View source for Place:India

'''India'''<!--Do not add pronunciation as per Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section.-->, officially the '''Republic of India''' <!--Do NOT change the name to Bharat without discussion in the talk page for consensus and multiple reliable citations. -->([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: {{transliteration|hi|ISO|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}<!--Do not add pronunciation as per Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section.-->),<ref>–{{citation|title=The Essential Desk Reference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA76|year=2002|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-512873-4|page=76}} "Official name: Republic of India.";<br />–{{citation|author=John Da Graça|title=Heads of State and Government|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421 |year=2017|publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-1-349-65771-1|page=421}} "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)";<br />–{{citation|author=Graham Rhind |title=Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|year=2017|publisher=[[Company:Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-351-93326-1|page=302}} "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.";<br />–{{citation|last=Bradnock|first=Robert W.|title=The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|year=2015|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-40511-5|page=108}} "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya";<br />–{{citation|title=Penguin Compact Atlas of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLw-ReHIgvQC&pg=PA140|year=2012|publisher=[[Company:Penguin Group|Penguin]] |isbn=978-0-7566-9859-1|page=140}} "Official name: Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA515|year=1997|isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]|pages=515–516}} "Officially, Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5moCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54-IA10 |edition=3rd|year=2016|publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=978-1-4654-5528-4|page=54}} "Official name: Republic of India";<br />–{{citation|title=Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726|year= 2013|publisher=CQ Press|isbn=978-1-4522-9937-2|page=726}} "India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)"</ref> is a country in [[Place:South Asia|South Asia]]. <!--PLEASE DO NOT change the lead sentence: it is the result of a talk page consensus.--> It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country as of June 2023;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=1 May 2023 |title=Most populous nation: Should India rejoice or panic? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65322706 |access-date=3 May 2023 |website=BBC News |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf |title=World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results |publisher=United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs |year=2022 |location=New York |pages=i}}</ref> and from the time of its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=327|ps=: "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations."}}<ref name="stein-arnold">{{Citation |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |year=2012 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |series=The Blackwell History of the World Series |edition=2 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |quote=One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty. |editor-link=David Arnold (historian)}}</ref>{{sfn|Fisher|2018|pp=184–185|ps=: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy."}} Bounded by the [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;{{efn|1 = The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of [[Place:Kashmir|Kashmir]] to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: {{cite web |title=Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management) |url=https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|access-date=1 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead}} }} China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Modern humans arrived on the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{harvnb|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10 10]}}, "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref><ref name="Dyson2018p1">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}, "Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present."</ref><ref name="Fisher2018p23">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}}, "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the ''Homo sapiens'' range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."</ref>
Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human [[Biology:Genetic diversity|genetic diversity]].<ref name="Dyson2018-28a">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}}</ref> [[History:Neolithic|Settled life]] emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium [[Philosophy:Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="Combined-2">(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–5]}};<br />(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 33]}}</ref>
By {{BCE|1200}}, an [[Social:Proto-language|archaic form]] of [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], an Indo-European language, had [[Social:Trans-cultural diffusion|diffused]] into India from the northwest.<ref name="Lowe2015">{{Cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-100505-3 |pages=1–2 |quote=(The Rigveda) consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500&nbsp;BCE and 1200&nbsp;BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India.}}</ref><ref name="Combined-4-Rigveda">(a) {{cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael |editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C&pg=PA68|year=2008|publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|pages=68–70|chapter=Vedas and Upanisads|quote=It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); ... The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on.  This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a ''tape-recording'' of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. (pp. 68–69) ... The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE. (p. 70)}}<br />(b) {{citation|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUnaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18|year= 2014|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-936009-3|pages=xviii, 10|quote=A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda (p. xviii); Hindu texts began with the ''Rig Veda'' ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE (p. 10)}}<br />(c) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}, "In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab') draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. [[Social:Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic Sanskrit]] is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva)."
<br />(d) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14–15]}}, "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. ... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."; <br /> (e) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA46 46–]}}, "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."</ref> Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the ''[[Religion:Rigveda|Rigveda]]''. Preserved by an [[Social:Oral tradition|oral tradition]] that was resolutely vigilant, the ''Rigveda'' records the dawning of [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]] in India.<ref name="Combined-3">(a) {{citation|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel |title=The Rigveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|year=2020|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-063339-4|pages=2, 4|quote=The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2)  Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).}};<br />(b) {{citation|last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year= 2020|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-105322-1|pages=4–|chapter=Introduction|quote=I take the term 'Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).}};<br />(c) {{cite book|last=Michaels|first=Axel|author-link=Axel Michaels|editor=Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis|title=The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year=2017|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-100709-5|pages=86–97|quote=Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three ''samskaras'' (initiation, marriage, and death ritual).  Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened.  Although ''samskaras'' vary from region to region, from class (''varna'') to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the ''Brahmin'' priests. (p 86)}}<br />(d) {{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=35|quote=It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals.  The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.}}</ref> The [[Social:Dravidian languages|Dravidian languages]] of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.<ref name="Combined-4">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16], [https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}}</ref>
By {{BCE|400}}, [[Social:Social stratification|stratification]] and [[Philosophy:Social exclusion|exclusion]] by [[Social:Caste|caste]] had emerged within Hinduism,<ref name="Dyson2018-16a">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}}</ref>
and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming [[Social:Social order|social order]]s unlinked to heredity.<ref name="Fisher2018-59">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59]}}</ref>
Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit [[Biology:Maurya Empire|Maurya]] and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin.<ref name="Combined-5">(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16–17]}};<br />(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67]}};<br />(c) {{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA56 56–57]}};<br />(d) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–30]}}.</ref>
Their collective [[Physics:Era|era]] was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,<ref name="Combined-6">(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28–29]}};
<br />(b) {{citation|author=Glenn Van Brummelen |editor=Thomas F. Glick |editor2=Steven Livesey |editor3=Faith Wallis |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|year=2014|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-45932-1|pages=46–48|chapter=Arithmetic}}</ref> but also marked by the declining status of women,<ref name="Combined-7">(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}};<br />(b) {{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=90}};<br />(c) {{citation |last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor1=Barbara N. Ramusack |editor2=Sharon L. Sievers |title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999 |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}}</ref> and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief.{{efn|"A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}}}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 93}} In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]].<ref name="AsherAsher2006-17">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA17 17]}}</ref>

In the early medieval era, [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]], [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]], and [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]] became established on India's southern and western coasts.<ref name="Combined-8">(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 54]}};
<br />(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA78 78–79]}};
<br />(c) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}</ref>
Muslim armies from [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]] intermittently overran India's northern plains,<ref name="Combined-13">(a) {{harvnb|Ludden|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68–70]}};<br />(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19 19], 24}}</ref>
eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.<ref name="Combined-10">(a) {{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 48]}};
<br />(b) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA53 52]}}</ref>
In the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.<ref name="AsherAsher2006-74">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA74 74]}}</ref>
In the [[Place:Punjab|Punjab]], [[Religion:Sikhism|Sikhism]] emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.<ref name="AsherAsher2006-267">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA267 267]}}</ref>
The Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,<ref name="AsherAsher2006-152">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152 152]}}</ref>
leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.{{efn|"Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800&nbsp;km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i Munauwara ("Illuminated Tomb") – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal."<ref name="Fisher2018-106" />}}<ref name="Fisher2018-106">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 106]}}</ref>
Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its sovereignty.<ref name="Combined-11">(a) {{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA289 289]}}
<br />(b) {{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}}</ref> British Crown rule began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,<ref name="Combined-12">{{Citation |last=Taylor |first=Miles |title=Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires |pages=38–39 |year=2016 |editor-last=Aldrish, Robert |chapter=The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iR3GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-1-5261-0088-7 |editor2-last=McCreery, Cindy}}</ref>{{sfn|Peers|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}} but [[History:Industrial Revolution|technological changes]] were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.<ref name="EmbreeHay1988">{{Citation |last1=Embree |first1=Ainslie Thomas |title=Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan |page=85 |year=1988 |chapter=Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C&pg=PA85 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-06414-9 |last2=Hay |first2=Stephen N. |last3=Bary |first3=William Theodore De}}</ref> A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.<ref name="Marshall2001">{{Citation |last=Marshall |first=P. J. |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=179 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |quote=The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.}}</ref><ref name="Chiriyankandath2016">{{Citation |last=Chiriyankandath |first=James |title=Parties and Political Change in South Asia |url={{Google books|c4n7CwAAQBAJ|page=PA2|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=2 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58620-3 |quote=South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947}}</ref> In 1947 the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions,<ref name="fisher-partition">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|pp=173–174}}: "The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India.  ...  Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India."</ref><ref name="chatterji-partition">{{Citation |last1=Chatterji |first1=Joya |title=Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora |year=2013 |editor-last=Chatterji |editor-first=Joya |chapter=Introduction: Concepts and Questions |place=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-48010-9 |quote=Joya Chatterji  describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries. |last2=Washbrook |first2=David |editor2-last=Washbrook |editor2-first=David}}</ref><ref name="talbot-sing">{{Citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |year=2009 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213073754/https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |url-status=live |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |quote=When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. ... Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent's division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis |archive-date=13 December 2016 |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal}}</ref><ref name="khan-great-partition">{{Citation |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |page=1 |year=2017 |orig-date=2007 |edition=2nd |place=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-23032-1 |quote=South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947.  They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets.  Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India |author-link=Yasmin Khan}}</ref> a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.<ref>(a) {{harvnb|Copland|2001|pp=71–78}};<br />(b) {{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=222}}.</ref>

India has been a [[Social:Federal republic|federal republic]] since 1950, governed through a democratic [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary system]]. It is a [[Philosophy:Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]], [[Social:Multilingualism|multilingual]] and [[Philosophy:Multiculturalism|multi-ethnic society]]. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to almost 1.4&nbsp;billion in 2022.<ref name="Dyson2018-219">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 219], 262}}</ref>
During the same time, its nominal [[Finance:Per capita income|per capita income]] increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,<ref name="Fisher2018-8">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}}</ref> India has become a fast-growing [[Organization:G20|major economy]] and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012-265">{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA265 265–266]}}</ref> India has [[Astronomy:ISRO|a space programme]] with several planned or completed [[Astronomy:List of Solar System probes|extraterrestrial missions]]. It is the fourth country to land [[Astronomy:Chandrayaan-3|a craft]] on the moon and the first to do so within {{convert|600|km|mi}} of the [[Astronomy:Lunar south pole|Lunar south pole]].<ref name=kumar-nytimes-8-23-2023>{{citation|last1=Kumar|first1=Hari|last2=Travelli|first2=Alex|last3=Mashal|first3=Mujib|last4=Chang|first4=Kenneth|title='India Is on the Moon': Lander's Success Moves Nation to Next Space Chapter|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 23, 2023|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/23/science/chandrayaan-3-india-moon-landing.html|quote=Two visitors from India — a lander named Vikram and a rover named Pragyan — landed in the southern polar region of the moon on Wednesday. The two robots, from a mission named Chandrayaan-3, make India the first country to ever reach this part of the lunar surface in one piece — and only the fourth country ever to land on the moon. ... The spacecraft stopped to hover about 150 yards above the surface for a few seconds, then resumed its downward journey until it settled gently on the surface, about 370 miles from the south pole.}}</ref> Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012-266">{{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA266 266]}}</ref> India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.<ref name="Dyson2018-216-a">{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}}</ref> India is a nuclear-weapon state, which [[Finance:List of countries by military expenditures|ranks high in military expenditure]]. It has disputes over [[Place:Kashmir|Kashmir]] with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.<ref name="kashmir-disputes">(a) {{citation |title=Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |access-date=15 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent{{nbsp}}... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent |archive-date=13 August 2019 |url-status=live}};<br />(b) {{citation |last1=Pletcher |first1=Kenneth |title=Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |access-date=16 August 2019 |url-access=subscription |quote=Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090308/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin |archive-date=2 April 2019}};<br />(c) {{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin |publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328 |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6 |page=328 |first=C. E |last=Bosworth |quote=KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947}}</ref> Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,<ref name="NarayanJohn2018-lead">{{Cite journal |last1=Narayan |first1=Jitendra |last2=John |first2=Denny |last3=Ramadas |first3=Nirupama |year=2018 |title=Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives |journal=Journal of Public Health Policy |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=126–141 |doi=10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5 |issn=0197-5897 |pmid=30353132 |s2cid=53032234}}</ref> and rising levels of air pollution.<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019-lead">{{Cite journal |last1=Balakrishnan |first1=Kalpana |last2=Dey |first2=Sagnik |display-authors=0 |year=2019 |title=The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e26–e39 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=6358127 |pmid=30528905}}</ref> India's land is megadiverse, with four biodiversity hotspots.<ref name="IUCN-India">{{Citation |title=India |url=https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india |year=2019 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033802/https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Organization:International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) |archive-date=1 November 2020}}</ref> Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area.<ref name="ISFR" /> India's wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in India's culture,{{sfn|Karanth|Gopal|2005|p=374}} is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats.

