View source for Place:First Turkic Khaganate

{{Short description|552–603 khaganate founded by the Göktürks}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = First Turkic Khaganate
| status                 = Khaganate ([[Social:Nomadic empire|Nomadic empire]])
| capital                = {{plainlist| 
* Ötüken (eastern)
* Suyab (western)}}
| common_languages       = {{plainlist|
* [[Social:Old Turkic language|Old Turkic]] (official, dynastic and common){{sfn|Sinor|1969|p=101}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Roudik|year=2007|title=The History of the Central Asian Republics|page= 24}}</ref><ref name="golden 2011">{{cite book|first1=Peter B. |last1=Golden|date=2011|title=Central Asia in World History}}</ref>{{rp|37}}
* [[Social:Sogdian language|Sogdian]] (official, diplomacy, coinage){{sfn|Roux|2000|p=79}}{{sfn|Smirnova |1952}}
* [[Social:Rouran language|Rouran]] (official){{sfn|Vovin|2019|p=133}}}}
| year_start             = 552
| year_end               = 603
| image_map              = {{Location map+
|Continental Asia
|overlay_image= Map_of_the_First_Turkic_Kaghanate.png
| width=300  <!--  DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (300) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS  -->
| float = center
| border  =none
| nodiv   = 1
| mini    = 1
| relief  = yes
| places  = 
{{Annotation|125|53|[[Place:First Turkic Khaganate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">FIRST TURKIC KHAGANATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
| caption=
}}
| image_map_size         = 300px
| image_map_caption      = The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576.
| image_coat             = Tamga of Ashina.png
| symbol_type            = [[Tamga]] of Ashina tribe.<ref>"The tamga of the royal clan of the first Turkish empire was a neatly drawn lineal picture of an ibex", Kljastornyj, 1980, p. 93</ref>
| currency               = 
| title_leader           = Qaghan
| leader1                = Bumin Qaghan (first)
| year_leader1           = 552
| leader2                = Tardu (last)
| year_leader2           = 599–603
| deputy1                = Istämi (first)
| year_deputy1           = 552–575
| title_deputy           = Yabgu
| deputy2                = Tardu (last)
| year_deputy2           = 575–599
| stat_year1             = 557
| stat_area1             = 6000000
| ref_area1              = <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D. | title = East–West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=222 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=16 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=Social Science History|date=1979|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=129|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}</ref>
| stat_year5             = 6th century<ref>{{cite conference |last=Karatay |first=Osman |title=Göktürk Çağı Türk Nüfusu Üzerine Düşünceler |conference=18. Türk Tarih Kongresi, 1-4 Ekim 2018 Ankara}}</ref>
| religion               = [[Religion:Tengrism|Tengrism]]
| stat_pop5              = 3 million
| p1                     = Rouran Khaganate
| p2                     = Hephthalite Empire
| s1                     = Eastern Turkic Khaganate
| s2                     = Western Turkic Khaganate
| event_pre              = Bumin Qaghan revolts against [[Place:Rouran Khaganate|Rouran Khaganate]]
| date_pre               = 542
| event_end              = Division of [[Place:Western Turkic Khaganate|Western]] and Eastern Turkic Khaganates
| life_span              = 552–603
| era                    = [[History:Post-classical history|Post-classical]]
| demonym                = Türük<br/>Türk
| today                  = 
| event1                 = Göktürk civil war
| date_event1            = 581
| event_post             = 
| event2                 = Brief re-unification
| date_event2            = 603
}}
The '''First Turkic Khaganate''', also referred to as the '''First Turkic Empire''',<ref>{{cite book |first=Luc |last=Kwanten |year=1979 |title=Imperial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500–1500 |page=35 |oclc=4193301}}</ref> the '''Turkic Khaganate''' or the '''Göktürk Khaganate''', was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the [[Place:Göktürks|Göktürks]] in medieval [[Place:Inner Asia|Inner Asia]] under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his brother Istämi. The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the [[Place:Rouran Khaganate|Rouran Khaganate]] as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]], and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from [[Place:Manchuria|Manchuria]] to the Black Sea.<ref name="golden 2011"/>{{rp|49}}<ref name=Taşağıl>{{cite book|last=Taşağıl|first=Ahmet|title=Türk Model Devleti Gök Türkler
|year=2021|publisher=Bilge Kültür Sanat|isbn=9786059521598|pages=}}</ref>

