise titled ''De Jure Praedae Commentarius'' ("Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty"), later published in 1609 as ''Mare Liberum, sive de jure quod Batavis competit ad Indicana commercia dissertatio'' ("The Freedom of the Seas, Or, The Right Which Belongs to the Dutch to Take Part in the East Indian Trade"), in which the act of aggression was justified.{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=38}}

In the meantime, the States-General had already passed a resolution on 1 November 1603, authorising VOC ships "to damage the enemies and inflict harm on their persons, ships and goods by all means possible, so that they may with reputation not only continue their trade, but also expand it and make it grow".{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=39}} This was a "critical" event according to several historical studies,{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=39}} with Borschberg (2013) stating it "marked a major shift in policy of the VOC" and "set the cornerstone for the establishment of the Dutch colonial empire in Asia",{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=40}} because the resolution transformed the VOC "into an instrument of war and colonial expansion that was directed against the Iberian powers in Asia and later, of course, also against local Asian rulers and polities."{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=40}} Pursuing their quest for alternative routes to Asia for trade, the Dutch were disrupting the Spanish-Portuguese trade, and they eventually ranged as far afield as the Philippines. The Dutch sought to dominate the commercial sea trade in Southeast Asia, going so far in pursuit of this goal as to engage in what other nations and powers considered to be little more than piratical activities.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

During the negotiations for and implementation of the Twelve Years' Truce in the years 1608–1610, the Dutch sought to secure all sorts of commercially and strategically important positions in Southeast Asia, and the VOC rushed to conclude as many contracts as possible with local monarchs and polities in the so-called frontline regions: the [[Biology:Malay Peninsula|Malay Peninsula]] (particularly Johor), Sumatra, the Banda Islands, the Moluccas, Timor and southern [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|India]].{{sfn|Borschberg|2013|p=41–42}}

=== Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands (1609–1621) ===
[[File:Kaart van de Banda-eilanden, 1599, RP-P-OB-75.391.jpg|300px|thumb|Dutch map of the Banda Islands, dated c. 1599–1619]]
{{Excerpt|Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands}}

===Iberian–Dutch conflicts (until 1661) ===
[[File:Johannes Vingboons - Maragnon (1665).jpg|thumb|São Luís, Maranhão, Dutch Brazil]]
[[File:Gezicht op Olinda, Brazilië Rijksmuseum SK-A-742.jpeg|thumb|left|Olinda, Pernambuco, Dutch Brazil]]
[[File:Victor Meirelles - 'Battle of Guararapes', 1879, oil on canvas, Museu Nacional de Belas Artes, Rio de Janeiro 2.jpg|thumb|The Portuguese victory at the Battle of Guararapes ended Dutch presence in Brazil.]]
The Dutch attacked most of Portugal's far-flung [[Place:Portuguese Empire#Southeast Asia and the spice trade|trading network]] in and around [[Earth:Asia|Asia]], including Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), and Goa, as well as [[Place:Portuguese Empire#Iberian Union and rivalry with the Protestant Powers (1580–1663)|attacks upon her commercial interests]] in Japan, [[Place:Portuguese Empire#Age of Discovery (1415–1542)|Africa]] (especially Mina), and [[Earth:South America|South America]]. Even though the Portuguese had never been able to capture the entire island of Ceylon, they had been able to keep the coastal regions under their control for a considerable time before the coming of the Dutch in war. Portugal's South American colony, Brazil, was partially conquered by the United Provinces.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

In 1621, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) was set up and given a 25-year monopoly to those parts of the world not controlled by its East India counterpart: the Atlantic, the Americas and the west coast of Africa.<ref name=autogenerated3>Rogozinski (2000), p.62.</ref> The Dutch also established a trading post in Ayutthaya, modern day Thailand during the reign of King Naresuan, in 1604.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

In the 17th century, the "Grand Design" of the West India Company involved attempting to corner the international trade in sugar by attacking Portuguese colonies in Brazil and Africa, seizing both the sugarcane plantations and the slave ports needed to resupply their labour. Although weakened by the Iberian Union with Spain, whose attention was focused elsewhere, the Portuguese were able to fight off the initial assault before the Battle of Matanzas Bay provided the WIC with the funds needed for a successful operation. Johan Maurits was appointed governor of "New Holland" and landed at Recife in January 1637. In a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to Maranhão in the north. The WIC also succeeded in conquering Gorée, Elmina Castle, Saint Thomas, and [[Place:Luanda|Luanda]] on the west coast of Africa. Both regions were also used as bases for Dutch privateers plundering Portuguese and Spanish trade routes. The dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640 and Maurits's recall in 1643 led to increased resistance from the Portuguese colonists who still made up a majority of the Brazilian settlers. The Dutch were finally overcome during the 1650s but managed to receive 4&nbsp;million reis (63 metric tons of gold) in exchange for extinguishing their claims over Brazil in the 1661 Treaty of the Hague.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Dutch colonisation of Asia ===
[[File:Dutch and Portuguese in Asia c 1665.png|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Primary Dutch and Portuguese settlements in Asia, c. 1665. With the exception of Jakarta and Deshima, all had been captured by the Dutch East India Company from Portugal.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=24}}]]
The war between Phillip II's possessions and other countries led to a deterioration of the Portuguese Empire, as with the loss of Ormuz to England in 1622, but the Dutch Empire was the main beneficiary.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The VOC began immediately to prise away the string of coastal fortresses that, at the time, comprised the Portuguese Empire. The settlements were isolated, difficult to reinforce if attacked, and prone to being picked off one by one, but nevertheless, the Dutch only enjoyed mixed success in its attempts to do so.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=23}} Amboina was captured from the Portuguese in 1605, but an attack on Malacca the following year narrowly failed in its objective to provide a more strategically located base in the East Indies with favourable monsoon winds.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=189}} The Dutch found what they were looking for in [[Place:Jakarta|Jakarta]], conquered by Jan Pieterszoon Coen in 1619, later renamed Batavia after the putative Dutch ancestors the Batavians, and which would become the capital of the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, the Dutch continued to drive out the Portuguese from their bases in Asia. Malacca finally succumbed in 1641 (after a second attempt to capture it), [[Place:Colombo|Colombo]] in 1656, Ceylon in 1658, Nagapattinam in 1662, and Cranganore and Cochin in 1662.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=24}}

Goa, the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East, was unsuccessfully attacked by the Dutch in 1603 and 1610. Whilst the Dutch were unable in four attempts to capture Macau,<ref>Shipp, p.22.</ref> from where Portugal monopolized the lucrative China-Japan trade, the Tokugawa shogunate's increasing suspicion of the intentions of the Catholic Portuguese led to their expulsion in 1639. Under the subsequent ''sakoku'' policy, from 1639 till 1854 (215 years), the Dutch were the only European power allowed to operate in Japan, confined in 1639 to Hirado and then from 1641 at Dejima. In the mid-17th century, the Dutch also explored the western Australian coasts, naming many places.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[File:Fort Zeelandia03.jpg|thumb|left|Overview of Fort Zeelandia on the island of Formosa, 17th century]]
The Dutch colonised [[Earth:Mauritius|Mauritius]] in 1638, several decades after three ships out of the Dutch Second Fleet sent to the Spice Islands were blown off course in a storm and landed there in 1598. They named it in honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau, the Stadtholder of the Netherlands. The Dutch found the climate hostile and abandoned the island after several further decades.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[File:AMH-5642-KB View of the Nieuwe Poort at Batavia.jpg|thumb|Batavia, built in what is now Jakarta, 1682]]
The Dutch established a colony at Tayouan (present-day Anping), in the south of Taiwan, an island then largely dominated by Portuguese traders and known as Formosa; and, in 1642 the Dutch took northern Formosa from the Spanish by force.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The Dutch tried to use military force to make Ming China open up to Dutch trade but the Chinese defeated the Dutch in a war over the Penghu islands from 1623 to 1624, forcing the VOC to abandon Penghu for Taiwan. Then Chinese defeated the Dutch again at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blussé|first1=Leonard|title=Pioneers or cattle for the slaughterhouse? A rejoinder to A.R.T. Kemasang|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|date=1 January 1989|volume=145|issue=2|page=357|doi=10.1163/22134379-90003260|s2cid=57527820 }}</ref>{{sfnp|Wills|2010|p=71}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aNBWudWBOsQC&dq=1633+zheng+dutch&pg=PA362 Cook 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123093659/https://books.google.com/books?id=aNBWudWBOsQC&pg=PA362&dq=1633+zheng+dutch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=w6y7UteUHsjlsASdwYLYCQ&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=1633%20zheng%20dutch&f=false |date=23 November 2022 }}, p. 362.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TV6f2XWG6t4C&dq=1633+zheng+dutch&pg=PA122 Li (李) 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123093650/https://books.google.com/books?id=TV6f2XWG6t4C&pg=PA122&dq=1633+zheng+dutch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=w6y7UteUHsjlsASdwYLYCQ&ved=0CC8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=1633%20zheng%20dutch&f=false |date=23 November 2022 }}, p. 122.</ref>