== Etymology ==
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (third edition 2009), the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin ''India'', a reference to [[Place:South Asia|South Asia]] and an uncertain region to its east. In turn the name "India" derived successively from Hellenistic Greek ''India'' ('' Ἰνδία''), [[Social:Ancient Greek|ancient Greek]] ''Indos'' ('' Ἰνδός''), Old Persian ''Hindush'' (an eastern province of the [[Place:Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Empire]]), and ultimately its cognate, the [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] ''Sindhu'', or "river", specifically the Indus River and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.<ref>{{Citation |title=India (noun) |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/94384#eid677811 |work=Oxford English Dictionary |year=2009 |edition=3rd}} (subscription required)</ref>{{sfn|Thieme|1970|pp=447–450}} The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as ''Indoi'' (''{{ISO 639-2|GRC|Ἰνδοί}}''), which translates as "The people of the Indus".{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}}

The term ''Bharat'' ({{transliteration|hi|ISO|Bhārat}}; {{IPA-hns|ˈbʱaːɾət|pron|hi-Bharat.ogg}}), mentioned in both [[Religion:Indian epic poetry|Indian epic poetry]] and the Constitution of India,{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}<ref>{{Citation |title=The Constitution of India |date=1 December 2007 |url=https://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |access-date=3 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437/https://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice |quote=Article 1(1): India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States. |archive-date=9 September 2014}}</ref> is used in its variations by many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the historical name ''Bharatavarsha'', which applied originally to North India,<ref name="Jha2014">{{Citation |last=Jha |first=Dwijendra Narayan |title=Rethinking Hindu Identity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqDgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |page=11 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-49034-0}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 253]}} ''Bharat'' gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}{{sfn|Barrow|2003}}

''Hindustan'' ({{IPA-hns|ɦɪndʊˈstaːn||Hindustan.ogg}}) is a [[Social:Middle Persian|Middle Persian]] name for India that became popular by the 13th century,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Paturi |first1=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCo5DAAAQBAJ |title=World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions |last2=Patterson |first2=Roger |date=2016 |publisher=New Leaf Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-89051-922-6 |editor-last=Hodge |editor-first=Bodie |location=United States |pages=59–60 |chapter=Hinduism (with Hare Krishna) |quote=The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the "land of Hindus." |editor-last2=Patterson |editor-first2=Roger}}</ref> and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of ''Hindustan'' has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day northern India and Pakistan or to India in its near entirety.{{sfn|Clémentin-Ojha|2014}}{{sfn|Barrow|2003}}<ref>{{Citation |title=Hindustan |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Ancient India ===
[[File:Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53.jpg|thumb|Manuscript illustration, {{circa|1650}}, of the Sanskrit epic [[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]], composed in story-telling fashion {{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|300}}}}<ref name="Lowe2017-epic">{{Cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |title=Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-879357-1 |page=58 |quote=The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ...  It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.}}</ref>|right]]
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or ''Homo sapiens'', had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin" /><ref name="Dyson2018p1" /><ref name="Fisher2018p23" /> The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.<ref name="PetragliaAllchin" /> After {{BCE|6500}}, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 21–23}}{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp = 104–105}} the first urban culture in South Asia,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}} which flourished during {{BCE|2500–1900}} in Pakistan and western India.{{sfn|Possehl|2003|p = 2}} Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 181}}

During the period {{BCE|2000–500}}, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the [[Chemistry:Chalcolithic|Chalcolithic]] cultures to the [[History:Iron Age|Iron Age]] ones.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} The [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]], the oldest scriptures associated with [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]],{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 186–187}} were composed during this period,{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp = 68–69}} and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 255}} Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of [[History:Indo-Aryan migration|Indo-Aryan migration]] into the subcontinent from the north-west.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=186–187}} The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.{{Sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|p=255}} In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of [[Unsolved:Megalith|megalith]]ic monuments dating from this period,{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}} as well as by nearby traces of [[Earth:Agriculture|agriculture]], irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.{{Sfn|Singh|2009|pp=250–251}}
[[File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|thumb|Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves|right]]

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the ''[[Religion:Mahajanapadas|mahajanapadas]]''.{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 260–265}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 53–54}} The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jainism]] came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 312–313}} [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], based on the teachings of [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]], attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 54–56}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 21}}{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 67–68}} In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up [[Philosophy:Nekkhamma|renunciation]] as an ideal,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 300}} and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of [[Biology:Magadha|Magadha]] had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the [[Biology:Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]].{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 78–79}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 70}} The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist ''dhamma''.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 367}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 63}}

The [[Religion:Sangam literature|Sangam literature]] of the [[Social:Tamil language|Tamil language]] reveals that, between {{BCE|200}} and {{CE|200}}, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with [[Place:Western Asia|West]] and [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 89–90}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|pp = 408–415}} In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 92–95}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 319}} By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp = 89–91}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 98–99}} This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}} [[Religion:Sanskrit literature#Classical Sanskrit literature|Classical Sanskrit literature]] flowered as well, and Indian science, [[Astronomy:Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Philosophy:Ayurveda|medicine]], and mathematics made significant advances.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p = 545}}

=== Medieval India ===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=320
| align = left
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple..JPG
| caption1 = Brihadeshwara temple, Thanjavur, completed in {{CE|1010}}
| image2 = Qutb minar ruins.jpg
| caption2 = The Qutub Minar, {{convert|73|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} tall, completed by the Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish
}}
The Indian early medieval age, from {{CE|600 to 1200}}, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 132}} When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from {{CE|606 to 647}}, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of [[Place:Bengal|Bengal]].{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 119–120}} No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 132}} During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 121–122}} The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 121–122}}

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first [[Philosophy:Bhakti|devotional hymns]] were created in the Tamil language.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 123}} They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 123}} Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 124}} Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 124}} By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 127–128}} Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.{{sfn|Stein|1998|pp = 127–128}}

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 68}} The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} By repeatedly repulsing [[Place:Mongol Empire|Mongol raiders]] in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of [[Biology:Human migration|migration]] of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp = 50–51}} The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 53}} Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 12}} and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 53}}

=== Early modern India ===
In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 80}} fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 164}} The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under [[Biography:Akbar|Akbar]], the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 158}} and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 169}} caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 186}} Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the [[Place:Maratha Empire|Marathas]], the Rajputs, and the [[Place:Sikh Empire|Sikhs]], gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}} As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 256}}

{{multiple image
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| image_style       = border:none;
| image1            = Agra Fort DistantTaj.JPG
| caption1          = A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort
| image2            = India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg
| caption2          = A two mohur Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the obverse inscribed "William IV, King"
}}

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 44–49}} The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the [[Place:Bengal|Bengal]] region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 98–100}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}}{{sfn|Ludden|2002|pp = 128–132}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 51–55}} Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 68–71}} India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]] with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 286}} By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 289}}

=== Modern India ===
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in [[Earth:Europe|Europe]].{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 151–152}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 94–99}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|p = 83}}{{sfn|Peers|2006|p = 50}} However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 100–103}}{{sfn|Brown|1994|pp = 85–86}} Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a [[Earth:Unitary state|unitary state]] and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 239}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 103–108}} In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the [[Social:Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress]] in 1885.{{sfn|Robb|2001|p = 183}}{{sfn|Sarkar|1983|pp = 1–4}}{{sfn|Copland|2001|pp = ix–x}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 123}}

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 260}} There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=245|ps=: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, ... A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.}} and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p = 258}} There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}} The railway network provided critical famine relief,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} notably reduced the cost of moving goods,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 97}} and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 126}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=360
|image_style = border:none;
|align    = left
| image1      = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg
| caption1    = 1909 map of the British Indian Empire
|image2=Nehru gandhi.jpg
|caption2=Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light moment with [[Biography:Mahatma Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], Mumbai, 6 July 1946
}}
After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 163}} a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which [[Biography:Mahatma Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]] would become the leader and enduring symbol.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 167}} During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 195–197}} The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War&nbsp;II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 203}}

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 231}} Per the London Declaration, India retained its membership of the [[Organization:Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], becoming the first republic within it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=London Declaration, 1949 |url=https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration-1949 |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=Commonwealth |language=en}}</ref> Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Role of Soviet Union in India's industrialisation: a comparative assessment with the West |url=http://ijrar.com/upload_issue/ijrar_issue_20544196.pdf |website=ijrar.com}}</ref> has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,<ref>{{Citation |title=Briefing Rooms: India |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |work=[[Organization:Economic Research Service|Economic Research Service]] |year=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520002800/https://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Organization:United States Department of Agriculture|United States Department of Agriculture]] |archive-date=20 May 2011}}</ref> and increased its geopolitical clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006 |pp=265–266}} by religious and caste-related violence;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 266–270}} by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 253}} and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 274}} It has unresolved territorial disputes with China{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} and with Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 247–248}} India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 304}}

== Geography ==
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a part of the [[Earth:Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]], began a north-eastward [[Earth:Plate tectonics|drift]] caused by [[Earth:Seafloor spreading|seafloor spreading]] to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Simultaneously, the vast [[Earth:Tethys Ocean|Tethyan]] [[Earth:Oceanic crust|oceanic crust]], to its northeast, began to [[Earth:Subduction|subduct]] under the [[Earth:Eurasian Plate|Eurasian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's [[Earth:Mantle (geology)|mantle]], both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian [[Earth:Continental crust|continental crust]] eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped [[Earth:Trough (geology)|trough]] that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|p=7}} and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Prakash et al.|2000}} The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the [[Earth:Thar Desert|Thar Desert]], the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.<ref name="aravalli">{{harvnb|Kaul|1970|p=160}}, "&nbsp;The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it."</ref><ref name="prasad-aravalli">{{harvnb|Prasad|1974|p=372}}, "&nbsp;The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks."</ref><ref name="fisher-aravalli">{{harvnb|Fisher|2018|p=83}}, "&nbsp;East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals."</ref>

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 1
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| image_style       = border:none;
| align             = left
| image1            = Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG
| caption1          = The Tungabhadra, with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular Krishna river.{{sfn|Mcgrail|Blue|Kentley|Palmer|2003|p=257}}
| image2            = Parked boats at Anjarle Creek.jpg
| caption2          = Fishing boats lashed together in a [[Earth:Creek (tidal)|tidal creek]] in Anjarle village, Maharashtra
}}

The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|p=8}} To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;{{sfn|Dikshit |Schwartzberg|2023|pp=9–10}} the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude{{efn|The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.}} and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.{{sfn|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting|2007|p = 1}}

India's coastline measures {{Convert|7517|km|mi|-2}} in length; of this distance, {{Convert|5423|km|mi|-2}} belong to peninsular India and {{Convert|2094|km|mi|-2}} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}} According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% [[Earth:Mudflat|mudflat]]s or marshy shores.{{sfn|Kumar|Pathak|Pednekar|Raju|2006}}