Although the Göktürks spoke a [[Social:Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian Turkic language]] directly antecedent to the [[Social:Orkhon Turkic|Orkhon Turkic]] of the Second Turkic Khaganate, the First Khaganate's early official texts and coins were written in [[Social:Sogdian language|Sogdian]].{{sfn|Roux|2000|p=79}}{{sfn|Baratova|2005}} It was the first Turkic state to use the name ''Türk'' politically.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Infobase Publishing| isbn = 978-1-4381-1913-7| last = West| first = Barbara A.| title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania| quote=The first people to use the ethnonym ''Turk'' to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century | page=829 |date = 19 May 2010}}</ref> The [[Social:Old Turkic script|Old Turkic script]] was invented at the first half of the sixth century.<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=Mouton |year=2002 |journal=Archivum Ottomanicum |page=49 |last=Tryjarski |first=E. |title=Runes and runelike scripts of Eurasian area. Part 1 |volume=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Sigfried J. |last1=de Laet |first2=Joachim |last2=Herrmann |year=1996 |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. |page=478}}</ref>

The Khaganate collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and [[Place:Western Turkic Khaganate|Western Turkic Khaganate]]. The Tang China conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744, when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate.

==First Khaganate==
 
The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546, when Bumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords, the [[Place:Rouran Khaganate|Rouran Khanate]]. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, thus marrying into the royal family. However, the Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" ({{zh|t=鍛奴|p=duànnú}}) comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some claim that the Göktürks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,<ref>馬長壽, 《突厥人和突厥汗國》, 上海人民出版社, 1957, p. 10–11 {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref>陳豐祥, 余英時, 《中國通史》, 五南圖書出版股份有限公司, 2002, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2881-8}}, p. 155 {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1dRpAAAAMAAJ&q=slave++Rouran Gao Yang, "The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate", ''X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 – 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler'', V. Cilt, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1991, s. 731.] {{in lang|en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Burhan |last=Oğuz |title=Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri |location=İstanbul |publisher=Matbaası |year=1976 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOwBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22demirci+k%C3%B6le%22 |chapter=«Demirci köle» olmaktan kurtulup reisleri Bumin'e |isbn=9789758586226 |lang=tr}}</ref> and that "blacksmith slavery" may have indicated a form of vassalage within Rouran society.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last1=Perry |editor-first1=John Curtis | editor-last2=Smith | editor-first2=Bardwell Leith | title=Essays on Tʻang Society | publisher=Brill Archive | publication-place=Leiden | date=1976 | isbn=978-90-04-04761-7 |first=Larry W. |last=Moses |chapter=Relations with the Inner Asian Barbarian |page=65 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5s4UAAAAIAAJ&dq=Blacksmith+slave+Juan+Juan&pg=PA65 |quote='Slave' probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan &#91;=Rouran or Ruanruan&#93; qaghan, whom they &#91;the Türks&#93; served in battle by providing iron weapons, and also marching with the qaghan's armies. |lang=en}}</ref> According to Denis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths.<ref name="Denis26">Denis Sinor, Inner Asia: history-civilization-languages: a syllabus, Routledge, 1997, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0380-7}}, p. 26. Contacts had already begun in 545 A.D. between the so-called "blacksmith-slave" Türk and certain of the kingdoms of north China,</ref><ref>Denis Sinor, ''ibid'', p. 101. [https://books.google.com/books?id=foS-y-ShWJ0C&dq=%22Blacksmith+slaves%22&pg=PA101 'Beyond A-na-kui's disdainful reference to his "blacksmith slaves" there is ample evidence to show that the Turks were indeed specializing in metallurgy, though it is difficult to establish whether they were miners or rather blacksmiths.'] {{in lang|en}}</ref> Whatever the case, that the Turks were "slaves" need not be taken literally, but probably represented a form of vassalage, or even unequal alliance.<ref>{{harvtxt|Nachaeva|2011}}</ref>

[[File:An Jia welcoming a Turk. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg|thumb|left|Panel from the Tomb of Anjia, a Sogdian trader (right), who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader (left, with long hair combed in the back). 579 CE, Xi'an, {{wipe|China}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=228 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA228 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="SYET">{{cite journal |last1=Yatsenko |first1=Sergey A. |title=Early Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art |journal=Transoxiana |date=August 2009 |volume=14 |url=http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/14/yatsenko_turk_costume_chinese_art.html}}</ref>]]
A disappointed Bumin allied with the Chinese dynasty of the Western Wei against the Rouran, their common enemy, by marrying Princess Changle. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang (modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei).<ref name="Zhou50">Linghu Defen et al., ''Book of Zhou'', Vol. 50. {{in lang|zh}}</ref>

Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan, but died only months later. His son, Muqan Qaghan, defeated the [[Social:Hephthalite Empire|Hephthalite Empire]].<ref>Li Yanshou (李延寿), ''History of Northern Dynasties'', Vol. 99.</ref> Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576) bore the title "Yabgu of the West" and collaborated with the Sassanid Empire of [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina clan's grip on the Silk Road. The alliance with China was further reinforced in 568 through the marriage of the Turkic princess Ashina, daughter of Muqan Qaghan, with Emperor Wu of the [[Social:Xianbei|Xianbei]]-led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty.

The appearance of the Pannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Göktürks, although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology. Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran,<ref>{{harvtxt|Grousset|1970|p=82}}</ref> while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran-Avar identification is "repeated from article to article, from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it".<ref>''History and historiography of the Nomad Empires of Central Eurasia''. D Sinor. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarum Hung. 58 (1) 3 – 14, 2005</ref>

Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe.<ref name="Pohl26">Walter Pohl, ''Die Awaren: ein Steppenvolk im Mitteleuropa, 567–822 n. Chr'', C.H.Beck (2002), {{ISBN|978-3-406-48969-3}}, p. 26–29.</ref> In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea. Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.<ref name="Grousset81">Grousset 81.</ref> As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of the Amu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sasanian Empire. Much of [[Biology:Bactria|Bactria]] (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century.<ref name="Grousset81"/>

===Relations with the Byzantine Empire===
{{Asia 576 CE|right|The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576, with neighbouring contemporary polities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haug |first1=Robert |title=The Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia |date=27 June 2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78831-722-1|page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_2ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT99 |language=en|quote="The collapse of the Hephthalite domains made neighbours of the Türk Khāqānate and the Sasanian Empire, both sharing a border that ran the length of the River Oxus. Further Turkish expansion to the west and around the Caspian Sea saw them dominate the western steppes and its people and extend this frontier down to the Caucasus where they also shared a border with the Sasanians. Khusrow is noted at the time for improving the fortifications on either side of the Caspian, Bāb al-Abwāb at Derbent and the Great Wall of Gorgān."}}</ref>||Map of the First Turkic Kaghanate.png}}
The Göktürks played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire.<ref name="Geopolitics on the Silk Road">{{Cite journal|last1=Qiang|first1=Li|last2=Kordosis|first2=Stefanos|date=2018|title=The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Türks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications|url=http://hw.oeaw.ac.at/?arp=0x003a16af|journal=Medieval Worlds|language=en|volume=medieval worlds|issue=Volume 8. 2018|pages=109–125|doi=10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109|issn=2412-3196|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (the Pannonian Avars) ran away during their war with the [[Social:Hephthalites|Hephthalites]].<ref name="Geopolitics on the Silk Road"/><ref name="Turk empire">{{Cite book|last=Sinor|first=Dennis|date=1996|title=The First Türk Empire (553–682)|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/turk-empire|access-date=2022-01-23|pages=327–332|publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103211-0}}</ref>

The second contact occurred when Maniah, a [[Place:Sogdia|Sogdia]]n diplomat, convinced Istämi (also known as Silziboulos in Greek writings<ref>Eliot, C. (1908). Turkey in Europe. United Kingdom: E. Arnold. Page 76</ref>) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II and where they discussed an alliance. In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.<ref name="Geopolitics on the Silk Road"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Whittow|first=Mark|title=Byzantium's Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Türk Empire|date=2018-04-26|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316146040%23CN-bp-18/type/book_part|work=Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity|pages=271–286|editor-last=Di Cosmo|editor-first=Nicola|edition=1|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781316146040.021|isbn=978-1-316-14604-0|access-date=2022-01-23|editor2-last=Maas|editor2-first=Michael|quote="Mark Whittow directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573.}}</ref>