In 1646, the Dutch tried to capture the Spanish colony in the {{wipe|Philippines}}. Although they had a large force at their disposal, they were defeated at the Battles of La Naval de Manila when they attempted to take [[Place:Manila|Manila]]. After this defeat, they abandoned their efforts to capture Manila and the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/22635/11546101681netherlands_voc_archives.doc/netherlands%2Bvoc%2Barchives.doc |title=Nomination VOC archives for Memory of the World Register |access-date=23 November 2008 |archive-date=25 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125063234/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/22635/11546101681netherlands_voc_archives.doc/netherlands%2Bvoc%2Barchives.doc |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html|title=dutchmalaysia.net|access-date=18 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814022910/http://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.html|archive-date=14 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. Through the centuries there developed a relatively large Dutch-speaking population of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, known as Indos or Dutch-Indonesians.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Dutch colonisation of the Americas ===
[[File:Dutch Conquests Brazil Caribbean.png|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Dutch conquests in the West Indies and {{wipe|Brazil}}{{efn|Reproduced from Boxer (1965), p.101.}}]]
In the Atlantic, the West India Company concentrated on wresting from Portugal its grip on the sugar and slave trade, and on opportunistic attacks on the Spanish treasure fleets on their homeward bound voyage.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.62.</ref> [[Place:Bahia|Bahia]] on the north east coast of Brazil was captured in 1624 but only held for a year before it was recaptured by a joint Spanish-Portuguese expedition. In 1628, Piet Heyn captured the entire Spanish treasure fleet, and made off with a vast fortune in precious metals and goods that enabled the Company two years later to pay its shareholders a cash dividend of 70%,<ref>Taylor (2001), p.63.</ref> though the Company was to have relatively few other successes against the Spanish.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=26}} In 1630, the Dutch occupied the Portuguese sugar-settlement of Pernambuco and over the next few years pushed inland, annexing the sugar plantations that surrounded it. In order to supply the plantations with the manpower they required, a successful expedition was launched from Brazil to capture the Portuguese slaving post of Elmina in 1637,<ref name=autogenerated3 /> and successfully captured the Portuguese settlements in Angola in 1641.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=112}} In 1642, the Dutch captured the Portuguese possession of Axim in Africa. By 1650, the West India Company was firmly in control of both the sugar and slave trades, and had occupied the Caribbean islands of Sint Maarten, Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire in order to guarantee access to the islands' [[Earth:Salt evaporation pond|salt-pans]].<ref>Taylor (2001), p.65.</ref>

Unlike in Asia, Dutch successes against the Portuguese in Brazil and Africa were short-lived. Years of settlement had left large Portuguese communities under the rule of the Dutch, who were by nature traders rather than colonisers.{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=120}} In 1645, the Portuguese community at Pernambuco rebelled against their Dutch masters,{{sfn|Boxer|1965|p=26}} and by 1654, the Dutch had been ousted from Brazil.<ref>[http://www.s4ulanguages.com/21.html Facsimile of manuscript regarding the surrender of Dutch Brazil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715080833/http://www.s4ulanguages.com/21.html |date=15 July 2010 }}:''Cort, Bondigh ende Waerachtigh Verhael Wan't schandelyck over-geven ende verlaten vande voorname Conquesten van Brasil...;''</ref> In the intervening years, a Portuguese expedition had been sent from Brazil to recapture [[Place:Luanda|Luanda]] in Angola, expelling the Dutch by 1648.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[File:Map-Novi Belgii Novæque Angliæ (Amsterdam, 1685).jpg|thumb|right|300px|Reprint of a 1650 map of New Netherland]]
On the north-east coast of North America, the West India Company took over a settlement that had been established by the Company of New Netherland (1614–1618) at Fort Orange at Albany on the Hudson River,<ref>Davies (1974), p.89.</ref> relocated from Fort Nassau which had been founded in 1614. The Dutch had been sending ships annually to the Hudson River to trade fur since Henry Hudson's voyage of 1609.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.251.</ref> To protect its precarious position at Albany from the nearby English and French, the Company founded the fortified town of New Amsterdam in 1625, at the mouth of the Hudson, encouraging settlement of the surrounding areas of Long Island and New Jersey.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.252.</ref> The fur trade ultimately proved impossible for the Company to monopolize due to the massive illegal private trade in furs, and the settlement of New Netherland was unprofitable.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.253.</ref> In 1655, the nearby colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River was forcibly absorbed into New Netherland after ships and soldiers were sent to capture it by the Dutch governor, Pieter Stuyvesant.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.255.</ref>

Since its inception, the Dutch East India Company had been in competition with its counterpart, the English East India Company, founded two years earlier but with a capital base eight times smaller,<ref name=autogenerated2>McEvedy (1998), p.44.</ref> for the same goods and markets in the East. In 1619, the rivalry resulted in the Amboyna massacre, when several English Company men were executed by agents of the Dutch. The event remained a source of English resentment for several decades, and indeed was used as a [[Social:Cause célèbre|cause célèbre]] as late as the Second Anglo-Dutch War in the 1660s; nevertheless, in the late 1620s the English Company shifted its focus from Indonesia to India.<ref name=autogenerated2 />

In 1643, the Dutch West India Company established a settlement in the ruins of the Spanish settlement of Valdivia, in southern Chile. The purpose of the expedition was to gain a foothold on the west coast of the Americas, an area that was almost entirely under the control of Spain (the [[Earth:Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean]], at least most of it to the east of the Philippines, being at the time almost a "Spanish lake"),<ref name=lytle>{{Citation | last = Lytle Schurz | first = William | title = The Spanish Lake | journal = The Hispanic American Historical Review | volume = 5 | issue  = 2 | year = 1922 | pages = 181–94 | jstor = 2506024 | doi=10.2307/2506024}}</ref> and to extract gold from nearby mines. Uncooperative indigenous peoples, who had forced the Spanish to leave Valdivia in 1604 contributed to get the expedition to leave after some months of occupation. This occupation triggered the return of the Spanish to Valdivia and the building of one of the largest defensive complexes of colonial America.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lane |first=Kris E. |title=Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas 1500–1750 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRgFqADzOLkC&q=Brouwer |year=1998 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-76560-256-5|page=90}}</ref><ref name=Kock>{{cite web|first=Robbert|last=Kock|url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutchchile.html|title=Dutch in Chile|publisher=Colonial Voyage.com|access-date=23 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229232448/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/dutch-chile/|archive-date=29 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Dutch colonisation of Southern Africa ===
[[File:Aernout Smit Table Bay, 1683 William Fehr Collection Cape Town.jpg|thumb|right|View of Table Bay with ships of the Dutch East India Company, c. 1683]]
By the middle of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company had overtaken Portugal as the dominant player in the spice and silk trade, and in 1652 founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope on the southern African coast, as a victualing station for its ships on the route between Europe and Asia.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.250.</ref> Dutch immigration in the Cape rapidly swelled as prospective colonists were offered generous grants of land and tax exempt status in exchange for producing the food needed to resupply passing ships.<ref name=Hunt2>{{cite book |last=Hunt|first=John|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=Heather-Ann|title=Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708|date=2005 |pages=13–35|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1904744955}}</ref><ref name=Lucas>{{cite book |last=Lucas |first=Gavin|title=An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley, South Africa |date=2004 |pages=29–33|publisher=Springer, Publishers|location=New York|isbn=978-0306485381}}</ref> The Cape authorities also imported a number of Europeans of other nationalities, namely Germans and French Huguenots, as well as thousands of slaves from the East Indies, to bolster the local Dutch workforce.<ref name=Hunt2/><ref name="Britannica1933">Entry: Cape Colony. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 4 Part 2: Brain to Casting''. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1933. James Louis Garvin, editor.</ref> Nevertheless, there was a degree of cultural assimilation between the various ethnic groups due to intermarriage and the universal adoption of the Dutch language, and cleavages were likelier to occur along social and racial lines.<ref name=NHOSA>{{cite book|last1=Mbenga|first1=Bernard|last2=Giliomee|first2=Hermann|title=New History of South Africa|date=2007|pages=59–60|publisher=Tafelburg, Publishers|location=Cape Town|isbn=978-0624043591}}</ref>