<!---
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:KedarRange.jpg|thumb|left|The Kedar range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind the [[Kedarnath Temple]] in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Snow melt from the glaciers behind Kedarnath forms the Mandakini river, one of the [[Earth:River source|headstreams]] of the Ganges river.<ref name="Sen2019">{{Citation |last=Sudipta Sen |title=Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOV8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT47 |page=47 |year=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24267-6}} Quote: "The confluence of rivers, especially of the Ganges and its tributaries, is one of the most significant geographical spaces for the pilgrim, ... A common name for such a place in Sanskrit ... is prayaga, ... such as Rudraprayag, situated at the meeting of two rivers: the Mandakini River, coming down from the steep glaciers beyond Kedarnath, and Alaknanda River, making its way from Badrinath."</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Agasthiyamalai]] range, constituting the southern end of the Western Ghats, as seen from the rainshadow region of the southwest monsoon in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Oates1999">{{Citation |last=Oates |first=John F. |title=Myth and Reality in the Rain Forest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0WFszVK5lQC&pg=PA35 |page=35 |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-22252-6}} Quote: "The Agastyamalai are the most southerly portion of the Western Ghats. These wet and rugged hills are one of the last places in South India to support an extensive area of evergreen shola forest, and they are home to what may be the largest surviving population of lion-tailed macaques"</ref>]]
|2=[[File:Tungabhadra River and Coracle Boats.JPG|thumb|left|Flowing near [[Hampi]] is the Tungabhadra river, the major right bank tributary of the Krishna river, a peninsular river, which empties into the Bay of Bengal. The [[Engineering:Coracle|coracle]]s, made of wicker, are traditionally covered with hide, their circular shape preventing them from overturning in rivers with rocky outcrops.{{sfn|Mcgrail|Blue|Kentley|Palmer|2003|p=257}}]]
|3=[[File:Puvar 20080220-1.jpg|thumb|left|A beach off the Arabian Sea in Puvar, Kerala. The Arabian Sea is the northwestern region of the Indian Ocean, bounded by the Arabian and Indian peninsulas.]]
|4=[[File:Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Thar desert]], 85% of which lies in the Indian state of Rajasthan, spreads over an area of {{convert|2340000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.  It constitutes the northwestern limit of the southwest monsoon.<ref name="Laity2009">{{Citation |last=Laity |first=Julie J |title=Deserts and Desert Environments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtAbzLLTcwcC&pg=PA30 |page=30 |year=2009 |publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-0074-1}}</ref>]]
|5=[[File:NDRF in Bihar Flood 2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kosi river]], shown here during a flood, rises in Nepal, rushes down with great force through its narrow Himalayan valley, and [[Earth:Debouch|debouch]]es in a flat plain in Bihar, India, where the river bed has risen so much from deposited silt that the river attempts to find a new course.{{sfn|Basu|Xavier|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}}]]
|6=[[File:Andaman.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Earth:Andaman Islands|Andaman Islands]], in the Andaman Sea, number over 200, and extend north by northeast to south by southwest. They rise up to {{convert|2400|ft|m}} and receive over {{convert|100|in|cm}} of rain annually.<ref name="SpateLearmonth2017">{{citation |last1=Spate|first1=O.H.K.|last2=Learmonth|first2=A.T.A.|title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-fDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1153|year=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-96898-0|page=1153</ref>]]
|7=[[File:Mt. Kanchenjunga.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kanchenjunga|Khangchendzonga]] [[Earth:Massif|massif]], shows Mount Khangchendzonga Central, in the middle, the world's third highest mountain at {{convert|28169|ft|m}} located on the border of India's Sikkim state and Nepal.<ref name="unesco-kangchenjunga">{{Citation |title=Khangchendzonda National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820000450/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |url-status=live |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |archive-date=20 August 2019}}</ref>]]
}}-->
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=15}} Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.{{sfn|Duff|1993|p = 353}}{{sfn|Basu|Xavier|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=16}} and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=17}} Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=12}} India has two [[Earth:Archipelago|archipelago]]s: the Lakshadweep, [[Earth:Atoll|coral atolls]] off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.{{sfn|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2023|p=13}}

Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter [[Earth:Monsoon|monsoon]]s.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian [[Earth:Katabatic wind|katabatic wind]]s from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.{{sfn|Posey|1994|p = 118}}{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 4}} The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.{{sfn|Chang|1967|pp = 391–394}} Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}}

Temperatures in India have risen by {{convert|0.7|C-change|1|abbr=on}} between 1901 and 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Vibha |date=15 June 2020 |title=Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=The Tribune}}</ref> Climate change in India is often thought to be the cause. The [[Earth:Retreat of glaciers since 1850|retreat of Himalayan glaciers]] has adversely affected the [[Physics:Volumetric flow rate|flow rate]] of the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Sethi |first=Nitin |date=3 February 2007 |title=Global warming: Mumbai to face the heat |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/global-warming-mumbai-to-face-the-heat/articleshow/1556662.cms |access-date=11 March 2021 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Vivek |last2=Jain |first2=Manoj Kumar |year=2018 |title=Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216941830773X |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=567 |pages=489–509 |bibcode=2018JHyd..567..489G |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012 |issn=0022-1694 |s2cid=135053362}}</ref>

== Biodiversity ==

India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries which display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively [[Biology:Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]], or endemic, to them.<ref>{{Citation |title=Megadiverse Countries |url=https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/megadiverse-countries |access-date=17 October 2021 |publisher=Biodiversity A–Z, [[Organization:World Conservation Monitoring Centre|UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]}}</ref> India is a [[Earth:Habitat|habitat]] for 8.6% of all [[Biology:Mammal|mammal]] species, 13.7% of [[Biology:Bird|bird]] species, 7.9% of [[Biology:Reptile|reptile]] species, 6% of [[Biology:Amphibian|amphibian]] species, 12.2% of [[Biology:Fish|fish]] species, and 6.0% of all [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]] species.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=Animal Discoveries 2011: New Species and New Records |url=https://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214754/https://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2013 |access-date=20 July 2012 |publisher=[[Organization:Zoological Survey of India|Zoological Survey of India]]}}</ref><ref name="Puri">{{Citation |last=Puri |first=S. K. |title=Biodiversity Profile of India |url=https://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |work=ces.iisc.ernet.in |access-date=20 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121153614/https://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2011}}</ref> Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.{{sfn|Basak|1983|p = 24}} India also contains four of the world's 34 [[Biology:Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspot]]s,<ref name="IUCN-India" /> or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.{{efn|A biodiversity hotspot is a [[Biology:Biogeography|biogeographical]] region which has more than 1,500 [[Biology:Vascular plant|vascular plant]] species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.<ref name="SivaperumanVenkataraman2018" />}}<ref name="SivaperumanVenkataraman2018">{{Citation |last1=Venkataraman |first1=Krishnamoorthy |title=Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management |page=5 |year=2018 |editor-last=Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan |chapter=Biodiversity Hotspots in India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |publisher=[[Company:Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn=978-981-10-6605-4 |last2=Sivaperuman |first2=Chandrakasan |editor2-last=Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy}}</ref>

According to official statistics, India's forest cover is {{convert|713789|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which is 21.71% of the country's total land area.<ref name="ISFR">{{Cite web |title=India State of Forest Report, 2021 |url=https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021-details |access-date=17 January 2022 |publisher=Forest Survey of India, National Informatics Centre}}</ref> It can be subdivided further into broad categories of ''canopy density'', or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its tree canopy.<ref name="Jha2018">{{Citation |last=Jha |first=Raghbendra |title=Facets of India's Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9n9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 |page=198 |year=2018 |publisher=[[Company:Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-349-95342-4}}</ref> ''Very dense forest'', whose ''canopy density'' is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India's land area.<ref name="Jha2018" /><ref name="indiaforest">{{Cite web |title=Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019 |url=https://www.frienvis.nic.in/Database/Forest-Cover-in-States-UTs-2019_2478.aspx |access-date=16 October 2021 |publisher=Forest Research Institute via National Informatics Centre}}</ref> It predominates in the tropical moist forest of the [[Earth:Andaman Islands|Andaman Islands]], the Western Ghats, and Northeast India. ''Moderately dense forest'', whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.<ref name="Jha2018" /><ref name="indiaforest" /> It predominates in the [[Biology:Temperate coniferous forest|temperate coniferous forest]] of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous ''[[Biology:Shorea robusta|sal]]'' forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous [[Biology:Teak|teak]] forest of central and southern India.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|pp=11–12}} ''Open forest'', whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India's land area.<ref name="Jha2018" /><ref name="indiaforest" /> India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=12|ps=India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the rain shadow area of the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain.  Growth is limited only by moisture availability in these areas, so with irrigation the fertile alluvial soil of Punjab and Haryana has been turned into India's prime agricultural area.  Much of the thorn forest covering the plains probably had savannah-like features now no longer visible.}}

Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent ''[[Biology:Azadirachta indica|Azadirachta indica]]'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in rural Indian [[Medicine:Herbal medicine|herbal medicine]],<ref name="Goyal2006">{{Citation |last=Goyal |first=Anupam |title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295 |page=295 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-567710-2}} Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal ''neem'' tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)"</ref> and the luxuriant ''[[Biology:Ficus religiosa|Ficus religiosa]]'', or ''peepul'',<ref name="Hughes2013">{{Citation |last=Hughes |first=Julie E. |title=Animal Kingdoms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106 |page=106 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07480-4 |quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}}</ref> which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,<ref name="AmeriCostello2018">{{Citation |last=Ameri |first=Marta |title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |pages=156–157 |year=2018 |editor-last=Ameri |editor-first=Marta |chapter=Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-17351-3 |editor2-last=Costello |editor2-first=Sarah Kielt |editor3-last=Jamison |editor3-first=Gregg |editor4-last=Scott |editor4-first=Sarah Jarmer}} Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."</ref> and under which [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.<ref name="Gwynne2011">{{Citation |last=Paul Gwynne |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195 |page=358 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |quote=The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (''[[Biology:Ficus religiosa|Ficus religiosa]]'').}}</ref>

Many Indian species have descended from those of [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]], the southern [[Earth:Supercontinent|supercontinent]] from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.{{sfn|Crame|Owen|2002|p = 142}} India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Earth:Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and [[Earth:Climate variability and change|climatic changes]] later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.{{sfn|Karanth|2006}} Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the Himalayas.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=14}} This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.<ref name="Puri" /> Among endemics are the vulnerable<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh, M. |last2=Kumar, A. |last3=Molur, S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Trachypithecus johnii |journal=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |volume=2008 |at=e.T44694A10927987 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T44694A10927987.en |doi-access=free}}</ref> hooded leaf monkey<ref name="itis">{{Cite web |last=Fischer |first=Johann |title=Semnopithecus johnii |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829072131/https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null |archive-date=29 August 2018 |access-date=27 August 2018 |publisher=ITIS}}</ref> and the threatened<ref name="IUCN">{{Cite journal |last1=S.D. Biju |last2=Sushil Dutta |last3=M.S. Ravichandran Karthikeyan Vasudevan |last4=S.P. Vijayakumar |last5=Chelmala Srinivasulu |last6=Gajanan Dasaramji Bhuddhe |year=2004 |title=Duttaphrynus beddomii |journal=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |publisher=IUCN |volume=2004 |page=e.T54584A86543952 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54584A11155448.en |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Biology:Duttaphrynus beddomii|Beddome's toad]]<ref name="IUCN" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2015 |title=''Duttaphrynus beddomii'' (Günther, 1876) |url=https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721092639/https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii |archive-date=21 July 2015 |access-date=13 September 2015 |website=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=[[Biology:American Museum of Natural History|American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref> of the Western Ghats.