Another set of embassies occurred in 575–576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery.<ref name="Turk empire" /> They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.<ref name="Menander">{{Cite book|last=Menander|first=Protector, activeth century|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14355502|title=The history of Menander the Guardsman|date=1985|publisher=F. Cairns|others=R. C. Blockley|isbn=0-905205-25-1|location=Liverpool, Great Britain|oclc=14355502|pages=173–177}}</ref> The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu<ref name="Menander" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter B. Golden|year=2011|title=Central Asia in World History|page=39|quote=At a subsequent embassy, Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger, venting his rage saying "Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them?}}</ref> would be matched in Byzantine writings.<ref>Maurice, ''Strategikon'', ed. Dennis and Gamillscheg, 360;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9575024|title=Maurice's Strategikon : handbook of Byzantine military strategy|date=1984|others=Emperor of the East Maurice, Orbicius, George T. Dennis|isbn=0-8122-7899-2|location=Philadelphia|oclc=9575024|page=116|quote="They [the Turks] were superstitious, treacherous, foul, faithless, possessed by an insatiate desire for riches. They scorn their oath, do not observe agreements, and are not satisfied by gifts. Even before they accept the gift, they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements. They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them. They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit, surprise attacks, and cutting off supplies."}}</ref> With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).<ref name="Geopolitics on the Silk Road"/>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">

File:Tyurki.jpg|Göktürk petroglyphs from Mongolia (6th to 8th century).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=ALTINKILIÇ|first1=Dr. Arzu Emel|title=Göktürk giyim kuşamının plastik sanatlarda değerlendirilmesi|journal=Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research|date=2020|pages=1101–1110|url=http://www.jshsr.org/Makaleler/1429516422_07-7-53.1853-1101-1110.pdf}}</ref>
File:Turkic horsemen with unidentifiable ambassadors on top.jpg|Turkic horsemen with long hair on the tomb of a Sogdian trader, the Miho funerary couch. Circa 570 CE. Northern Dynasties, {{wipe|China}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Inagaki|first1=Hajime|title=Galleries and Works of the MIHO MUSEUM|publisher=Miho Museum|page=121, panel 8|url=https://www.academia.edu/34579548}}</ref><ref name="SYET"/>
File:An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in Yurt. Xi’an, 579 CE. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg|The [[Place:Sogdia|Sogdia]]n trader An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in his yurt. 579 CE, Tomb of An Jia, Xi’an, China.
File:An Jia brokering an alliance with Turks. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg|The [[Place:Sogdia|Sogdia]]n trader An Jia (right) brokering an alliance with Turks (left). 579 CE, Tomb of An Jia, Xi’an, China.
</gallery>

==Civil war==
{{multiple image
| align     = right
| direction = vertical 
| header    = Göktürk civil war
| total_width     = 300
| image1    = Empire of the Kökturks.png
| caption1  = The khaganate in 552 after its division into [[Place:Western Turkic Khaganate|Western Turkic Khaganate]] and Eastern Turkic Khaganate
| image2    = Gokturkut.png
| caption2  = Gokturk khaganates at their height, c. 600 AD:
{{Legend|blue|Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.}}
}}
The Turkic Khaganate split in two after the death of the fourth ruler, Taspar Qaghan, c. 583. He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan's son Apa Qaghan,<!--阿史那大邏便/阿史那大逻便, āshǐnà dàluóbiàn---> but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan instead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

The most serious contender was the western one, Istämi's son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father's death. He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otukan.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied to Emperor Yang of Sui for protection. Tardu attacked Chang'an, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Sui diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's Tiele vassals, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

===Eastern Turkic Khaganate===
[[File:Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural, 7th century CE, Mongolia.jpg|thumb|Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural, Göktürk, 7th century CE, Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=ALTINKILIÇ |first1=Dr. Arzu Emel |title=Göktürk giyim kuşamının plastik sanatlarda değerlendirilmesi |journal=Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research |date=2020 |pages=1101–1110 |url=http://www.jshsr.org/Makaleler/1429516422_07-7-53.1853-1101-1110.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narantsatsral |first1=D |title=THE SILK ROAD CULTURE AND ANCIENT TURKISH WALL PAINTED TOMB |journal=The Journal of International Civilization Studies |url=http://www.inciss.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Narantsatsral-2.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book |last1=Cosmo |first1=Nicola Di |last2=Maas |first2=Michael |title=Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250–750 |date=26 April 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-54810-6 |pages=350–354 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y01UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA350 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing">{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |pages=185–186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA185 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Otukan, remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Göktürk. The Shibi Khan (609–619) and Illig Qaghan (620–630) attacked the Central Plain at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang. Shibi Khan's surprise attack against Yanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost captured Emperor Yang, but his ethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng—who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit—sent a warning ahead, allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present-day Daixian in Shanxi.<ref name="daxiong">{{harvp|Xiong|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-1PSb8wp-woC&pg=PA63 63–4]}}</ref> This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11, 615,<ref name="sinocal" /><ref name="Zizhi182">Sima Guang, ''Zizhi Tongjian'', Vol. 182. {{in lang|zh}}</ref> but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion.<ref name="daxiong" />