The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope expanded beyond the initial settlement and its borders were formally consolidated as the composite Dutch Cape Colony in 1778.<ref name=Stapleton>{{cite book|last=Stapleton|first=Thomas|title=A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid |date=2010|pages=4–7|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-0313365898}}</ref> At the time, the Dutch had subdued the indigenous Khoisan and San peoples in the Cape and seized their traditional territories.<ref name=Stapleton/> Dutch military expeditions further east were halted when they encountered the westward expansion of the Xhosa people.<ref name=Stapleton/> Hoping to avoid being drawn into a protracted dispute, the Dutch government and the Xhosa chieftains agreed to formally demarcate their respective areas of control and refrain from trespassing on each other's borders.<ref name=Stapleton/> However, the Dutch proved unable to control their own settlers, who disregarded the agreement and crossed into Xhosa territory, sparking one of Southern Africa's longest colonial conflicts: the Xhosa Wars.<ref name=Stapleton/>

=== Rivalry with Great Britain and France (1652–1795) ===
In 1651, the English parliament passed the first of the Navigation Acts which excluded Dutch shipping from the lucrative trade between England and its Caribbean colonies, and led directly to the outbreak of hostilities between the two countries the following year, the first of three Anglo-Dutch Wars that would last on and off for two decades and slowly erode Dutch naval power to England's benefit.<ref>McEvedy (1988), p.46.</ref><ref>Taylor (2001), p.259</ref>

In 1661, amidst the Qing conquest of China, Ming general Koxinga led a fleet to invade Formosa. The Dutch defense, led by governor Frederick Coyett, held out for nine months. However, after Koxinga defeated Dutch reinforcements from Java, Coyett surrendered Formosa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Coyett |first=Frederick |chapter=Arrival and Victory of Koxinga |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/formosaunderdut01campgoog#page/n428/mode/1up |orig-year=First published 1675 in '' 't verwaerloosde Formosa'' |pages=412–459 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=William |title=Formosa under the Dutch: described from contemporary records, with explanatory notes and a bibliography of the island |year=1903 |publisher=Kegan Paul |location=London |isbn=9789576380839 |lccn=04007338 }}</ref> The Dutch would never rule Formosa again.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The Second Anglo-Dutch War was precipitated in 1664, when English forces moved to capture New Netherland. Under the Treaty of Breda (1667), New Netherland was ceded to England in exchange for the English settlements in Suriname, which had been conquered by Dutch forces earlier that year. Though the Dutch would again take New Netherland in 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, it was returned to England the following year, thereby ending Dutch rule in continental North America, but leaving behind a large Dutch community under English rule that persisted with its language, church and customs until the mid-18th century.<ref>Taylor (2001), p.260</ref> In South America, the Dutch seized Cayenne from the French in 1658 and drove off a French attempt to retake it a year later. However, it was returned to France in 1664, since the colony proved to be unprofitable. It was recaptured by the Dutch in 1676, but was returned again a year later, this time permanently. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Dutch William of Orange ascend to the throne, and win the English, Scottish, and Irish crowns, ending eighty years of rivalry between the Netherlands and England, while the rivalry with France remained strong.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

During the American Revolutionary War, Britain declared war on the Netherlands, the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, in which Britain seized the Dutch colony of Ceylon. Under the Peace of Paris (1783), Ceylon was returned to the Netherlands and Negapatnam ceded to Britain.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Napoleonic era (1795–1815) ===
[[File:Grote partij bij het opperhoofd van Dejima.jpg|thumb|Dejima trading post in Japan, c. 1805]]
In 1795, the French Revolutionary Army invaded the Dutch Republic and turned the nation into a satellite of France, named the [[Place:Batavian Republic|Batavian Republic]]. Britain, which was at war with France, soon moved to occupy Dutch colonies in Asia, South Africa, and the Caribbean.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens signed by Britain and France in 1802, the Cape Colony and the islands of the Dutch West Indies that the British had seized were returned to the Republic. Ceylon was not returned to the Dutch and was made a British {{wipe|Crown Colony}}. After the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and France again in 1803, the British retook the Cape Colony. The British also invaded and captured the island of Java in 1811.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

In 1806, Napoleon dissolved the Batavian Republic and established a monarchy with his brother, Louis Bonaparte, on the throne as King of the Netherlands. Louis was removed from power by Napoleon in 1810, and the country was ruled directly from France until its liberation in 1813. The following year, the independent Netherlands signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 with Britain. All the colonies Britain had seized were returned to the Netherlands, with the exception of the Dutch Cape Colony, Dutch Ceylon, and part of Dutch Guyana.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Post-Napoleonic era (1815–1945) ===
[[File:Dutch East Indies Expansion.gif|thumb|right|upright=1.45|Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian Archipelago]]
[[File:KaartNederlandsekolonien.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Dutch colonial possessions around 1840. Included are the Dutch East Indies, Curaçao and Dependencies, Suriname, and the Dutch Gold Coast.]]
After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Europe's borders were redrawn at the [[Organization:Congress of Vienna|Congress of Vienna]]. For the first time since the declaration of independence from Spain in 1581, the Dutch were reunited with the Southern Netherlands in a constitutional monarchy, the [[Place:United Kingdom of the Netherlands|United Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. The union lasted just 15&nbsp;years. In 1830, a revolution in the southern half of the country led to the ''de facto'' independence of the new state of Belgium.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The bankrupt Dutch East India Company was liquidated on 1 January 1800,<ref name="RICKLEFSp110">{{cite book| last =Ricklefs | first =M.C. | title =A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition | publisher =MacMillan | year =1991 | location =London | isbn = 0-333-57689-6 | page =110 }}</ref> and its territorial possessions were nationalized as the Dutch East Indies.
Anglo-Dutch rivalry in Southeast Asia continued to fester over the port of [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]], which had been ceded to the British East India Company in 1819 by the sultan of Johore. The Dutch claimed that a treaty signed with the sultan's predecessor the year earlier had granted them control of the region. However, the impossibility of removing the British from Singapore, which was becoming an increasingly important centre of trade, became apparent to the Dutch, and the disagreement was resolved with the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Under its terms, the Netherlands ceded Malacca and their bases in India to the British, and recognized the British claim to Singapore. In return, the British handed over Bencoolen and agreed not to sign treaties with rulers in the "islands south of the Straits of Singapore". Thus the [[Place:Maritime Southeast Asia|archipelago]] was divided into two spheres of influence: a British one, on the [[Biology:Malay Peninsula|Malay Peninsula]], and a Dutch one in the East Indies.<ref>SarDesai, pp.92–93.</ref>
[[File:VOC.svg|upright=0.4|thumb|left|Logo of the VOC]]
For most of the Dutch East Indies history, and that of the VOC before it, Dutch control over their territories was often tenuous, but was expanded over the course of the 19th century. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become the boundaries of modern-day Indonesia. Although highly populated and agriculturally productive Java was under Dutch domination for most of the 350&nbsp;years of the combined VOC and Dutch East Indies era, many areas remained independent for much of this time including Aceh, Lombok, [[Place:Bali|Bali]], and Borneo.<ref>{{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indonesia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =23–25| isbn=1-74059-154-2 }}; {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/3 3–4] |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/3 }}</ref>