<!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) female head.jpg|thumb|left|The endangered [[Nilgiri tahr]] is endemic to the Western Ghats. Its population in 2008 was between 1,800 and 2,000 and decreasing.<ref name="nilgiri-tahr-IUCN">{{Citation |last=Alempath |first=M. |title=Nilgiritragus hylocrius |work=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |year=2008 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T9917A13026736.en |last2=Rice |first2=C.}}</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Banyan Tree at The Valley School , Bangalore.JPG|thumb|left|The ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'', commonly known as the Indian banyan, or Indian fig, is indigenous to India, and is one of the largest trees by canopy coverage.  It has aerial roots which form new trunks once they reach the ground and propagate.<ref name="Corner2002">{{Citation |last=Corner |first=E. J. H. |title=The Life of Plants |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0VyqECPiuoC&pg=PA227 |page=227 |year=2002 |publisher=[[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-11615-0}}</ref>]]
|2=[[File:Clinotarsus curtipes-Aralam-2016-10-29-001.jpg|thumb|left|The vulnerable [[Malabar frog]] (''Clinotarsus curtipes'') is a species of frog [[Biology:Endemism|endemic]] in the Western Ghats of India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2014 |title=''Clinotarsus curtipes'' (Jerdon, 1853) |url=https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Ranidae/Clinotarsus/Clinotarsus-curtipes |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504173141/https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Ranidae/Clinotarsus/Clinotarsus-curtipes |archive-date=4 May 2014 |access-date=4 May 2014 |website=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=[[Biology:American Museum of Natural History|American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Biju, S.D. |last2=Dutta, Sushil |last3=Inger, Robert |name-list-style=amp |year=2004 |title=Clinotarsus curtipes |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58583/0 |url-status=live |journal=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |publisher=IUCN |volume=2004 |page=e.T58583A11789937 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T58583A11789937.en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054221/https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58583/0 |archive-date=28 December 2017 |access-date=10 January 2018}}</ref>]]
|3=[[File:Bank myna (Acridotheres ginginianus).jpg|thumb|left|The [[bank myna]] is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.]]
|4=[[File:North Sentinel Island.jpg|thumb|left|A [[NASA]] satellite image of North Sentinel Island, a part of India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which is covered by a ''very dense''{{efn|A forest cover is ''very dense'' if more than 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} tropical moist forest.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p={{pn|date=April 2022}}}}]]
|5=[[File:Vultures in the nest, Orchha, MP, India edit.jpg|thumb|left|[[Indian vulture]]s, (''Gyps indicus''), in a nest on the tower of the Chaturbhuj Temple, Orchha, Madhya Pradesh. The vulture became nearly extinct in India in the 1990s from having ingested the carrion of [[Chemistry:Diclofenac|diclofenac]]-laced cattle.<ref name="LovetteFitzpatrick2016" />]]
|6=[[File:Pahalgam Valley.jpg|thumb|left|The Pahalgam valley in Jammu and Kashmir is covered with a [[Biology:Temperate coniferous forest|temperate coniferous forest]].{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p={{pn|date=April 2022}} }}]]
|7=[[File:Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg|thumb|left|A [[Chital]] (''Axis axis'') stag attempts to browse in the Nagarhole National Park in a region covered by a ''moderately dense''{{efn|A forest cover is ''moderately dense'' if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} dry deciduous [[Biology:Teak|teak]] forest.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p={{pn|date=April 2022}}}}]]
}}-->
India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.{{sfn|Mace|1994|p = 4}} These include the endangered [[Biology:Bengal tiger|Bengal tiger]] and the [[Biology:South Asian river dolphin|Ganges river dolphin]]. [[Biology:Critically endangered|Critically endangered]] species include the [[Biology:Gharial|gharial]], a crocodilian; the [[Biology:Great Indian bustard|great Indian bustard]]; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [[Chemistry:Diclofenac|diclofenac]]-treated cattle.<ref name="LovetteFitzpatrick2016">{{Citation |last1=Lovette |first1=Irby J. |title=Handbook of Bird Biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGyQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA599 |page=599 |year=2016 |publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-118-29105-4 |last2=Fitzpatrick |first2=John W.}}</ref> Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the [[Biology:Asiatic cheetah|Asiatic cheetah]]; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.{{sfn|Tritsch|2001|p=15|ps=Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.}} The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act{{sfn|Ministry of Environment and Forests 1972}} and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.{{sfn|Department of Environment and Forests|1988}} India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen{{Nbsp}}biosphere reserves,<ref>{{Cite web |title=biosphere.pdf |url=https://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/biosphere.pdf |access-date=28 June 2023}}</ref> four of which are part of the [[Biology:World Network of Biosphere Reserves|World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]; seventy-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.<ref>{{Cite web |title=75 Ramsar Sites in 75th Year of Independence |url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1851484 |access-date=28 June 2023 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Panthera tigris tigris Tidoba 20150306.jpg|India has the majority of the world's wild [[Biology:Tiger|tiger]]s, approximately 3,170 in 2022.<ref>{{Citation |title=Reviving the Roar: India's Tiger Population Is On the Rise |date=13 April 2023 |url=https://www.goodgoodgood.co/articles/india-tiger-population-good-news |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref>
File:Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg|A [[Biology:Chital|chital]] (''Axis axis'') stag in the Nagarhole National Park in a region covered by a moderately dense{{efn|A forest cover is ''moderately dense'' if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree canopy.}} forest.
File:Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo with cheetah kill 1948 BNHS.jpg|Three of the last [[Biology:Asiatic cheetah|Asiatic cheetah]]s in India were shot dead in 1948 in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India by Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo. The young male [[Biology:Cheetah|cheetah]]s, all from the same litter, were sitting together when they were shot at night.
</gallery>

== Politics and government ==

=== Politics ===
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| caption1          = As part of Janadesh 2007, 25,000 pro-land reform landless people in Madhya Pradesh listen to Rajagopal P. V.<ref name="Johnston2019">{{Citation |last=Johnston |first=Hank |title=Social Movements, Nonviolent Resistance, and the State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSiFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 |page=83 |year=2019 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-88566-2}}</ref>
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A [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] with a [[Social:Multi-party system|multi-party system]],{{sfn|Burnell|Calvert|1999|p = 125}} India has six{{Nbsp}}recognised national parties, including the [[Social:Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress]] (INC) and the [[Social:Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), and more than 50{{Nbsp}}regional parties.{{sfn|Election Commission of India}} The Congress is considered [[Social:Centre-left politics|centre-left]] in Indian [[Social:Political culture|political culture]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sáez |first1=Lawrence |last2=Sinha |first2=Aseema |year=2010 |title=Political cycles, political institutions and public expenditure in India, 1980–2000 |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=91–113 |doi=10.1017/s0007123409990226 |s2cid=154767259}}</ref> and the BJP [[Social:Right-wing politics|right-wing]].{{sfn|Malik|Singh|1992|pp=318–336}}{{sfn|Banerjee|2005|p=3118}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Halarnkar |first=Samar |date=13 June 2012 |title=Narendra Modi makes his move |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-18352532 |quote=The right-wing Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), India's primary opposition party}}</ref> For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the Parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,{{sfn|Sarkar|2007|p=84}} as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalition governments at the centre.{{sfn|Chander|2004|p=117}}

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, [[Biography:Lal Bahadur Shastri|Lal Bahadur Shastri]] briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the [[Social:The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]] she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over two years. There were two prime ministers during this period; Morarji Desai and Charan Singh. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years. There were two prime ministers during this period; V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar.{{sfn|Bhambhri|1992|pp=118, 143}} Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a [[Social:Minority government|minority government]] led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 December 2004 |title=Narasimha Rao Passes Away |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/24/stories/2004122408870100.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=2 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213181659/https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/24/stories/2004122408870100.htm |archive-date=13 February 2009}}</ref>

{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Barack Obama at Parliament of India in New Delhi addressing Joint session of both houses 2010.jpg|caption1=US president [[Biography:Barack Obama|Barack Obama]] addresses the members of the Parliament of India in [[Place:New Delhi|New Delhi]] in November 2010.}}

A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. There were two prime ministers during this period; H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.{{sfn|Dunleavy|Diwakar|Dunleavy|2007}} Again in the 2004 Indian general elections, no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of [[Social:Left-wing politics|left-leaning]] parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p = 384}} That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.{{sfn|Business Standard|2009}} In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 May 2014 |title=BJP first party since 1984 to win parliamentary majority on its own |work=DNA |agency=Indo-Asian News Service |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-bjp-first-party-since-1984-to-win-parliamentary-majority-on-its-own-1988981 |access-date=20 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521032413/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-bjp-first-party-since-1984-to-win-parliamentary-majority-on-its-own-1988981 |archive-date=21 May 2014}}</ref> In the 2019 general election, the BJP was victorious again. The incumbent prime minister is Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat. On 22 July 2022, Droupadi Murmu was elected India's 15th president and took the oath of office on 25 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 July 2022 |title=Droupadi Murmu Swearing-in Live: My election is the greatness of India, mother of democracy, says President Murmu |publisher=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/droupadi-murmu-swearing-in-live-updates-8049577/ |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref>

=== Government ===
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Rashtrapati Bhavan Wide New Delhi India.jpg|caption1=Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India, was designed by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of India, and constructed between 1911 and 1931 during the British Raj.<ref name="Bremner2016">{{Citation |last=Bremner |first=G. A. |title=Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjRADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |page=117 |year=2016 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-102232-6}}</ref>}}
India is a [[Social:Federation|federation]] with a [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary system]] governed under the Constitution of India—the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic.

Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union and the states. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,{{sfn|Pylee|2003a|p = 4}} originally stated India to be a "sovereign, [[Social:Liberal democracy|democratic]] [[Social:Republic|republic]];" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to "a sovereign, socialist, [[Philosophy:Secularism|secular]], democratic republic".{{sfn|Dutt|1998|p = 421}} India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,{{sfn|Wheare|1980|p = 28}} has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.{{sfn|Echeverri-Gent|2002|pp = 19–20}}{{sfn|Sinha|2004|p = 25}}
{{Infobox place symbols
| region_type = National
| region      = India
| title       = National symbols{{sfn|National Informatics Centre|2005}}
| emblem      = Sarnath Lion Capital
| anthem      = ''Jana Gana Mana''
| song="[[Religion:Vande Mataram|Vande Mataram]]"
| language    = None<ref name="Times News Network">{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Saeed |date=25 January 2010 |title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms |access-date=5 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318040319/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms |archive-date=18 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="NoneNtl">{{Cite news |date=16 November 2009 |title=Learning with the Times: India doesn't have any 'national language' |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Learning-with-the-Times-India-doesnt-have-any-national-language/articleshow/5234047.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010085454/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Learning-with-the-Times-India-doesnt-have-any-national-language/articleshow/5234047.cms |archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="Press Trust of India">{{Cite news |date=25 January 2010 |title=Hindi, not a national language: Court |work=Press Trust of India via The Hindu |location=Ahmedabad |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece |access-date=23 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704084339/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece |archive-date=4 July 2014}}</ref>
| currency    = [[Finance:Indian rupee sign|₹]] (Indian rupee)
| calendar    = Shaka
| mammal      = {{ubl|[[Biology:Bengal tiger|Bengal tiger]]|[[Biology:South Asian river dolphin|River dolphin]]}}
| bird        = Indian peafowl
| flower      = [[Biology:Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]]
| fruit       = [[Biology:Mango|Mango]]
| tree        = [[Biology:Banyan|Banyan]]
| river       = Ganges
}}