In 626, Illig Qaghan took advantage of the Xuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang'an. On September 23, 626,<ref name="sinocal">武德九年 八月癸未 [http://db1x.sinica.edu.tw/sinocal/ Academia Sinica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522200011/http://db1x.sinica.edu.tw/sinocal/ |date=2010-05-22 }} {{in lang|zh}}</ref> Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of the Wei River north of Bian Bridge (in present-day Xianyang, Shaanxi). On September 25, 626,<ref name="sinocal" />Tang Taizong allied with Iligh Khan and met with the khan on the border bridge, Tang Taizong accused Iligh Khan of crossing the border, the khan saw that Taizong was imposing, mistakenly thought that the reinforcements of the Tang Dynasty had arrived, plus two years ago, he had seen Li Shimin, who was still the crown prince at that time, in Binzhou (彬州), and was asked to duel. The khan was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance, which is called the Weishui Alliance (渭水之盟) or the Alliance of Bian Qiao (便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟).<ref>{{Cite book |last=司 |first=马光 |title=《资治通鉴·卷第一百九十一·唐纪七》 |publisher=In 1086, the government of Emperor Shenzong of Song |year=1086 |pages=《资治通鉴·卷第一百九十一·唐纪七》 |quote=上自出玄武门，与高士廉、房玄龄等立骑径诣渭水上，与颉利隔水而语，责以负约。突厥大惊，皆下马罗拜。俄而诸军继至，旌甲蔽野，颉利见执失思力不返，而上挺身轻出，军容甚盛，有惧色。上麾诸军使却而布陈，独留与颉利语。萧瑀以上轻敌，叩马固谏，上曰：“吾筹之已熟，非卿所知。突厥所以敢倾国而来，直抵郊甸者，以我国内有难，朕新即位，谓我不能抗御故也。我若示之心弱，闭门拒守，虏必放兵大掠，不可复制。故朕轻骑独出，示若轻之；又震曜军容，使之必战；出虏不意，使之失图。虏入我地既深，必有惧心，故与战则克，与和则固矣。制服突厥，在此一举，卿第观之！”}}</ref> On the third day after the meeting, the khan sent 3,000 horses and 10,000 sheep to the border to be prepared as compensation for the Tang dynasty, which Emperor Taizong did not accept, believing that this was too little. <ref>{{Cite book |last=刘 |first=昫 |title=《旧唐书》本纪第二 |publisher=Later Jin Shi Jingtang government |year=945 |pages=《旧唐书》本纪第二 |quote=乙酉，又幸便桥，与颉利刑白马设盟，突厥引退。九月丙戌，颉利献马三千匹、羊万口}}</ref> All in all, 67 incursions into [[Place:China proper|China proper]] were recorded.<ref name="Grousset81"/>

Before mid-October 627, heavy snows on the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.<ref>David Andrew Graff, ''Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|978-0-415-23955-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QDsfWBimDEkC&dq=Famine+627+China&pg=PA186 p. 186.]</ref> According to the ''New Book of Tang'', in 628, Taizong mentioned that "There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm)."<ref>Ouyang Xiu, ''New Book of Tang'', Vol. 215-I {{in lang|zh}}</ref>

Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626–630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol.194 & Vol.195|last=Liu 劉|first=Xu 昫|year=945}}</ref>

On March 27, 630,<ref name="sinocal" /> a Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at the Battle of Yinshan (陰山之戰 / 阴山之战).<ref>''Old Book of Tang'', Vol. 3. {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="NewTang93">Ouyang Xiu et al., ''New Book of Tang'', Vol. 93. {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="Zizhi193">Sima Guang, ''Zizhi Tongjian'', Vol. 193. {{in lang|zh}}</ref> Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad, but on May 2, 630<ref>貞觀四年 三月庚辰</ref> Zhang Baoxiang's army advanced to Ishbara Shad's headquarters. Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.<ref name="Zizhi193"/> The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang. Emperor Taizong said, "It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River."<ref name="NewTang93"/>