In 1871, all of the Dutch possessions on the [[Place:Dutch Gold Coast|Dutch Gold Coast]] were sold to Britain. The Dutch West India Company was abolished in 1791, and its colonies in Suriname and the Caribbean brought under the direct rule of the state.<ref>Rogozinski (1999), pp.213</ref> The economies of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean had been based on the smuggling of goods and slaves into Spanish America, but with the end of the slave trade in 1814 and the independence of the new nations of South and Central America from Spain, profitability rapidly declined. Dutch traders moved ''en masse'' from the islands to the United States or Latin America, leaving behind small populations with little income and which required subsidies from the Dutch government. The Antilles were combined under one administration with Suriname from 1828 to 1845.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Slavery was not abolished in the Dutch Caribbean colonies until 1863, long after those of Britain and France, though by this time only 6,500 slaves remained. In Suriname, slave holders demanded compensation from the Dutch government for freeing slaves, whilst in Sint Maarten, abolition of slavery in the French half in 1848 led slaves in the Dutch half to take their own freedom.<ref>Rogozinski (1999), pp.213–4</ref> In Suriname, after the abolition of slavery, Chinese workers were encouraged to immigrate as indentured labourers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bataviabooks.com/Chinese.htm|title=オリックス銀行・カードローンの申し込み方|access-date=18 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115073136/http://www.bataviabooks.com/Chinese.htm|archive-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> as were Javanese, between 1890 and 1939.<ref>[http://home.wanadoo.nl/javas/Vertellingen/Koesoebjono/JavaneseInSuriname.htm Javanese in Suriname strive to preserve origins<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407202219/http://home.wanadoo.nl/javas/Vertellingen/Koesoebjono/JavaneseInSuriname.htm |date=7 April 2008 }}</ref>

=== Decolonization (1942–2010) ===

====Indonesia====
[[File:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|Sukarno, leader of the Indonesian independence movement]]
In January 1942, Japan invaded the Netherlands East Indies.<ref>L., Klemen, 1999–2000, ''The Netherlands East Indies 1941–42'', "[http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html |date=26 July 2011 }} however Mainland itself have been occupied by [[Place:Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany]] in 1940 ".</ref> The Dutch surrendered two months later in Java, with Indonesians initially welcoming the Japanese as liberators.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 195. Vickers (2005), pp.85, 85.</ref> The subsequent Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during the remainder of World War II saw the fundamental dismantling of the Dutch colonial state's economic, political and social structures, replacing it with a Japanese regime.<ref name="VICKERSp85"/> In the decades before the war, the Dutch had been overwhelmingly successful in suppressing the small nationalist movement in Indonesia such that the Japanese occupation proved fundamental for Indonesian independence.<ref name="VICKERSp85">Vickers (2005), page 85</ref> However, the Indonesian Communist Party founded by Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet in 1914, popular also with Dutch workers and sailors at the time, was in strategic alliance with Sarekat Islam (q.v.) as early as 1917 until the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and was particularly important in the fight against Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in the Second World War. The Japanese encouraged and backed Indonesian nationalism in which new indigenous institutions were created and nationalist leaders such as Sukarno were promoted. The internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions, although the top positions were still held by the Japanese.<ref name="VICKERSp85"/>

Two days after the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and fellow nationalist leader Hatta unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony. Dutch forces eventually re-occupied most of the colonial territory and a guerrilla struggle ensued. The majority of Indonesians, and – ultimately – international opinion, favored independence, and in December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian sovereignty. Under the terms of the 1949 agreement, Western New Guinea remained under the auspices of the Dutch as Netherlands New Guinea, and its dispute will be resolved by a year. The new Indonesian government under President Sukarno pressured for the territory to come under Indonesian control as Indonesian nationalists initially intended. Following United States pressure, the Netherlands transferred it to Indonesia under the 1962 New York Agreement.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[File:Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 10019010 Groep Nederlandse kolonisten op de bo.jpg|thumb|Dutch colonists in Suriname, 1920. Most Europeans left after independence in 1975.]]

====Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles====
In 1954, under the "Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands", the Netherlands, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles (at the time including Aruba) became a composite state, known as the "Tripartite Kingdom of the Netherlands". The former colonies were granted autonomy, save for certain matters including defense, foreign affairs and citizenship, which were the responsibility of the Realm. In 1969, unrest in Curaçao led to Dutch marines being sent to quell rioting. In 1973, negotiations started in Suriname for independence, and full independence was granted in 1975, with 60,000 emigrants taking the opportunity of moving to the Netherlands. In 1986, Aruba was allowed to secede from the Netherlands Antilles federation, and was pressured by the Netherlands to move to independence within ten years. However, in 1994, it was agreed that its status as a Realm in its own right could continue.<ref>Rogozinski, pp.296–7</ref>

On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved. Effective on that date, Curaçao and Sint Maarten acceded to the same country status within the Kingdom that Aruba already enjoyed. The islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba were granted a status similar to Dutch municipalities, and are now sometimes referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:Verwantschapslanden.png|thumb|Contemporary countries and federated states which were significantly colonised by the Dutch. In the Netherlands, these countries are sometimes known as ''verwantschapslanden'' (kindred countries).]]
Generally, the Dutch do not celebrate their imperial past and colonial history is not featured prominently in Dutch schoolbooks. This perspective on their imperial past has only recently started to shift.<ref>[http://www.insideindonesia.org/stories/being-indo-22031411 A 2011 series of critical analysis featured in ''Inside Indonesia'', the English-language media forum of the ''Indonesian Resources and Information Program''.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630094616/http://www.insideindonesia.org/stories/being-indo-22031411 |date=30 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=van Leeuwen |first=Lizzy |title=Postcolonial neglect in Holland, Colonial and anticolonial sentiments lead Dutch scholars to ignore and marginalize Indies postcolonial history. |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/weekly-articles-103-jan-mar-2011/postcolonial-neglect-in-holland-20031930 |work=2011 article series called 'Being Indo' featured in Inside Indonesia. |publisher=Inside Indonesia, the English-language media forum of the Indonesian Resources and Information Program. |access-date=15 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321152546/http://www.insideindonesia.org/weekly-articles-103-jan-mar-2011/postcolonial-neglect-in-holland-20031930 |archive-date=21 March 2012 }}</ref>

In a survey conducted by YouGov in March 2019, 50% of respondents in the Netherlands said they felt some level of pride in the Dutch colonial empire, while 6% felt ashamed.<ref>{{cite news |title=A third of Brits proud of former empire: Survey |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/a-third-of-brits-proud-of-former-empire-survey/1762798 |work=Anadolu Agency |date=11 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Share of respondents who felt that their country's former empire was something to be proud or ashamed of in 2019 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1103087/people-s-pride-in-former-empires-2019/ |publisher=Statista.com}}</ref>

===Dutch diaspora===
In some Dutch colonies, there are major ethnic groups of Dutch ancestry descending from emigrated Dutch settlers. In South Africa, the Boers and Cape Dutch are collectively known as the Afrikaners. The Burgher people of Sri Lanka and the Indo people of Indonesia as well as the Creoles of Suriname are mixed race people of Dutch descent.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

In the U.S., there have been three American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren, the first president who was not of British descent, and whose first language was Dutch, the 26th president [[Biography:Theodore Roosevelt|Theodore Roosevelt]], and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president, elected to four terms in office (1933 to 1945) and the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}
[[File:G.S. Smithard; J.S. Skelton (1909) - The Voortrekkers.jpg|thumb|left|Boer Voortrekkers in South Africa]]
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Het gezin J.J. Kunst in Tjimahi; Fritjof met theemuts en Betty met Tom op schoot TMnr 60011286.jpg|thumb|left|Dutch family in Java, 1902]]

===Dutch language===
====Dutch in Southeast Asia====
Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years, the Dutch language has no official status<ref>Baker (1998), p.202.</ref> and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession,<ref>Ammon (2005), p.2017.</ref> as some legal codes are still only available in Dutch.<ref>Booij (1995), p.2</ref> The Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for everyday life, and as well in scientific or technological terminology.<ref>Sneddon (2003), p.162.</ref> One scholar argues that 20% of [[Social:Indonesian language|Indonesian]] words can be traced back to Dutch words.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/ies/050208/|title=A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia|journal=EScholarship|date=8 February 2005 |access-date=18 May 2016|last1=Maier |first1=Hendrik M. }}</ref>

====Dutch in South Asia====
The century and half of Dutch rule in Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka) and southern India left few to no traces of the Dutch language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Baker|first1=Colin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC|title=Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education|last2=Jones|first2=Sylvia Prys|date=1998|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-85359-362-8|language=en}}</ref>