The Government of India comprises three branches:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of India |url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/COI-updated-as-31072018.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416044642/https://www.legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/COI-updated-as-31072018.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2019 |access-date=16 July 2016 |website=legislature.gov.in}}</ref>
* [[Social:Executive (government)|Executive]]: The President of India is the ceremonial [[Social:Head of state|head of state]],{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 138}}{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 112}} The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most [[Social:Executive (government)|executive power]].{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} Appointed by the president,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} the prime minister is by convention supported by the [[Social:Political party|party]] or [[Social:Political alliance|political alliance]] having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|1950}} The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 31}} In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the [[Social:Executive (government)|executive]] are implemented by them.{{sfn|Mathew|2003|p = 524}}
* [[Social:Legislature|Legislature]]: The legislature of India is the [[Social:Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament. Operating under a [[Social:Westminster system|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People).{{sfn|Gledhill|1970|p = 127}} The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245{{Nbsp}}members who serve staggered six-year terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 161}} Most are elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 162}} All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545{{Nbsp}}members are elected directly by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-year{{Nbsp}}terms.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 143}} Two seats of parliament, reserved for Anglo-Indians in the article 331, have been scrapped.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 December 2019 |title=Cabinet approves scrapping of 2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians in Parliament |url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/seats-reserved-for-anglo-indians-in-parliament-to-be-scrapped-after-cabinet-approval |access-date=17 October 2021 |website=National Herald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Ghosh |first1=Abantika |last2=Kaushal |first2=Pradeep |date=2 January 2020 |title=Explained: Anglo-Indian quota, its history, MPs |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/anglo-indian-quota-history-mps-6164232/ |access-date=17 October 2021 |newspaper=The Indian Express}}</ref>
* [[Social:Judiciary|Judiciary]]: India has a three-tier{{Nbsp}}unitary [[Philosophy:Judicial independence|independent judiciary]]{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} comprising the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25{{Nbsp}}high courts, and a large number of trial courts.{{sfn|Neuborne|2003|p = 478}} The supreme court has [[Social:Original jurisdiction|original jurisdiction]] over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp = 238, 255}} It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution{{sfn|Sripati|1998|pp=423–424}} and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.{{sfn|Pylee|2003b|p = 314}}
{{clear}}

=== Administrative divisions ===

India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the [[Place:Delhi|National Capital Territory of Delhi]], have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system of governance. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p = 49}} There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India |url=https://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715203036/https://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-asia/india/ |archive-date=15 July 2019 |access-date=7 September 2019 |website=[[Organization:Commonwealth Local Government Forum|Commonwealth Local Government Forum]]}}</ref>
{{Indian states and territories image map|image-width=330}}

==== States ====
{{columns-list |colwidth=18em|
# Andhra Pradesh
# Arunachal Pradesh
# Assam
# Bihar
# Chhattisgarh
# Goa
# Gujarat
# Haryana
# Himachal Pradesh
# Jharkhand
# Karnataka
# Kerala
# Madhya Pradesh
# Maharashtra
# Manipur
# Meghalaya
# Mizoram
# Nagaland
# Odisha<!--Do not change this per WP:COMMONNAME.-->
# Punjab
# Rajasthan
# Sikkim
# Tamil Nadu
# Telangana
# Tripura
# Uttar Pradesh
# Uttarakhand
# West Bengal
}}

==== Union territories ====
{{columns-list |colwidth=18em|
{{ordered list |type=upper-alpha
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands
| [[Place:Chandigarh|Chandigarh]]
| Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
| Jammu and Kashmir
| Ladakh
| Lakshadweep
| [[Place:Delhi|National Capital Territory of Delhi]]
| Puducherry
}}
}}

== Foreign, economic and strategic relations ==
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220
|image_style = border:none;
|align    = left
|image1=Jawaharlal Nehru, Nasser and Tito at the Conference of Non-Aligned Nations held in Belgrade.jpg|caption1=During the 1950s and 60s, India played a pivotal role in the Non-Aligned Movement.<ref name="Dinkel2018">{{Cite book |last=Dinkel |first=Jürgen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqOODwAAQBAJ |title=The Non-Aligned Movement: Genesis, Organization and Politics (1927–1992) |publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-33613-1 |pages=92–93}}</ref> From left to right: Gamal Abdel Nasser of [[Place:United Arab Republic|United Arab Republic]] (now Egypt), Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and Jawaharlal Nehru in Belgrade, September 1961.
}}
In the 1950s, India strongly supported decolonisation in [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] and [[Earth:Asia|Asia]] and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.{{sfn|Rothermund|2000|pp = 48, 227}} After initially cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to war with China in 1962 and was widely thought to have been humiliated.<ref name=62-humiliation>(a) {{citation|last=Guyot-Rechard|first=Berenice |title=Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbktDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA235|year=2017|isbn=978-1-107-17679-9|quote= By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin.  It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition. }}
<br />(b) {{citation|last=Chubb|first=Andrew|chapter=The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism|title=Crisis|editor1-last=Golley|editor1-first=Jane|editor2-last=Jaivan|editor2-first=Linda|editor3-last=Strange|editor3-first=Sharon|publisher=Australian National University Press|year=2021|pages=231–232|isbn=978-1-76046-439-4|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1crEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|quote=The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong's troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war's several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA's decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India's popular consciousness.}}
<br />(c) {{citation|last=Lintner|first=Bertil|title=China's India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-909163-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-L9DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT106|quote=Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China's ultimate victory in the war, Mao's ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent.}}
<br />(d) {{citation|last=Medcalf|first=Rory|title=Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world's pivotal|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-1-5261-5077-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|quote=From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru.}}
<br />(e) {{citation|last=Ganguly|first=Sumit|title=The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace|publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press|year=1997|page=44 |isbn=978-0-521-65566-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi66mjIqR1IC&pg=PA44|quote=In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru's foreign and defence policies.}}
<br />(f) {{citation|last=Raghavan|first=Srinath|chapter=A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960|title=India and the Cold War|editor-last=Bhagavan|editor-first=Manu|publisher=University of North Carolina Press |page=121|year=2019|isbn=978-1-4696-5117-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-yoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121|quote=The 'forward policy' adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow's stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India's humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962.}}</ref> This was followed by another military conflict in 1967 in which India successfully repelled Chinese attack.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brahma Chellaney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCmFAAAAMAAJ |title=Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan |date=2006 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-8172236502 |pages=195 |language=en |quote=Indeed, Beijing's acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces. |author-link=Brahma Chellaney}}</ref> India has had tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the third, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.{{sfn|Gilbert|2002|pp = 486–487}} In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'état attempt in the Maldives. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.{{sfn|Sharma|1999|p=56}}

Aside from its ongoing special relationship with Russia,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gvosdev |first1=N.K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ipzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA353 |title=Russian Foreign Policy: Interests, Vectors, and Sectors |last2=Marsh |first2=C. |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4833-1130-2 |page=353 |quote=Putin's visit to India in December 2012 for the yearly India–Russia summit saw both sides reaffirming their special relationship.}}</ref> India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the [[Organization:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] and the [[Organization:World Trade Organization|World Trade Organization]]. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the East Asia Summit, the [[Organization:G8+5|G8+5]], and other multilateral forums.{{sfn|Alford|2008}} India has close economic ties with countries in [[Earth:South America|South America]],<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Jorge Heine |last2=R. Viswanathan |date=Spring 2011 |title=The Other BRIC in Latin America: India |url=https://www.americasquarterly.org/india-latin-america |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115121/https://www.americasquarterly.org/india-latin-america |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=19 May 2017 |website=Americas Quarterly}}</ref> Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.{{sfn|Ghosh|2009|pp = 282–289}}{{sfn|Sisodia|Naidu|2005|pp = 1–8}}

{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 220|upright =
| align       = right
| image_style = border:none;
| image1      = Indian Air Force contingent as a part of the Bastille Day Parade of France, in Paris on July 14, 2009.jpg
| caption1    = The Indian Air Force contingent marching at the 221st Bastille Day military parade in Paris, on 14 July 2009. The parade at which India was the foreign guest was led by India's oldest regiment, the Maratha Light Infantry, founded in 1768.<ref name="guardian-muir-diary-maratha">{{Citation |last=Muir |first=Hugh |title=Diary |date=13 July 2009 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jul/14/bbc-peter-salmon-trevor-mcdonald |work=The Guardian |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019165743/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jul/14/bbc-peter-salmon-trevor-mcdonald |url-status=dead |quote="Members of the Indian armed forces have the plum job of leading off the great morning parade for Bastille Day. Only after units and bands from India's navy and air force have followed the Maratha Light Infantry will the parade be entirely given over to ... France's armed services." |archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref>
}}

China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.{{sfn|Perkovich|2001|pp = 60–86, 106–125}} India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.{{sfn|Kumar|2010}} India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine.{{sfn|Nair|2007}}{{sfn|Pandit|2009}} It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, a [[Engineering:HAL AMCA|fifth-generation fighter jet]].{{sfn|Pandit|2015}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Iyer-Mitra |first1=Abhijit |last2=Das |first2=Pushan |title=The Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft:A Technical Analysis |url=https://dhqxnzzajv69c.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/IssueBrief_105.pdf |access-date=17 October 2021 |website=Observer Research Foundation}}</ref> Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of ''Vikrant''-class aircraft carriers and ''Arihant''-class nuclear submarines.<ref name="Hindu 2011">{{Cite news |date=5 October 2011 |title=India, Russia Review Defence Ties |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2514142.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=8 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183650/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2514142.ece |archive-date=7 October 2011}}</ref>

Since the end of the [[History:Cold War|Cold War]], India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the United States and the European Union.{{sfn|European Union 2008}} In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the [[Organization:International Atomic Energy Agency|International Atomic Energy Agency]] and the [[Organization:Nuclear Suppliers Group|Nuclear Suppliers Group]], ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.{{sfn|The Times of India 2008}} India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2009}} France,{{sfn|Rediff 2008 a}} the United Kingdom,{{sfn|Reuters|2010}} and Canada.{{sfn|Curry|2010}}

{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220
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|align    = left
||image1=Modi Nieto Mexico June 2016.jpg|caption1=Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India (left, background) in talks with President Enrique Peña Nieto of Mexico during a visit to Mexico, 2016
}}
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.45&nbsp;million active troops, they compose the world's second-largest military. It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The official Indian [[Finance:List of countries by military expenditures|defence budget]] for 2011 was US$36.03&nbsp;billion, or 1.83% of GDP.{{sfn|Behera|2011}} Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12&nbsp;billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry wise Summary of Budget Provisions, 2022–23 |url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sumsbe.pdf |access-date=3 February 2022 |website=Ministry of Finance, Government of India}}</ref>{{sfn|Pandit|2022}} India is the world's second-largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.{{sfn|Pandit|2021}} Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Miglani|2011}} In May 2017, the [[Astronomy:Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation]] launched the [[Engineering:South Asia Satellite|South Asia Satellite]], a gift from India to its neighbouring SAARC countries.<ref name="Deccan Herald">{{Cite news |date=12 January 2015 |title=Isro-Saarc satellite to be a communication vehicle |work=Deccan Herald |agency=DH News Service |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/452938/isro-saarc-satellite-communication-vehicle.html |url-status=live |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628084201/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/452938/isro-saarc-satellite-communication-vehicle.html |archive-date=28 June 2015}}</ref> In October 2018, India signed a US$5.43&nbsp;billion (over {{INR|link=yes}}400&nbsp;billion) agreement with Russia to procure four S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence systems, Russia's most advanced long-range missile defence system.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 October 2018 |title=India Russia S-400 missile deal: All you need to know |work=The Times of India |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/india-russia-s-400-missile-deal-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/66066460.cms |url-status=live |access-date=9 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005130114/https://m.timesofindia.com/india/india-russia-s-400-missile-deal-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/66066460.cms |archive-date=5 October 2018}}</ref>