===Western Turkic Khaganate===
{{Main|Place:Western Turkic Khaganate}}
[[File:Turkish officers during a audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab, Samarkand.jpg|thumb|Western Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648–651 CE, Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |date=2004 |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. B |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]
The Western khagan Sheguy and Tong Yabghu Qaghan constructed an alliance with the [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] against the Sasanian Empire and succeeded in restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers. Their capital was Suyab in the Chu River valley, about 6&nbsp;km south east of modern Tokmok. In 627 Tung Yabghu, assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion of [[Place:Transcaucasia|Transcaucasia]] which culminated in the taking of Derbent and [[Place:Tbilisi|Tbilisi]] (see the Third Perso-Turkic War for details). In April 630 Tung's deputy Böri Shad sent the Göktürk cavalry to invade [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabghu's murder in 630 forced the Göktürks to evacuate Transcaucasia.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of Ashina clan (reigned 634–639) and came to be known as the ''Onoq''.<ref name="Gumilev">Gumilev 238.</ref> The name refers to the "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders (''shads'') of its two constituent tribal confederations, the Duolu (five ''churs'') and Nushibi (five ''irkins''), whose lands were divided by the Chui River.<ref name="Gumilev"/> The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies. Soon, chieftain Kubrat of the Dulo clan, whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven, seceded from the Khaganate. The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin. The Tang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks, who were defeated during the Tang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648,{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=99–100}}{{sfn|Wechsler|1979|pp=225–228}} leading to the 657 conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang general Su Dingfang.{{sfn|Skaff|2009|p=183}} Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Göktürks.

In 657, the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern-day [[Religion:Iran|Iran]]. He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows (tribes) of Göktürks. Five arrows of Tulu (咄陆) were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang (興昔亡可汗) while five arrows of Nushipi (弩失畢可汗) were ruled by Jiwangjue (繼往絕可汗). Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea. Göktürks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers – weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh.

==Genetics==
[[File:Map of the Ancient Northeast Asians.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Empress Ashina (551–582), a royal Göktürk and immediate descendant of the Göktürk khagans, belonged genetically to the Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA, <small>{{Colorsample|#FFD700|0.6}}</small> yellow area), supporting the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Gökturks.<ref name="Yang 2023 3–4">{{harvnb|Yang|Meng|Zhang|2023|pp=3–4}}</ref>{{sfn|Jeong|Wang|Wilkin|Taylor|2020|loc=Figure S4A}}]]
[[File:Standing Balbal.jpg|thumb|Turkic ''Balbal'', Kyrgyzstan.<ref name="JB">{{cite journal |last1=Bemmann |first1=Jan |last2=Brosseder |first2=Ursula |title=A Long Standing Tradition – Stelae in the Steppes with a Special Focus on the Slab Grave Culture |url=https://www.academia.edu/35469052 |quote=Current research shows that only during the time of the Turk qaghanates (552-630, 682-742 CE) were different types of stelae widely used in Inner Asia: there are rows of balbals in association with ritual sites, kamennye babas in association with memorials, and also inscription stelae were erected at important Turkic ritual sites [e.g., Kubarev, 1984; Voitov, 1996; Baiar, 1997].}}</ref>]]
A 2023 study analyzed the DNA of Empress Ashina (551–582), a royal Göktürk and immediate descendant of the Göktürk khagans, whose remains were recovered from a mausoleum in Xianyang, {{wipe|China}}.<ref name="Yang2023">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiao‐Min |last2=Meng |first2=Hai‐Liang |last3=Zhang |first3=Jian‐Lin |title=Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=17 January 2023 |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=1056–1064 |doi=10.1111/jse.12938 |s2cid=255690237 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jse.12938 |language=en |issn=1674-4918}}</ref> The authors determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East Asian mtDNA haplogroup [[Biology:Haplogroup F (mtDNA)|F1d]]. Approximately 96–98% of her autosomal ancestry was of Ancient Northeast Asian origin, while roughly 2–4% was of West Eurasian origin, indicating an ancient admixture event circa 1000 BC, and she had no Chinese ("Yellow River") admixture. The Ashina individual was found to be genetically closer to East Asians than Turkic groups and shared "most genetic affinity with post‐Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic Steppe pastoralists", supporting the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Göktürks.<ref name="Yang 2023 3–4">{{harvnb|Yang|Meng|Zhang|2023|pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiaomin |title=Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=2023 |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=1056–1064 |doi=10.1111/jse.12938 |s2cid=255690237 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366965287|quote=In the principal component analysis (PCA) (Figs. 1B, S3), the Ashina individual clustered with modern Tungusic and Mongolic speakers, ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau, and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter‐gatherers previously referred to as “Ancient Northeast Asian” (ANA), that is, DevilsCave_N, Mongolia_N_North, Boisman_MN, AR_EN (Jeong et al., 2020; Ning et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021), as well as post‐Iron Age Eastern Steppe nomadic people including Xianbei, Rouran, Khitan, and part of the Mongol population. The shared genetic similarity between Ashina and Northeast Eurasians, especially ANA, was also evident in outgroup‐f3 statistics (Fig. S5A).}}</ref> 