====Dutch in the Americas====
In Suriname, Dutch is the official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/suriname/|title=The World Factbook|access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref> 82% of the population can speak Dutch fluently<ref>Bron: Zevende algemene volks- en woningtelling 2004, Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek</ref>{{efn|First language or "mother tongue", of 58% of the population, second language for 24%,}} In Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, Dutch is the official language but a first language for only 7–8% of the population;<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nt.html#People CIA – The World Factbook – Netherlands Antilles<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205173858/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nt.html |date=5 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/aruba/|title=The World Factbook|access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref> though most of the population is fluent in Dutch, which is generally the language of education.<ref>[http://www.aruba.com/about/language.php Languages of Aruba] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427154026/http://www.aruba.com/about/language.php |date=27 April 2008 }}</ref>

The population of the three northern Antilles, Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius, is predominantly English-speaking.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2014/51/papiaments-de-meest-gesproken-taal-op-bonaire-en-engels-op-saba-en-sint-eustatius |title=Papiamento most-spoken language on Bonaire, English on Saba and St Eustatius |date=2014-12-18 |website=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek |quote=First languages (2013) English: Sint Eustatius 85%, Saba 93% }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://longreads.cbs.nl/the-caribbean-netherlands-in-numbers-2022/what-percentage-of-the-population-speaks-dutch/ |title=The Caribbean Netherlands in numbers 2022, What percentage of the population speaks Dutch? |date=2022 |website=Statistics Netherlands (CBS)|quote=Main languages (2021) English: Sint Eustatius 81%, Saba 83% }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sint-maarten.net/population/culture/language |title=What are the languages of Sint Maarten? |date=2022 |website=sint-maarten.net |quote=English is the primary language of communication among the locals as well as the tourists who visit Sint Maarten. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rvo.nl/onderwerpen/landen-en-gebieden/sint-maarten |title=Zakendoen in Sint-Maarten (Doing business in Sint Maarten) |language=Dutch |website=Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland |date=2021-01-25 |quote=De voertaal op het hele eiland is Engels. (The main language on the whole island is English.) }}</ref>

In New Jersey, an extinct dialect of Dutch, Jersey Dutch, was spoken by descendants of 17th-century Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was noted to still be spoken as late as 1921.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.bartleby.com/185/a12.html |title=Appendix 2. Non-English Dialects in America. 8. Dutch. Mencken, H.L. 1921. The American Language |access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref>  U.S. President Martin Van Buren, raised in a Dutch-speaking enclave in New York, had Dutch as his native language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Widmer |first=Ted |year=2005 |title=Martin Van Buren: The American Presidents Series: The 8th President, 1837–1841 |publisher=Times Books |location=New York, New York |isbn=9780805069228 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=YiU_kd-iAcgC}} |pages=6–7}}</ref>

====Dutch in Africa====
The greatest linguistic legacy of the Netherlands was in its colony in South Africa, which attracted large numbers of Dutch farmer (in Dutch, ''Boer'') settlers, who spoke a simplified form of Dutch called ''[[Social:Afrikaans|Afrikaans]]'', which is largely mutually intelligible with Dutch. After the colony passed into British hands, the settlers spread into the hinterland, taking their language with them. {{As of|2005}}, there were 10&nbsp;million people for whom Afrikaans is either a primary and secondary language, compared with over 22&nbsp;million speakers of Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minbuza.nl/en/welcome/Netherlands#a7 |title=About the Netherlands |access-date=23 August 2008 |publisher=Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080822163610/http://www.minbuza.nl/en/welcome/Netherlands#a7 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 22 August 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://taalunieversum.org/taal/vragen/antwoord/4/ |title=Hoeveel mensen spreken Nederlands als moedertaal? |trans-title=How many people speak Dutch as mother tongue?|language=nl |access-date=23 August 2008 |publisher=Nederlandse Taalunie |year=2005 }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=May 2018}}

Other [[Social:Creole language|creole language]]s with Dutch linguistic roots are Papiamento still spoken in Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and Sint Eustatius; Saramaccan and Sranan Tongo still spoken in Suriname; Berbice an extinct language in Guyana; Pecok spoken but in danger of extinction in Indonesia and the Netherlands; Albany Dutch spoken but in danger of extinction in the U.S.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Extinct Dutch-based creole languages include: Skepi (Guyana); Negerhollands (aka "Negro Dutch"), Jersey Dutch and Mohawk Dutch (U.S.), and [[Social:Javindo language|Javindo]] (Java).{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Placenames ===
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|New Amsterdam as it appeared in 1664. Under British rule it became known as {{wipe|New York City}}.]]

Some towns of New York and areas of New York City, once part of the colony of New Netherland have names of Dutch origin, such as Brooklyn (after Breukelen), Flushing (after Vlissingen), the Bowery (after Bouwerij, construction site), Harlem (after Haarlem), Coney Island (from Conyne Eylandt, modern Dutch spelling Konijneneiland: Rabbit island) and Staten Island (meaning "Island of the States"). The last Director-General of the colony of New Netherland, Pieter Stuyvesant, has bequeathed his name to a street, a neighborhood and a few schools in New York City, and the town of Stuyvesant. Many of the towns and cities along the Hudson in upstate New York have placenames with Dutch origins (for example Yonkers, Hoboken, Haverstraw, Claverack, Staatsburg, Catskill, Kinderhook, Coeymans, Rensselaer, Watervliet). Nassau County, one of the four that make up Long Island, is also of Dutch origin. The Schuylkill river that flows into the Delaware at Philadelphia is also a Dutch name meaning hidden or skulking river.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Many towns and cities in Suriname share names with cities in the Netherlands, such as Alkmaar and Groningen. The capital of Curaçao is named [[Place:Willemstad|Willemstad]] and the capitals of both Saint Eustatius and Aruba are named [[Place:Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]. The first is named after the Dutch Prince Willem II van Oranje-Nassau (William of Orange-Nassau) and the two others after the first part of the current Dutch royal dynasty.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Many of South Africa's major cities have Dutch names i.e. [[Place:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]], Kaapstad, Vereeniging, [[Place:Bloemfontein|Bloemfontein]] and Vanderbijlpark.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The country name ''New Zealand'' originated with Dutch cartographers, who called the islands ''Nova Zeelandia'', after the [[Place:Seventeen Provinces|Dutch province]] of Zeeland.<ref name="StatenLandt">{{cite web |url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/3 |title=Tasman's achievement |publisher=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=21 September 2007 |access-date=16 February 2008 |last=Wilson |first=John }}</ref> British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicized the name to New Zealand.{{efn|The first European name for New Zealand was ''Staten Landt'', the name given to it by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who in 1642 became the first European to see the islands. Tasman assumed it was part of a southern continent connected with land discovered in 1615 off the southern tip of South America by Jacob Le Maire, which had been named Staten Landt, meaning "Land of the (Dutch) States-General".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://history-nz.org/discovery1.html |title=The Discovery of New Zealand |access-date=12 October 2010 |archive-date=9 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709115228/http://www.history-nz.org/discovery1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

The Australian island state Tasmania is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. He first named the island Anthony van Diemen's Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies. The name was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. It was officially renamed in honor of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856.<ref>'Select chronology of renaming' ''Parliament of Tasmania'' http://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/php/BecomingTasmania/BTAppend2.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422111627/http://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/php/BecomingTasmania/BTAppend2.htm |date=22 April 2011 }} Retrieved 15 June 2009.</ref> [[Place:Arnhem Land|Arnhem Land]] is named after the Dutch ship named Arnhem. The captain of the Arnhem (Willem van Coolsteerdt) also named the large island, east of Arnhem Groote Eylandt, in modern Dutch spelling Groot Eiland: Large Island.
[[File:Stadthuys Christ Church Malacca.jpg|thumb|The Stadthuys in Malacca, Malaysia, believed to be the oldest Dutch building in Asia<ref>[http://travel.tourism.gov.my/consumer/destinations/item.asp?item=stadthuys Tourism.gov.my]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>]]

===Architecture===
[[File:Jakarta Indonesia Jakarta-History-Museum-02.jpg|thumb|The Stadhuis of Batavia, said to be modelled after the Dam Palace itself.]]
[[File:Dutch Reformed Church (organ and pulpit), Vosburg.JPG|thumb|Christian cross, altar, pulpit, and organ in the Dutch Reformed Church in Vosburg, {{wipe|South Africa}}.]]
[[File:Gedung-Sate-Trees.jpg|thumb|Gedung Sate, an early 20th century colonial building which incorporates modern Western neo-classical style with indigenous elements in Bandung, Indonesia.]]