== Economy ==
<!--As a general rule, images should not be set to a larger fixed width than 220px (the initial base width), and if an exception to this general rule is warranted, the resulting image should usually be no more than 400px wide.-->
{{multiple image|direction= vertical|width= 220
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| image1      = Plowing the land in India - modern and traditional.jpg
| caption1    = A farmer in northwestern Karnataka ploughs his field with a tractor even as another in a field beyond does the same with a pair of oxen.  In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.<ref name="worldbank-ilo-total-agriculture">{{Citation |title=Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=false&view=map |work=The World Bank |year=2019 |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822193854/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS%3Fmost_recent_value_desc%3Dfalse%26view%3Dmap |url-status=live |archive-date=22 August 2019}}</ref>
| image3      = Women at work, Gujarat (cropped).jpg
| caption3    = Women tend to a recently planted rice field in Junagadh district in Gujarat. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.<ref name="worldbank-ilo-female-agriculture">{{Citation |title=Employment in agriculture, female (% of female employment) (modeled ILO estimate) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=false&view=map |work=The World Bank |year=2019 |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822193855/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS%3Fmost_recent_value_desc%3Dfalse%26view%3Dmap |url-status=live |archive-date=22 August 2019}}</ref>
| image2      = ILRI, Stevie Mann - Villager and calf share milk from cow in Rajasthan, India.jpg
| caption2    = India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle.  In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.<ref name="milk-sourcing">{{Citation |last=Kapoor |first=Rana |title=Growth in organised dairy sector, a boost for rural livelihood |date=27 October 2015 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/growth-in-organised-dairy-sector-a-boost-for-rural-livelihood/article7810689.ece# |work=Business Line |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720215652/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/growth-in-organised-dairy-sector-a-boost-for-rural-livelihood/article7810689.ece |url-status=live |quote="Nearly 80 per cent of India's milk production is contributed by small and marginal farmers, with an average herd size of one to two milching animals." |archive-date=20 July 2019}}</ref>
}}

According to the [[Organization:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), the Indian economy in 2022 was nominally worth $3.46&nbsp;trillion; it was the [[Finance:List of countries by GDP (nominal)|fifth-largest economy]] by market exchange rates and is, around $11.6&nbsp;trillion, the third-largest by [[Finance:Purchasing power parity|purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="GDP IMF">{{Cite web |date=October 2022 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,&sy=2018&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=21 November 2022 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[Organization:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,{{sfn|International Monetary Fund 2011a|p = 2}} India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.{{sfn|Nayak|Goldar|Agrawal|2010|p = xxv}} However, the country ranks 139th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 118th in GDP per capita at PPP.{{sfn|International Monetary Fund}} Until 1991, all Indian governments followed [[Finance:Protectionism|protectionist]] policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = xiv}} since then, it has moved increasingly towards a free-market system{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}}{{sfn|Gargan|1992}} by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.{{sfn|Alamgir|2008|pp = 23, 97}} India has been a member of [[Organization:World Trade Organization|World Trade Organization]] since 1 January 1995.{{sfn|World Trade Organization 1995}}

The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, {{As of|2017|lc=y}}.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances of US$100&nbsp;billion in 2022,<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 December 2022 |title=Remittances to India set to hit record $100bn this year, 25% higher than FDI flows |work=The times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/remittances-to-india-set-to-hit-record-100bn-this-year-25-higher-than-fdi-flows/articleshow/95894938.cms |access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref> highest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 November 2021 |title=India received $87 billion in remittances in 2021: World Bank |work=Business Standard |url=https://wap.business-standard.com/article-amp/economy-policy/india-received-87-billion-in-remittances-in-2021-world-bank-121111800329_1.html |access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref> Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;<ref>{{Citation |title=Exporters Get Wider Market Reach |date=28 August 2009 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Exporters-get-wider-market-reach/articleshow/4942892.cms?referral=PM |work=The Times of India |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912002353/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Exporters-get-wider-market-reach/articleshow/4942892.cms?referral=PM |url-status=live |archive-date=12 September 2014}}</ref> In 2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999–2019 |title=Trade Map: Trade statistics for international business development |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c1 |access-date=30 September 2022 |website=[[Organization:International Trade Centre|International Trade Centre]]}}</ref> Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and manufactured leather goods.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.{{sfn|Economist 2011}} India was the world's second-largest textile exporter after China in the 2013 calendar year.{{sfn|Economic Times 2014}}

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,{{sfn|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.{{sfn|Bonner|2010}} Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580&nbsp;million by 2030.{{sfn|Farrell|Beinhocker|2007}} Though ranking 68th in global competitiveness,<ref name="rank 2019">{{Cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |access-date=18 February 2022}}</ref> {{As of|2010|lc=y}}, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.{{sfn|Schwab|2010}} With seven of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, {{As of|2009|lc=y}}, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.{{sfn|Sheth|2009}} India is ranked 40th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref> India's consumer market, the world's eleventh-largest,{{As of?|date=August 2023}} is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.{{sfn|Farrell|Beinhocker|2007}}

Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$1,730 in 2016. It is expected to grow to US$2,466 by 2022.<ref name="IMFWEO.IN" /> However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.

{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 500
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| image1      = Bangalore Panorama edit1.jpg
| caption1    = A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy.  In the 1980s, when the first [[Finance:Multinational corporation|multinational corporation]]s began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.<ref name="ScottGarofoli2007">{{Citation |last1=Scott |first1=Allen J. |title=Development on the Ground: Clusters, Networks and Regions in Emerging Economies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUCUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA208 |page=208 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-98422-9 |last2=Garofoli |first2=Gioacchino}}</ref>
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According to a 2011 [[Company:PricewaterhouseCoopers|PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class.{{sfn|Hawksworth|Tiwari|2011}} The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.<ref>{{Citation |title=India Country Overview |date=September 2010 |url=https://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522115104/https://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195738~menuPK:295591~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]] |archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref>

According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the [[Company:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]] (EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: Bangalore (3rd), Mumbai (5th), Chennai (5th) and [[Place:New Delhi|New Delhi]] (8th).{{sfn|Economist 2017}}

=== Industries ===
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| image1            = Cherry Resort inside Temi Tea Garden, Namchi, Sikkim.jpg
| caption1          = A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world's second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.
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<!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Bombay Stock Exchange 3.jpg|thumb|alt=Street-level view looking up at a modern 30-story building.|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]], founded in 1875, is Asia's oldest stock exchange.<ref name="Armijo1999">{{Cite book |last=Echeverri-Gent |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOEYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-333-99489-4 |editor-last=L. Armijo |pages=211–232, 211 |chapter=India: Financial Globalization, Liberal Norms, and the Ambiguities of Democracy}}</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Infosys Leadership Institute.jpg|thumb|Infosys Leadership Institute in [[Mysuru]] built by India's [[Engineering:Information technology|information technology]] giant [[Company:Infosys|Infosys]].]]
|2=[[File:DelhiMetroBlueLineBombardier.jpg|thumb|Coaches of the [[Delhi Metro]] Blue Line, manufactured by Bombardier Transportation, Canada.]]
|3=[[File:A photo on power loom.JPG|thumb|Power Loom used inside a house in a village near [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]], Tamil Nadu. The Power loom accounts for more than 60% of textile production in India.]]
|4=[[File:Computerlabxaviers.jpg|thumb|A computer lab being conducted at [[St. Xavier's College, Kolkata]], September 2012]]
|5=[[File:Colourful vegetables.jpg|thumb|A vegetable retailer in the state of Tamil Nadu. Almost all the retail industry in India, which accounts for 10% of India's GDP, and 8% of its employment, belongs to the unorganised sector of individual and family-owned businesses.<ref name="BartlettBeamish2018">{{Citation |last=Bartlett |first=Christopher A. |title=Transnational Management: Text and Cases in Cross-Border Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAxMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |page=393 |year=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-52744-6 |last2=Beamish |first2=Paul W.}}</ref>]]
|6=[[File:Small Hydroelectric Dam on Ganges Canal at Nagla Kabir UP.jpg|thumb|A small hydro-electric dam on the [[Ganges Canal]] at Nagla Kabir, UP. The electricity sector in India has an installed capacity of 205.34 [[Gigawatt]] (GW), the world's fifth largest. Coal-fired plants account for 56% of India's electricity capacity, renewal [[Physics:Hydropower|hydropower]] for 19%.]]
|7=[[File:Cargo Ship leaving Diamong Harbour West Bengal.jpg|thumb|A [[feeder ship]] in Diamond Harbour, West Bengal. [[Finance:International trade|International trade]] accounted for 14% of India's GDP in 1988, 24% in 1998, and 53% in 2008. ]]
}}-->

India's telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world with over 1.2&nbsp;billion subscribers. It contributes 6.5% to India's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Telecom Industry – Telecom Sector, FDI, Opportunities |url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518111147/https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/telecom |archive-date=18 May 2021 |website=investindia.gov.in}}</ref> After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become the second-largest smartphone market in the world after China.<ref>{{Citation |last=Khan |first=Danish |title=Indian smartphone market grows 23% to overtake US in Q3; Samsung, Xiaomi drive shipments |date=28 October 2017 |url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=5 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031155522/https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/indian-smartphone-market-grows-23-to-overtake-us-in-q3-samsung-xiaomi-drive-shipments/61255184 |archive-date=31 October 2017}}</ref>

The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,{{sfn|Business Line 2010}} and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.{{sfn|Express India 2009}} In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 January 2023 |title=India beats Japan to become world's third-largest vehicle market |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/india-beats-japan-to-become-worlds-third-largest-vehicle-market/articleshow/96874402.cms |access-date=7 June 2023 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8&nbsp;million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100&nbsp;billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.{{sfn|Nasscom 2011–2012}}

The pharmaceutical industry in India emerged as a global player. As of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50—60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to {{USD}}24.44&nbsp;billions in exports and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to {{USD}}42&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Phamra1">{{Cite news |date=16 September 2021 |title=Indian Pharma: a strategic sector from 'Make in India' to 'Make and Develop in India' |work=The Financial Express (India) |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/health/indian-pharma-a-strategic-sector-from-make-in-india-to-make-and-develop-in-india/2331377/ |access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Pharma2">{{Cite web |date=12 October 2021 |title=Indian Pharmaceutical Industry |url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/pharmaceutical-india.aspx |access-date=18 October 2021 |website=India Brand Equity Foundation}}</ref> India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.<ref>Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Sector in India: sector briefing by the UK Trade and Investment 2011, utki.gov.uk</ref>{{sfn|Yep|2011}} The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from {{INR}}204.4&nbsp;billion (Indian rupees) to {{INR}}235.24&nbsp;billion (US$3.94&nbsp;billion at June 2013 exchange rates).<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2013 |title=Biotechnology in India – 2013 "biospectrum-able" Survey |url=https://www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223203715/https://www.differding.com/page/biotechnology_in_india_2013_biospectrum_able_survey/f1.html |archive-date=23 February 2014 |access-date=4 April 2014 |publisher=Differding.com}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.<ref name="Par">{{Cite web |date=1 August 2016 |title=India's Total Power Generation Capacity Crosses 300 GW Mark |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616181350/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indias-total-power-generation-capacity-crosses-300-gw-mark-1438906 |archive-date=16 June 2017 |access-date=17 October 2021 |publisher=NDTV}}</ref> The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable energy is competing strongly.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rowlatt |first=Justin |date=12 May 2020 |title=India's carbon emissions fall for first time in four decades |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-52614770 |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] per person per year, which is half the world average.<ref name="USAID2018">{{cite web|last=USAID|date=September 2018|title=Greenhouse Gas Emissions in India |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/India%20GHG%20Emissions%20Factsheet%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=10 June 2021|website=}}</ref><ref name="UNEP2019">{{cite web|last=UN Environment Programme |year=2019 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2019|url=https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2019|access-date=10 June 2021|website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme}}</ref> Increasing [[Physics:Electrification|access to electricity]] and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in India.<ref>{{cite web|title=India 2020 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/india-2020|access-date=3 December 2020|publisher=International Energy Agency|language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic challenges ===
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| caption1= Health workers about to begin another day of immunisation against infectious diseases in 2006.  Eight years later, and three years after India's last case of polio, the [[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] declared India to be polio-free.<ref name=who-chan-14-feb-2014>{{citation|last1=Chan|first1=Margaret |title=Address at the 'India celebrates triumph over polio' event|location=New Delhi, India|publisher=[[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]]|date=11 February 2014|url=https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-celebrates-polio-free-india|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref>
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Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the largest number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.<ref>{{citation|date=29 May 2006|title=Inclusive Growth and Service Delivery: Building on India's Success|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf|access-date=7 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514143037/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.<ref>{{citation|title=New Global Poverty Estimates – What It Means for India|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|url=https://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21880725~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|access-date=23 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506043711/https://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21880725~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html|archive-date=6 May 2012}}</ref> Under the World Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.{{efn|In 2015, the World Bank raised its international poverty line to $1.90 per day.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kenny|first1=Charles|last2=Sandefur|first2=Justin|title=Why the World Bank is changing the definition of the word "poor"|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/10/7/9465999/world-bank-poverty-line|publisher=[[Company:Vox Media|Vox]]|access-date=26 February 2017|date=7 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114175442/https://www.vox.com/2015/10/7/9465999/world-bank-poverty-line|archive-date=14 January 2017}}</ref>}}<ref name="WB2015">{{cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=IN|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|access-date=26 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215021227/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=IN|archive-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> 30.7% of India's children under the age of five are underweight.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's rank improves to 55th position on global hunger index|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indias-rank-improves-to-55th-position-on-global-hunger-index/articleshow/44802193.cms|date=13 October 2014|website=The Economic Times|access-date=18 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019030848/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-10-13/news/54970880_1_nutrition-mission-india-ghi|archive-date=19 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-is-home-to-194-million-hungry-people-un/article7255937.ece|title=India is home to 194 million hungry people: UN|author=Internet Desk|newspaper=The Hindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202044027/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-is-home-to-194-million-hungry-people-un/article7255937.ece|archive-date=2 December 2016|date=28 May 2015|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1184959/india-home-to-worlds-largest-number-of-hungry-people-report|title=India home to world's largest number of hungry people: report|website=Dawn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529132938/https://www.dawn.com/news/1184959/india-home-to-worlds-largest-number-of-hungry-people-report|archive-date=29 May 2015|date=29 May 2015|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref> The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.{{sfn|Drèze|Goyal|2008|p = 46}}