However, the study also noted that the wider Turkic realm, including central-steppe Türks and early medieval Türks, exhibits a high (but variable) degree of West Eurasian ancestry, which indicates that there was genetic sub-structure within the Türkic empire. For example, the ancestry of early medieval Turks was derived from Ancient Northeast Asians for about 62% of their genome, while the remaining 38% was derived from West Eurasians (BMAC and Afanasievo), with the admixture occurring around the year 500 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|p=897|ps=: See figure 4, B for admixture proportions in earlyMed_Turk. "...it is clear that these individuals have genetic profiles that differ from the preceding Xiongnu period, suggesting new sources of gene flow into Mongolia at this time that displace them along PC3 (Figure 2)...The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yang|Meng|Zhang|2023|p=4|ps=: "The early Medieval Türk (earlyMed_Turk) derived the major ancestry from ANA at a proportion of 62.2%, the remainder from BMAC (10.7%) and Western Steppe Afanasievo nomad (27.1%) (Figs. 1C, 1D; Table S2E)."}}</ref> This suggests that, beyond a clearly Ancient Northeast Asian original elite, the Turkic Khaganate developped from populations of various sources, and that the diffusion of the Turkic language resulted from a cultural diffusion rather than a demic diffusion.<ref>{{harvnb|Yang|Meng|Zhang|2023|p=5 "Implications"}}</ref>

A genetic study examined the remains of four elite Türk soldiers buried between ca. 300 AD and 700 AD.{{sfn|Damgaard|Marchi|2018|loc=Supplementary Table 2, Rows 60, 62, 127, 130}} 50% of the samples of Y-DNA belonged to the West Eurasian [[Biology:Haplogroup R1|haplogroup R1]], while the other 50% belonged to East Eurasian haplogroups [[Biology:Haplogroup Q-M242|Q]] and [[Biology:Haplogroup O-M175|O]].{{sfn|Damgaard|Marchi|2018|loc=Supplementary Table 9, Rows 44, 87, 88}} The extracted samples of mtDNA belonged mainly to East Eurasian haplogroups [[Biology:Haplogroup C (mtDNA)|C4b1]], [[Biology:Haplogroup A (mtDNA)|A14]] and [[Biology:Haplogroup A (mtDNA)|A15c]], while one specimen carried the West Eurasian haplogroup [[Biology:Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H2a]].{{sfn|Damgaard|Marchi|2018|loc=Supplementary Table 8, Rows 128, 130, 70, 73}} The authors suggested that central Asian nomadic populations may have been Turkicized by an East Asian minority elite, resulting in a small but detectable increase in East Asian ancestry. However, these authors also found that Türkic period individuals were extremely genetically diverse, with some individuals being of near complete West Eurasian descent. To explain this diversity of ancestry, they propose that there were also incoming West Eurasians moving eastward on the Eurasian steppe during the Türkic period, resulting in admixture.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Damgaard | first1=Peter de Barros | last2=Marchi | first2=Nina | title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=557 | issue=7705 | year=2018 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 | pages=369–374| pmid=29743675 | bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D | hdl=1887/3202709 | s2cid=256769352 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Damgaard|Marchi|2018|p=372|ps=: "These results suggest that Turk cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations, resulting in a small detectable increase in East Asian  ancestry. However, we also find that steppe nomad ancestry in this period was extremely  heterogeneous with several individuals being genetically distributed at the extremes of the first principal component (Figure 2) separating Eastern and Western descent. Based on this notable heterogeneity, we interpret that during Medieval times, the steppe populations were  exposed to gradual admixture from the East, while interacting with incoming west Eurasians.  The strong variation is a direct window into ongoing admixture processes and to the multi-ethnic cultural organization of this period."}}</ref>