In the Surinamese capital of Paramaribo, the Dutch Fort Zeelandia still stands today. The city itself also have retained most of its old street layout and architecture, which is part of the world's UNESCO heritage. In the centre of Malacca, Malaysia, the Stadthuys Building and Christ Church still stand as a reminder of Dutch occupation. There are still archaeological remains of Fort Goede Hoop (modern Hartford, Connecticut) and Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York).<ref>[http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainsDamerica.html Dutch Colonial Remains] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509161409/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainsDamerica.html |date=9 May 2008 }}</ref>

Dutch architecture is easy to see in Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire, and Saint Eustatius. The Dutch style buildings are especially visible in [[Place:Willemstad|Willemstad]], with its steeply pitched gables, large windows and soaring finials.<ref>[http://www.crossculturedtraveler.com/Heritage/Archives/Curacao.htm Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles Heritage Site of the Month] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303185548/http://www.crossculturedtraveler.com/Heritage/Archives/Curacao.htm |date=3 March 2008 }}</ref>

Dutch architecture can also be found in Sri Lanka, especially in Galle where the Dutch fortification and canal have been retained intact, even to an extent the former tropical Villas of the VOC officials. Some of the most prominent example of these architecture is the former governor's mansion in Galle, currently known as Amangalla Hotel and the Old Dutch Reformed Church. In the capital Colombo, many of the Dutch and Portuguese architecture around The Fort have been demolished during the British period, few of the remaining include Old Colombo Dutch Hospital and Wolvendaal Church.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

During the period of Dutch colonisation in {{wipe|South Africa}}, a distinctive type of architecture, known as Cape Dutch architecture, was developed. These style of architecture can be found in historical towns such as Stellenbosch, Swellendam, Tulbagh, and Graaff-Reinet. In the former Dutch capital of Cape Town, nearly nothing from the VOC era have survived except the Castle of Good Hope.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Although the Dutch already started erecting buildings shortly after they arrived on the shores of Batavia, most Dutch-built constructions still standing today in Indonesia stem from the 19th and 20th centuries. Forts from the colonial era, used for defense purposes, still line a number of major coastal cities across the archipelago. The largest number of surviving Dutch buildings can be found on Java and Sumatra, particularly in cities such as [[Place:Jakarta|Jakarta]], Bandung, Semarang, [[Place:Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]], Surabaya, Cirebon, Pasuruan, Bukittinggi, Sawahlunto, Medan, Padang, and Malang. There are also significant examples of 17–19th century Dutch architecture around Banda Neira, Nusa Laut, and Saparua, the former main spices islands, which due to limited economic development have retained many of its colonial elements. Another prominent example of Dutch colonial architecture is Fort Rotterdam in Makassar. The earlier Dutch construction mostly replicate the architecture style in the Homeland (such as Toko Merah). However these buildings were unsuitable to tropical climate and expensive to maintain. And as a result the Dutch officials begun to adapt to the tropical condition by applying native elements such as wide-open veranda, ventilation and indigenous high pitch roofing into their villas. "In the beginning (of the Dutch presence), Dutch construction on Java was based on colonial architecture which was modified according to the tropical and local cultural conditions," Indonesian art and design professor Pamudji Suptandar wrote.<ref>{{in lang|id}}Suptandar, Pamudji ''Tokoh Pejuang Kemerdekaan, Pembangunan, Dan Pendidikan.'' (Publisher: Penerbit Universitas Trisakti, Jakarta) {{ISBN|979-8398-86-6}}</ref> This was dubbed ''arsitektur Indis'' (Indies architecture), which combines the existing traditional Hindu-Javanese style with European forms.<ref>{{in lang|id}}Article by Dr. Mauro Rahardjo, architect, lecturer and founder of Feng Shui School Indonesia and Indonesian Feng Shui Society. [http://arsitekturindis.wordpress.com/category/arsitektur/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316115232/http://arsitekturindis.wordpress.com/category/arsitektur/|date=16 March 2010}}</ref>

Many public buildings still standing and in use in Jakarta, such as the presidential palace, the finance ministry and the performing arts theater, were built in the 19th century in the [[History:Neoclassical architecture|classicist]] style. At the turn of the 20th century and partially due to the Dutch Ethical Policy, the number of Dutch people migrating to the colony grew with economic expansion. The increasing number of middle class population led to the development of Garden Suburbs in major city across the Indies, many of the houses were built in various style ranging from the Indies style, Neo-Renaissance to modern Art Deco. Some examples of these residential district include Menteng in Jakarta, Darmo in Surabaya, Polonia in Medan, Kotabaru in Yogyakarta, New Candi in Semarang and as well as most of North Bandung.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iias.nl/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL57_070809.pdf |title=Designing colonial cities: the making of modern town planning in the Dutch East Indies and Indonesia 1905–1950 |access-date=3 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034518/http://www.iias.nl/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL57_070809.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Indonesia also became an experimental ground for Dutch Art Deco architectural movement such as Nieuwe Zakelijkheid, De Stijl, Nieuw Indische and Amsterdam School. Several famous architect such as Wolff Schoemaker and Henri Maclaine Pont also made an attempt to modernize indigenous architecture, resulting several unique design such as Pohsarang Church and [[Organization:Bandung Institute of Technology|Bandung Institute of Technology]]. The largest stock of these Art Deco building can be found in the city of Bandung, which "architecturally" can considered the most European city in Indonesia.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Since Indonesia's independence, few governments have shown interest in the conservation of historical buildings. Many architecturally grand buildings have been torn down in the past decades to erect shopping centres or office buildings e.g. Hotel des Indes (Batavia), Harmony Society, Batavia. Presently, however, more Indonesians have become aware of the value of preserving their old buildings.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

<blockquote>"A decade ago, most people thought I was crazy when they learned of my efforts to save the old part of Jakarta. A few years later, the negative voices started to disappear, and now many people are starting to think with me: how are we going to save our city. In the past using the negative sentiment towards the colonial era was often used as an excuse to disregard protests against the demolition of historical buildings. An increasing number of people now see the old colonial buildings as part of their city's overall heritage rather than focusing on its colonial aspect.", leading Indonesian architect and conservationist Budi Lim said.<ref>Lim, Budy ''The past in the present: architecture in Indonesia.'' (Publisher: NAI Rotterdam, 19 January 2007) See also: {{cite web |title=Pride of Indonesia – World Expo's Indonesia Pav |url=http://www.allvoices.com/contributed-news/6168503-pride-of-indonesia-world-expos-indonesia-pavilion |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719225202/http://www.allvoices.com/contributed-news/6168503-pride-of-indonesia-world-expos-indonesia-pavilion |archive-date=2010-07-19 |access-date=2010-10-12}}; [http://www.pac-nl.org/printable/0000009476138d504/00000094761396407.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727161507/http://www.pac-nl.org/printable/0000009476138d504/00000094761396407.html|date=27 July 2011}} and [http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2006/cilt23/sayi_1/interview.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722001916/http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2006/cilt23/sayi_1/interview.pdf|date=22 July 2011}}</ref></blockquote>