A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8&nbsp;million people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, [[Finance:Child labour|child labour]], human trafficking, and forced begging, among others.<ref name="Pandit 2018">{{cite web | last=Pandit | first=Ambika | title=modern slavery in india: 8 million people live in 'modern slavery' in India, says report; govt junks claim – India News | website=The Times of India | date=20 July 2018 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/8-million-people-live-in-modern-slavery-in-india-says-report-govt-junks-claim/articleshow/65060986.cms | access-date=28 May 2022}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1&nbsp;million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6&nbsp;million from 12.6&nbsp;million in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_557089.pdf|title=Child labour in India|publisher=International Labour Organization|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201030715/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_557089.pdf|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>

Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita [[Finance:Net domestic product|net state domestic product]] of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.{{sfn|Pal|Ghosh|2007}} Corruption in India is perceived to have decreased. According to the [[Social:Corruption Perceptions Index|Corruption Perceptions Index]], India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018 with a score of 41 out of 100, an improvement from 85th in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|first=Vidya|last=Ram|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-improves-its-ranking-on-corruption-index/article8159155.ece|title=India improves its ranking on corruption index|date=27 January 2016|work=Business Line|access-date=21 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820162154/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-improves-its-ranking-on-corruption-index/article8159155.ece|archive-date=20 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/files/content/pages/CPI_2018_Executive_Summary_EN.pdf |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2018 |website=transparency.org |publisher=Transparency International |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421141719/https://www.transparency.org/files/content/pages/CPI_2018_Executive_Summary_EN.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Epidemic and pandemic diseases have long been a major factor, including COVID-19 recently.<ref>David Arnold, ''Pandemic India: From Cholera to Covid-19'' (Oxford University Press, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58263 online review]</ref>

== Demographics, languages and religion ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 180
| align  = right
| title  = India by language
| image1 = South Asian Language Families.png|caption1 = The language families of South Asia
}}

With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report,{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}} India was the world's second-most populous country.{{efn|name=fnPopulation|According to estimates by the U. N. Population Division, India's population is expected to overtake China's sometime in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Schneider |first1=Mike |last2=Arasu |first2=Sibi |title=When exactly will India surpass China as most populous? |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-india-world-population-census-fertility-193b45b5ae69e7ce9f870f5ce60909d9 |work=AP News |date=10 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>}} Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=165}} compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=165}} The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}} The median age was 28.7 {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf|title=Population Of India (1951–2001)|website=Census of India|publisher=Ministry of Finance|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812042806/https://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf|archive-date=12 August 2011|access-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.{{sfn|Rorabacher|2010|pp = 35–39}}

The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, 68.7 years for men.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency}} There are around 93 physicians per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Physicians (per 1,000 people) – India|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=IN&most_recent_value_desc=true|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|year=2019|access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.{{sfn|Garg|2005}} Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.{{sfn|Dyson|Visaria|2005|pp = 115–129}}{{sfn|Ratna|2007|pp = 271–272}} The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.{{sfn|Chandramouli|2011}} According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai, [[Place:Delhi|Delhi]], [[Place:Kolkata|Kolkata]], Chennai, Bangalore, [[Place:Hyderabad|Hyderabad]] and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.<ref name="censusindia 2011">{{cite web | url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above | publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India | access-date=12 May 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017153124/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | archive-date=17 October 2013}}</ref> The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=163}} The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.{{sfn|Chandramouli|2011}} Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=163}}

{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Interior of San Thome Basilica.jpg|caption1=The interior of San Thome Basilica, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.  Christianity is believed to have been introduced to India by the late 2nd century by Syriac-speaking Christians.}}
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|0=[[File:Coal Miner 1980.JPG|thumb|upright|left|upright=1.2|A coal miner in [[Bachra]] colliery township in Jharkhand state. The number of years lost per 100,000 population attributable to particulate matter pollution in Jharkhand is 1093,<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019">{{cite journal|last1=Balakrishnan|first1=Kalpana|last2=Dey|first2=Sagnik|last3=Gupta|first3=Tarun|last4=Dhaliwal|first4=R S|last5=Brauer|first5=Michael|last6=Cohen|first6=Aaron J|last7=Stanaway|first7=Jeffrey D|last8=Beig|first8=Gufran|last9=Joshi|first9=Tushar K|last10=Aggarwal|first10=Ashutosh N|last11=Sabde|first11=Yogesh|last12=Sadhu|first12=Harsiddha|last13=Frostad|first13=Joseph|last14=Causey|first14=Kate|last15=Godwin|first15=William|last16=Shukla|first16=D K|last17=Kumar|first17=G Anil|last18=Varghese|first18=Chris M|last19=Muraleedharan|first19=Pallavi|last20=Agrawal|first20=Anurag|last21=Anjana|first21=R M|last22=Bhansali|first22=Anil|last23=Bhardwaj|first23=Deeksha|last24=Burkart|first24=Katrin|last25=Cercy|first25=Kelly|last26=Chakma|first26=Joy K|last27=Chowdhury|first27=Sourangsu|last28=Christopher|first28=D J|last29=Dutta|first29=Eliza|last30=Furtado|first30=Melissa|last31=Ghosh|first31=Santu|last32=Ghoshal|first32=Aloke G|last33=Glenn|first33=Scott D|last34=Guleria|first34=Randeep|last35=Gupta|first35=Rajeev|last36=Jeemon|first36=Panniyammakal|last37=Kant|first37=Rajni|last38=Kant|first38=Surya|last39=Kaur|first39=Tanvir|last40=Koul|first40=Parvaiz A|last41=Krish|first41=Varsha|last42=Krishna|first42=Bhargav|last43=Larson|first43=Samantha L|last44=Madhipatla|first44=Kishore|last45=Mahesh|first45=P A|last46=Mohan|first46=Viswanathan|last47=Mukhopadhyay|first47=Satinath|last48=Mutreja|first48=Parul|last49=Naik|first49=Nitish|last50=Nair|first50=Sanjeev|last51=Nguyen|first51=Grant|last52=Odell|first52=Christopher M|last53=Pandian|first53=Jeyaraj D|last54=Prabhakaran|first54=Dorairaj|last55=Prabhakaran|first55=Poornima|last56=Roy|first56=Ambuj|last57=Salvi|first57=Sundeep|last58=Sambandam|first58=Sankar|last59=Saraf|first59=Deepika|last60=Sharma|first60=Meenakshi|last61=Shrivastava|first61=Aakash|last62=Singh|first62=Virendra|last63=Tandon|first63=Nikhil|last64=Thomas|first64=Nihal J|last65=Torre|first65=Anna|last66=Xavier|first66=Denis|last67=Yadav|first67=Geetika|last68=Singh|first68=Sujeet|last69=Shekhar|first69=Chander|last70=Vos|first70=Theo|last71=Dandona|first71=Rakhi|last72=Reddy|first72=K Srinath|last73=Lim|first73=Stephen S|last74=Murray|first74=Christopher J L|last75=Venkatesh|first75=S|last76=Dandona|first76=Lalit|display-authors=5|title=The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017|journal=The Lancet Planetary Health|volume=3|issue=1|year=2019|pages=e26–e39|issn=2542-5196|doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4|pmid=30528905|pmc=6358127}}</ref> adding to India's public health burden.<ref name="BalakrishnanDey2019" />]]
|1=[[File:Cropped Tripuri.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Tripuri people|Tripuri]] children prepare for a dance in India's northeastern Tripura state.  The Tripuri, an ethnic group which speaks a Tibeto-Burman language, forms 30% of the state's population.<ref name="Kumāra2007">{{cite book |last=Kumāra|first=Braja Bihārī|title=Problems of ethnicity in the North-East India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTCJTIBHJHEC |access-date=11 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-464-6|pages=68–69|archive-date=14 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514231036/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTCJTIBHJHEC}}</ref> ]]
|2=[[File:Handicrafts seller.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Although [[Social:Hindi|Hindi]] is the official language of India, [[Social:Telugu language|Telugu]] is the official language of the state of Telangana, with [[Social:Urdu|Urdu]] its second official language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|title=Urdu is Telangana's second official language|date=16 November 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=27 February 2018|language=en-IN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227094158/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|archive-date=27 February 2018}}</ref> Shown here is a handicraft seller in [[Place:Hyderabad|Hyderabad]], Telangana]]
|3=[[File:Inde bondo8658a.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[Bonda people|Bondo]] woman walks to a weekly market in Chhattisgarh. The Bondo, among the Adivasi, or the indigenous peoples of India, speak a Munda language within the family of [[Social:Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic languages]].<ref name="Berger2015">{{citation|last=Berger|first=Peter|title=Feeding, Sharing, and Devouring: Ritual and Society in Highland Odisha, India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfReCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|date=17 February 2015|publisher=[[Company:De Gruyter|De Gruyter]]|isbn=978-1-61451-975-1|page=25}}</ref>]]
|4=[[File:Lady in Bundi, Rajasthan.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A woman from [[Bundi district]] in Rajasthan. The human sex ratio in India, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.{{sfn|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|p=160}}]]
|5=[[File:Sadhu Vârânasî .jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[Hindu]] ascetic in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh has the highest numbers of both Hindus and Muslims among all states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/497347/muslim-population-grew-faster-census.html|title=Muslim population grew faster: Census|website=Deccan Herald | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827035701/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/497347/muslim-population-grew-faster-census.html|archive-date=27 August 2015}}</ref> The population by religion in 2011 was Hindus 79.73%, Muslims 19.26%, others 1.01%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW09C-01%20MDDS.XLS|title=C1 – Population by religious community, Uttar Pradesh|work=2011 Census Data|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927145844/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW09C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=27 September 2015|access-date=10 September 2011}}</ref> ]]
}}-->
Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak [[Social:Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan languages]], the easternmost branch of the [[Social:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]]; 24% speak [[Social:Dravidian languages|Dravidian languages]], indigenous to [[Place:South Asia|South Asia]] and spoken widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% speak [[Social:Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic languages]] or the [[Social:Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan languages]]. India has no national language.{{sfn|Dharwadker|2010|pp = 168–194, 186}} [[Social:Hindi|Hindi]], with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.{{sfn|Ottenheimer|2008|p = 303}}{{sfn|Mallikarjun|2004}} [[Social:English language|English]] is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";{{sfn|Ministry of Home Affairs 1960}} it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism (79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others{{efn|name=remaining religions}} (0.9%).<ref name="Census2011religion">{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=C −1 Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> India has the third-largest Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/global-muslim-population-estimated-at-157-billion/article30568.ece|title=Global Muslim population estimated at 1.57&nbsp;billion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601012428/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/global-muslim-population-estimated-at-157-billion/article30568.ece|archive-date=1 June 2013|work=The Hindu|date=8 October 2009|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/2012ARChapters/india%202012%20two-pager.pdf|title=India Chapter Summary 2012|publisher=United States Commission on International Religious Freedom|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407100620/https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/2012ARChapters/india%202012%20two-pager.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2014|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;|align = right |image1=Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India.jpg|caption1=A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, Punjab }}