A study analyzed genetic data from 7 early medieval Türk fossils from the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (581–645) burial sites in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeong |first1=Choongwon |title=A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe |journal=Cell |date=12 November 2020 |volume=183 |issue=4 |pages=890–904.e29 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015 |pmid=33157037 |pmc=7664836 |language=en |issn=0092-8674|hdl=21.11116/0000-0007-77BF-D |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|ps=: "Türk (550-750 CE). Göktürkic tribes of the Altai Mountains established a political structure across Eurasia beginning in 552 CE, with an empire that ruled over Mongolia from 581–742 CE (Golden, 1992). A brief period of disunion occurred between 659–682 CE, during which the Chinese Tang dynasty laid claim over Mongolia...We analyzed individuals from 5 Türk sites in this study: Nomgonii Khundii (NOM), Shoroon Bumbagar (Türkic mausoleum; TUM), Zaan-Khoshuu (ZAA), Uliastai River Lower Terrace (ULI), and Umuumur uul (UGU)."}}</ref> The authors described the Türk samples as highly diverse, carrying on average 40% West Eurasian, and 60% East Eurasian ancestry. West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks combined Sarmatian-related and BMAC ancestry, while the East Eurasian ancestry was related to Ancient Northeast Asians. The authors also observed that the [[History:Western Steppe Herders|Western Steppe Herders]]-mediated West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks was largely inherited from male ancestors, which also corresponds with the marked increase of paternal haplogroups such as [[Biology:Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)|R]] and [[Biology:Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]] during the Türkic period in Mongolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|ps=: "We observe a clear signal of male-biased WSH admixture among the EIA Sagly/Uyuk and during the Türkic period (i.e., more positive Z scores; Figure 5B), which also corresponds to the decline in the Y chromosome lineage Q1a and the concomitant rise of the western Eurasian lineages such as R and J (Figure S2A)."}}</ref> Admixture between East and West Eurasian ancestors of the Türkic samples was dated to 500 CE, or roughly 8 generations prior.<ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|ps=: "The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."}}</ref> Three (50%) of the Türkic-affiliated males carried the paternal haplogroups J2a and [[Biology:Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J1a]], two carried haplogroup C-F3830, and one carried R1a-Z93.<ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|ps=: Cultural affiliation of specimens found at [https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0092867420313210-mmc1.xlsx Supplemental Information S1], S1b_Sites. Sex haplogroup information found at [https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0092867420313210-mmc2.xlsx Supplemental Information Table S2], S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B}}</ref> The maternal haplogroups were identified as [[Biology:Haplogroup D (mtDNA)|D4]] and [[Biology:Haplogroup D (mtDNA)|D2]], [[Biology:Haplogroup B (mtDNA)|B4]], [[Biology:Haplogroup C (mtDNA)|C4]], [[Biology:Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H1]] and [[Biology:Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U7]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jeong|2020|ps=: Table S2, S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Niri Qaghan.jpg|Statue of Niri Qaghan, [[Place:Xinjiang|Xinjiang]], {{wipe|China}}.
File:The Battle between Bahram Chubina and Sava Shah LACMA M.2009.44.1 (3 of 9).jpg|Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin fighting Bagha Qaghan.
File:Battle of Bahram Chubina with Saveh shah.jpg|Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin and Bagha Qaghan fighting.
File:Babal, Kyzyl - capital of Tuva - Siberia.jpg|Turkic ''[[Social:Kurgan stelae|Balbal]]'', Tuva, Siberia.<ref name="JB"/>
File:Kyzyl - capital of Tuva - Siberia - 16760782050.jpg|Turkic ''[[Social:Kurgan stelae|Balbal]]'', Tuva, Siberia.<ref name="JB"/>
File:Burana, Kyrgyzstan (29724205397).jpg|Turkic ''[[Social:Kurgan stelae|Balbal]]'', Kyrgyzstan.<ref name="JB"/>
</gallery>

==See also==
* Göktürk family tree
* Turks in the Tang military
* Horses in East Asian warfare
* Kangly
* Orkhon inscription
* Qaghans of the Turkic khaganates
* Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300)
* Ashide

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://bitig.org/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=16&m=1 Turk Bitig]

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{{coord missing|Asia}}

[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]

{{Sourceattribution|First Turkic Khaganate}}