===Infrastructure===
[[File:Java Great Post Road.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|The ''Great Post Road'' (Grote Postweg), spanning West to East Java]]
Beyond Indonesia's art deco architecture also much of the country's rail and road infrastructure as well as its major cities were built during the colonial period.<ref>Page, Melvin and Sonnenburg, Penny ''Colonialism: an international social, cultural, and political encyclopedia.'' (publisher: ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, ca, usa, 2003) P.716 [https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC]</ref><ref>For images see the website of the 'Royal Institute of language, geography and ethnology' (KITLV): [http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/collecties/nederlands-indie_in_fotos,_1860-1940/kitlv] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128171930/http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?%2Fen%2Fcollecties%2Fnederlands-indie_in_fotos%2C_1860-1940%2Fkitlv|date=28 January 2012}}</ref> Many of Indonesia's main cities were mere rural townships before colonial industrialization and urban development.<ref>Page, Melvin and Sonnenburg, Penny ''Colonialism: an international social, cultural, and political encyclopedia.'' (publisher: ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, ca, usa, 2003) P.215, 716 [https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC]</ref> Examples on Java include the capital Jakarta and Bandung, outside Java examples include Ambon and Menado city. Most main railroads and rail stations on Java as well as the main road, called Daendels Great Post Road (Dutch: Grote Postweg)<ref>Daendels (1762–1818), a pro-French Governor-General, originally named the road: ''La Grand Route''. In Indonesian it is called ''Jalan Raya Pos''. A documentary narrated by Indonesian author Pramoedya Ananta Toer was made about the road in 1996. See: [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0282626/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170545/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0282626/|date=5 April 2017}}</ref> after the Governor General commissioning the work, connecting west to east Java were also built during the Dutch East Indies era.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Between 1800 and 1950, Dutch engineers created an infrastructure including {{convert|67,000|km|mi|sp=us}} of roads, {{convert|7,500|km|mi|sp=us}} of railways, many large bridges, modern irrigation systems covering 1.4&nbsp;million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several international harbors, and 140 public drinking water systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state.<ref>Ravesteijn, Wim "Between Globalization and Localization: The Case of Dutch Civil Engineering in Indonesia, 1800–1950," in Comparative Technology Transfer and Society, Volume 5, Number 1, 1 April 2007(Publisher: Project MUSE [http://muse.jhu.edu/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506133533/http://muse.jhu.edu/|date=6 May 2014}}) pp. 32–64. [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/comparative_technology_transfer_and_society/v005/5.1ravesteijn.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216200847/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=%2Fjournals%2Fcomparative_technology_transfer_and_society%2Fv005%2F5.1ravesteijn.html|date=16 December 2014}} {{ISSN|1542-0132}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
[[File:Hollandse plantage in Bengalen Rijksmuseum SK-A-4283.jpeg|thumb|Dutch plantation in Mughal Bengal, 1665]]
Crops such like coffee, tea, cocoa, [[Biology:Tobacco|tobacco]] and [[Chemistry:Rubber|rubber]] were all introduced by the Dutch. The Dutch were the first to start the spread of the coffee plant in Central and South America, and by the early 19th century Java was the third largest producer in the world.<ref>[http://www.ico.org/coffee_story.asp International Coffee organization] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108145141/http://www.ico.org/coffee_story.asp |date=8 November 2010 }}</ref> In 1778, the Dutch brought cacao from the {{wipe|Philippines}} to Indonesia and commenced mass production.<ref>[http://www.chocolatemonggo.com/aboutchoco/INDOhistory.htm Chocolate website.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213104104/http://www.chocolatemonggo.com/aboutchoco/INDOhistory.htm |date=13 February 2010 }}</ref> Currently Indonesia is the world's second largest producer of natural rubber, a crop that was introduced by the Dutch in the early 20th century.<ref>Penot, Eric. ''{{'}}From shifting agriculture to sustainable rubber complex agroforestry systems (jungle rubber) in Indonesia: an history of innovations production and adoption process.{{'}}'' (Bogor, 1997).{{cite web|url=http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/publications?do%3Dview_pub_detail%26pub_no%3DRP0010-04 |title=Publication &#124; World Agroforestry Center |access-date=31 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309132455/http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/publications?do=view_pub_detail&pub_no=RP0010-04 |archive-date=9 March 2012 }}</ref> Tobacco was introduced from the Americas and in 1863, the first plantation was established by the Dutch. Today Indonesia is not only the oldest industrial producer of tobacco, but also the second largest consumer of tobacco.<ref>{{in lang|id}}[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah05.shtml] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411142607/http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah05.shtml|date=11 April 2011}}</ref>

===Scientific discoveries===
[[Biology:Java Man|Java Man]] was discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia in 1891. The Komodo dragon was firstly described by Peter Ouwens in Indonesia in 1912 after an airplane crash in 1911 and rumors about living dinosaurs on Komodo Island in 1910.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

===Sport===
====Suriname====
Many Suriname-born football players and Dutch-born football players of Surinamese descent, like Gerald Vanenburg, Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard, Edgar Davids, Clarence Seedorf, Patrick Kluivert, Aron Winter, Georginio Wijnaldum, Virgil van Dijk and Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink have turned out to play for the Dutch national team. In 1999, Humphrey Mijnals, who played for both Suriname and the Netherlands, was elected Surinamese footballer of the century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Het debuut van Humphrey Mijnals|url=http://www.olympischstadion.nl/nl/2_nieuws/?news_id=913|publisher=Olympisch Stadion|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055955/http://www.olympischstadion.nl/nl/2_nieuws/?news_id=913|archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> Another famous player is André Kamperveen, who captained Suriname in the 1940s and was the first Surinamese to play professionally in the Netherlands.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

Suriname discourages dual citizenship and Surinamese-Dutch players who have picked up a Netherlands passport&nbsp;– which, crucially, offers legal work status in almost any European league&nbsp;– are barred from selection to the national team.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.soccerwire.com/news/nt/international-men/stefano-rijssel-seattle-sounders-and-the-strange-case-of-surinamese-soccer/ | work=Soccerwire | title=Stefano Rijssel, Seattle Sounders and the strange case of Surinamese soccer | first=Charles | last=Boehm | date=29 January 2014 | access-date=26 August 2016 | archive-date=10 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710233414/https://www.soccerwire.com/news/nt/international-men/stefano-rijssel-seattle-sounders-and-the-strange-case-of-surinamese-soccer/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2014, inspired by the success of teams with dual nationals, especially Algeria, SVB president John Krishnadath submitted a proposal to the national assembly to allow dual citizenship for athletes with the then-goal of reaching the 2018 FIFA World Cup finals.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Suriprofs geïnformeerd over WK 2018-project|url=http://www.natiosuriname.com/2014/11/suriprofs-geinformeerd-over-wk-2018.html}}</ref> In order to support this project, a team with professional players of Surinamese origin was assembled and played an exhibition match on 26 December 2014 at the Andre Kamperveen Stadion. The project is managed by Nordin Wooter and David Endt, who have set up a presentation and sent invitations to 100 players of Surinamese origin, receiving 85 positive answers. Dean Gorré was named to coach this special selection. FIFA supported the project and granted insurance for the players and clubs despite the match being unofficial.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FIFA bereidt om Suriprofs te verzekeren|url=http://www.natiosuriname.com/2014/11/fifa-bereidt-om-suriprofs-te-verzekeren.html}}</ref> In November 2019, it was announced that a so-called sports passport would allow Dutch professional footballers from the Surinamese diaspora to represent Suriname.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kok |first1=Nik |title=Nigel Hasselbaink wil debuteren voor Suriname |url=https://www.ad.nl/buitenlands-voetbal/nigel-hasselbaink-wil-debuteren-voor-suriname~acddd7b3b/ |website=ad.nl |publisher=Algemeen Dagblad |access-date=19 November 2019 |language=nl}}</ref>

Suriname also has a national korfball team, with korfball being a Dutch sport. [[Biology:Vinkensport|Vinkensport]] is also practised in Suriname, as are popular among the Dutch sports of volleyball and troefcall.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

====South Africa====
Ajax Cape Town were a professional football team named and owned by Ajax Amsterdam, replicating their crest and colours.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The Dutch sport of korfball is administered by the South African Korfball Federation, who manage the South Africa national korfball team. The 2019 IKF World Korfball Championship was held in August 2019 in Durban, {{wipe|South Africa}}.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

====Indonesia====
The Indonesian football league started around 1930 in the Dutch colonial era. The Indonesian men's team was the first Asian team to qualify for the FIFA World Cup; in 1938 FIFA World Cup they played as the Dutch East Indies.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tom Allard |url=http://www.smh.com.au/world-cup-2010/world-cup-news/indonesian-soccer-fans-world-of-pain-20100625-z9q5.html |title=Indonesian soccer fans' world of pain |publisher=Smh.com.au |date=26 June 2010 |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628140526/http://www.smh.com.au/world-cup-2010/world-cup-news/indonesian-soccer-fans-world-of-pain-20100625-z9q5.html |archive-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Association football is now the most popular sport in Indonesia, in terms of annual attendance, participation and revenue and it is played on all levels, from children to middle-aged men.<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|author=Aubrey Belford|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/04/world/asia/04iht-indonesia04.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=In Indonesia, a Scandal Over Soccer|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}| date=3 March 2011 |access-date=15 August 2013}}</ref>

The Indonesian Tennis Association was also founded during Dutch rule in 1935, and has a long history of fielding its national Fed Cup team and Davis Cup team, although the first participation's in the 60s were not till after independence.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

As in the Netherlands, volleyball remains a popular sport, with the Indonesian Volleyball Federation organising both the Men's Pro Liga and women's Pro Liga and administers the men's and women's national teams.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pbvsi.or.id/tentang-pbvsi/|title=Tentang PBVSI|last=silumansupra|website=PBVSI.or.id|language=en-US|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mangwahyu.web.id/sejarah-pbvsi/|title=Sejarah PBVSI -|last=wahyawaludin|date=20 August 2019|language=en-US|access-date=26 December 2019|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226182333/http://www.mangwahyu.web.id/sejarah-pbvsi/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Dutch sport of korfball is also practised, and there is a national korfball team.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

== Territorial evolution ==
{{Main|Evolution of the Dutch Empire}}<gallery>
File:Dutchempire1630.png|The Dutch Empire in 1630
File:Dutchempire1650.png|The Dutch Empire in 1650
File:Dutchempire1674.png|The Dutch Empire in 1674
File:Dutchempire1700.png|The Dutch Empire in 1700
File:Dutchempire1750.png|The Dutch Empire in 1750{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}
File:Dutchempire1795.png|The Dutch Empire in 1795{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}
File:Dutchempire1830.png|The Dutch Empire in 1830
File:Dutch Empire preWWII.PNG|The Dutch Empire prior to World War II
File:Dutchempire1960.png|The Dutch Empire in 1960
File:BlankMap-World-large11.png|The Dutch Empire in 1975
</gallery>

== See also ==
* Dutch colonization of the Americas
* [[Organization:Dutch Language Union|Dutch Language Union]]
* List of Dutch East India Company trading posts
* Ministry of the Colonies (Netherlands)

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first = Ulrich |last =Ammon|title = Sociolinguistics |year=2005 }}
* {{cite book |first =Colin |last =Baker |title=Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=1998 }}
* {{cite book|title=  Matters of Exchange: Commerce, Medicine, and Science in the Dutch Golden Age |first= Harold John|last=Cook|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNBWudWBOsQC|isbn=978-0300134926}}
*{{cite book |first =G.E. |last =Booij |title=The Phonology of Dutch |year=1995 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Borschberg |first1=P. |date=2013 |title=From Self-Defense to an Instrument of War: Dutch Privateering Around the Malay Peninsula in the Early Seventeenth Century |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/17/1/article-p35_3.xml |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |publisher=Brill |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.1163/15700658-12342356 |access-date=16 April 2023}}
*{{cite book |first =C.R. |last =Boxer |title=The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800 |url =https://archive.org/details/dutchseaborneemp0000boxe |url-access =registration |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1965 }}
*{{cite book |first =C.R. |last =Boxer |title=The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 |url =https://archive.org/details/portugueseseabor0000boxe |url-access =registration |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1969 |isbn =9780091310714 }}
*{{cite book |first =K.G.|last =Davies |title=The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century |url =https://archive.org/details/northatlanticwor04kgda|url-access =registration|publisher=[[Organization:University of Minnesota|University of Minnesota]] |year=1974 |isbn =9780816607136 }}
* {{cite book|title=Maritime Silk Road (海上丝绸之路英)|first=Qingxin (庆新)|last=Li (李)|others=Translated by William W. Wang|year=2006|publisher=五洲传播出版社|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TV6f2XWG6t4C|isbn=978-7508509327}}
* {{cite book |title=China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions |first=John E. |last=Wills |others=Contributors: John Cranmer-Byng, Willard J. Peterson, Jr, John W. Witek |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521432603 |ol=24524224M }}
* {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }}
*{{cite book |first=Colin |last =McEvedy |title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of the North America|publisher=Viking|year=1988}}
*{{cite book |first=Colin |last =McEvedy |title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Pacific|publisher=Penguin|year=1998}}
*{{cite book |first =Nicholas|last =Ostler|title=Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World |publisher=Harper Collins|year=2005}}
*{{cite book|first =Jan|last =Rogozinski |title=A Brief History of the Caribbean |publisher=Plume|year=2000}}
*{{cite book|first =D.R.|last =SarDesai |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present |url =https://archive.org/details/southeastasiapas00sard|url-access =registration|publisher=Westview|year=1997|isbn =9780813333014 }}
*{{cite book|first =G.V.|last =Scammel |title=The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion c. 1400–1715 |publisher=Routledge |year=1989 }}
*{{cite book|first =James |last =Sneddon |title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2003 }}
*{{cite book |first =Steve|last =Shipp |title=Macau, China: A Political History of the Portuguese Colony's Transition to Chinese Rule |publisher= McFarland |year=1997 }}
*{{cite book |first =Alan |last = Taylor |title=American Colonies: The Settling of North America |url =https://archive.org/details/americancolonies00tayl |url-access =registration |publisher=Penguin|year=2001|isbn = 9780142002100 }}
*{{cite book |last=Vickers|first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri|url-access=registration|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |year=2005 |isbn=0-521-54262-6 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Andeweg |first=Rudy B. |year=2005 |title=Governance and Politics of the Netherlands |edition=2nd |author2=Galen A. Irwin |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=1-4039-3529-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |year=1957 |title=The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford |oclc=752668765}}
* {{cite book |last=Bromley |first=J.S. |author2=E.H. Kossmann |year=1968 |title=Britain and the Netherlands in Europe and Asia: Papers delivered to the Third Anglo-Dutch Historical Conference |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-349-00046-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Corn |first=Charles |year=1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha |isbn=1-56836-249-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dewulf |first=J. |date=Spring 2011 |title=The Many Meanings of Freedom: The Debate on the Legitimacy of Colonialism in the Dutch Resistance, 1940–1949 |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.1353/cch.2011.0002|s2cid=162354782 }}
* {{cite book |last=Elphick |first=Richard |year=1989 |title=The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840 |edition=2nd |author2=Hermann Giliomee |publisher=Maskew Miller Longman |location=Cape Town |isbn=0-8195-6211-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Gaastra |first=Femme S. |year=2003 |title=The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline |location=Zutphen, Netherlands |publisher=Walburg |isbn=978-90-5730-241-1}}
* Klooster, Wim. ''The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World'' (2016)
* Klooster, Wim, and Gert Oostindie. ''Realm between Empires: The Second Dutch Atlantic, 1680-1815'' (Cornell UP,  2018) 348 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=52928 online review]
* Koekkoek, René, Anne-Isabelle Richard, and Arthur Weststeijn. "Visions of Dutch Empire: Towards a Long-Term Global Perspective." Bijdragen en Mededelingen Betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden 132.2 (2017): 79–96. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/360429/Dutch.pdf?sequence=1 online]
* Legêne, Susan. "The European character of the intellectual history of Dutch empire." ''BMGN-Low Countries Historical Review'' 132.2 (2017). [https://www.bmgn-lchr.nl/articles/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.10344/ online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125105838/https://www.bmgn-lchr.nl/articles/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.10344/ |date=25 November 2020 }}
* Noorlander, Danny L. ''Heaven's Wrath: The Protestant Reformation and the Dutch West India Company in the Atlantic World'' (Cornell UP, 2019).
* Noorlander, D. L. "The Dutch Atlantic world, 1585–1815: Recent themes and developments in the field." ''History Compass'' (2020): e12625.
* Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
* Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., ''A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires'' (Edinburgh UP, 2008), "Netherlands and its colonies" pp 314–401. [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Companion-Postcolonial-Literatures-Continental/dp/0748623949/ excerpt]  also [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g0b6vw entire text online]
* {{cite book |last=Postma |first=Johannes M. |year=1990 |title=The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, U.K. |isbn=0-521-36585-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Wesseling |first=H.L. |year=1997 |title=Imperialism and Colonialism: Essays on the History of Colonialism |location=London |publisher=Greewood |isbn=978-0-313-30431-6}}

== External links ==
* {{in lang|nl}} [http://www.vocsite.nl/ De VOCsite]
* [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch and Portuguese Colonial History]
* {{in lang|nl}} [http://www.voc-kenniscentrum.nl/ VOC Kenniscentrum]
* [http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/en/ The Atlas of Mutual Heritage database], showing the Dutch empire 1600–1800.

{{Clear}}


[[Category:History of European colonialism]]
[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]

{{Sourceattribution|Dutch colonial empire}}