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|0=[[File:A Warli painting by Jivya Soma Mashe, Thane district.jpg|thumb|A [[Warli]] tribal painting by Jivya Soma Mashe from Thane, Maharashtra]]
|1=[[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|Seated Buddha; {{circa|{{CE|475}}}}; sandstone; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India). The Buddha's hands in the ''dharmachakra mudra'', a gesture of teaching, refer to his first sermon at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, where in 1905 the statue was rediscovered buried.]]
|2=[[File:Goswami Tulsidas Awadhi Hindi Poet.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] Hindi poet Tulsidas composed the ''[[Religion:Ramcharitmanas|Ramcharitmanas]]'', which is one of the best-known vernacular versions of the ''[[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]]''.]]
|3=[[File:Hampi Royal Area, Vijayanagara Empire, Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Hampi]], seat of the Vijayanagara Empire]]
|4=[[File:Mahabodhi Temple Bodh Gaya Bihar India.jpg|thumb|upright=.70|The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in Bodh Gaya, Bihar commemorates the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.]]
|5=[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|upright|A Chola bronze depicting Nataraja, who is seen as a cosmic "Lord of the Dance" and representative of [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]]]]
|6=[[File:Toda Hut.JPG|thumb|A [[Toda people|Toda]] tribal hut exemplifies Indian vernacular architecture.]]
}}-->
Indian cultural history spans more than {{nowrap|4,500 years}}.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 15}} During the Vedic period ({{Circa|{{BCE|1700}}|{{BCE|500}}}}), the foundations of [[Philosophy:Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophy]], [[Religion:Hindu mythology|mythology]], theology and [[Religion:Hindu texts|literature]] were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as ''[[Philosophy:Dharma|dhárma]]'', ''[[Philosophy:Karma|kárma]]'', ''[[Philosophy:Yoga|yóga]]'', and ''[[Philosophy:Moksha|mokṣa]]'', were established.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}} India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the ''[[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishads]]'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1969|pp = 3, 78}} the ''[[Religion:Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', the [[Philosophy:Bhakti|''Bhakti'' movement]],{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} and by [[Philosophy:Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist philosophy]].{{sfn|Nakamura|1999}}

=== Visual art ===
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of [[Earth:Eurasia|Eurasia]], especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to [[Place:Central Asia|Central]], [[Place:East Asia|East]] and South-East Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.<ref>Rowland, 185–198, 252, 385–466</ref> Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=14–16}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}} After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=46–47}} Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=35–46}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=67–70}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=22–24}} In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to [[Place:Central Asia|Central]], [[Place:East Asia|East]] and South-East Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=185–198, 252, 385–466}} Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing ''prana'' ("breath" or life-force).{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=22, 88}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=35, 99–100}} This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=18–19}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=151}}

Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=32–38}} or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=43–55}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=113–119}} In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=10–11}} Gupta art, at its peak {{circa|{{CE|300}}|{{CE|500}}}}, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=111–121}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=44–70}} Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after {{circa|{{CE|800}}}}, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=212–216}} But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=152–160}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=225–227}}

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=356–361}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=242–251}} Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=361–370}} The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=202–208}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=372–382, 400–406}} The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=222–243}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=384–397, 407–420}} As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|p=243}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|p=210}} In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban [[Social:Folk art|folk art]] from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=210–211}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=211}}
<!---Galleries of images are generally discouraged in summary articles as they cause undue weight to one particular section and may cause accessibility problems.--->
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg|Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from [[Place:Mathura|Mathura]], {{CE|2nd century}}
File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg|Gupta [[Chemistry:Terracotta|terracotta]] relief, [[Religion:Krishna|Krishna]] Killing the [[Biography:Keshi (demon)|Horse Demon Keshi]], 5th century
File:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg|Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (''trimurti'') of Shiva, {{convert|18|ft|m}} tall, {{circa|550}}
File:Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja).jpg|Chola bronze of [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]] as Nataraja ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century
File:Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign.jpg|''Jahangir Receives [[Biography:Shah Jahan|Prince Khurram]] at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign'', Balchand,  {{circa|1635}}
File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg|''Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids'', Kangra painting, 1775–1785
</gallery>

=== Architecture ===
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| image1            = Aks The Reflection Taj Mahal.jpg
| caption1          = The Taj Mahal from across the Yamuna river showing two outlying red sandstone buildings, a mosque on the right (west) and a ''jawab'' (response) thought to have been built for architectural balance
}}

Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|pp = 296–329}} Vernacular architecture is also regional in its flavours. ''[[Philosophy:Vastu shastra|Vastu shastra]]'', literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to [[Astronomy:Mamuni Mayan|Mamuni Mayan]],{{sfn|Silverman|2007|p = 20}} explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;{{sfn|Kumar|2000|p=5}} it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.{{sfn|Roberts|2004|p=73}} As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the ''[[Religion:Shilpa Shastras|Shilpa Shastras]]'', a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the ''Vastu-Purusha mandala'', a square that embodied the "[[Philosophy:Absolute|absolute]]".{{sfn|Lang|Moleski|2010|pp = 151–152}} The Taj Mahal, built in [[Place:Agra|Agra]] between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Mughal emperor [[Biography:Shah Jahan|Shah Jahan]] in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".{{sfn|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation}} Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.{{sfn|Chopra|2011|p = 46}}

=== Literature ===
The earliest literature in India, composed between {{BCE|1500}} and {{CE|1200}}, was in the [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] language.{{sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000}} Major works of [[Religion:Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit literature]] include the ''[[Religion:Rigveda|Rigveda]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|1500}}|{{BCE|1200}}}}), the [[Religion:Indian epic poetry|epics]]: ''[[Religion:Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|400}}}}) and the ''[[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|300}}}} and later); ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (''The Recognition of Śakuntalā'', and other dramas of Kālidāsa ({{circa|{{CE|5th century}}}}) and ''Mahākāvya'' poetry.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}}{{sfn|MacDonell|2004|pp=1–40}}{{sfn|Kālidāsa|Johnson|2001}} In Tamil literature, the [[Religion:Sangam literature|Sangam literature]] ({{circa|{{BCE|600}}|{{BCE|300}}}}) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1997|p = 12}}{{sfn|Hart|1975}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1985|pp=ix–x}}<ref>{{citation|title=Tamil Literature|year=2008|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Tamil-literature|access-date=12 February 2022<!--|quote=Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but Tamil literature proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the ''sangam'', or literary academy (see Sangam literature).-->}}</ref> From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets like [[Biography:Kabir|Kabīr]], Tulsīdās, and [[Biography:Guru Nanak|Guru Nānak]]. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.{{sfn|Das|2005}} In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher [[Biography:Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath Tagore]],{{sfn|Datta|2006}} who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.

=== Performing arts and media ===
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=180|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|caption1=India's National Academy of Performance Arts has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Kuchipudi shown here. }}
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|0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Bimbavati Devi (Manipuri) (5).jpg|thumb|upright|left|India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Performing Arts]], has recognised eight dance styles as ''classical''.  One such is Manipuri shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Kathakali; (d) Odissi; (e) Kuchipudi; (f) Sattriya; and (g) Mohiniyattam.]]
|1=[[File:Kathak Rounds (10)2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Kathak shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathakali; (c) Sattriya; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Mohiniyattam; and (g) Kuchipudi.]]
|2=[[File:Kathakali IMG 0289 by Joseph Lazercropped.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Kathakali shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Sattriya; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Mohiniyattam; and (g) Kuchipudi.]]
|3=[[File:Sattriya Dancer Krishnakshi Kashyap2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Sattriya shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Kathakali; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Mohiniyattam; and (g) Kuchipudi.]]
|4=[[File:Rekha Raju DS 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Mohiniyattam shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Kathakali; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Sattriya; and (g) Kuchipudi.]]
|5=[[File:Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Kuchipudi shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Kathakali; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Sattriya; and (g) Mohiniyattam.]]
|6=[[File:Odissi Performance DS.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Odissi shown here.  The others are: (a) Bharatanatyam; (b) Kathak; (c) Kathakali; (d) Manipuri; (e) Kuchipudi; (f) Sattriya; and (g) Mohiniyattam.]]
|7=[[File:Bharata Natyam Performance DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''.  One such is Bharatanatyam shown here.  The others are: (a) Kathak; (b) Kathakali; (c) Sattriya; (d) Manipuri; (e) Odissi; (f) Mohiniyattam; and (g) Kuchipudi.]]
}}-->
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and the southern Carnatic schools.{{sfn|Massey|Massey|1998}} Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the ''[[Unsolved:Baul|baul]]s'' is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are: ''bhangra'' of Punjab, ''bihu'' of Assam, ''Jhumair'' and ''chhau'' of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, ''garba'' and ''dandiya'' of Gujarat, ''ghoomar'' of Rajasthan, and ''lavani'' of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: ''bharatanatyam'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''kathak'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''kathakali'' and ''mohiniyattam'' of Kerala, ''kuchipudi'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''manipuri'' of Manipur, ''odissi'' of Odisha<!--Do not change this per WP:COMMONNAME.-->, and the ''sattriya'' of Assam.<ref>{{citation|title=South Asian Arts: Indian Dance|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65246/Indian-dance |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref>

Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.{{sfn|Lal|2004|pp = 23, 30, 235}} Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the ''bhavai'' of Gujarat, the ''jatra'' of West Bengal, the ''nautanki'' and ''ramlila'' of North India, ''tamasha'' of Maharashtra, ''burrakatha'' of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, ''terukkuttu'' of Tamil Nadu, and the ''yakshagana'' of Karnataka.{{sfn|Karanth|2002|p = 26}} India has a theatre training institute the National School of Drama (NSD) that is situated at [[Place:New Delhi|New Delhi]]. It is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of culture, Government of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|title=In step with the times: Chaman Ahuja on how the National School of Drama has evolved over the past 50 years|website=The Tribune|date=15 March 2009|access-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083957/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>
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|0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Sudheshna Bhattacharya (musée Guimet, Paris) (1).jpg|thumb|[[Sarod]] performance at the Musée Guimet, Paris]]
|1=[[File:Ravikiran 25 A.jpg|thumb|upright=1.55|South Indian (Carnatic) musical performance. From left to right: Guruvayur Dorai, mridangam; Ravi Balasubramanian, ghatam; Ravikiran, electric chitraveena; and Akkarai S. Subhalakshmi, [[Engineering:Violin|violin]]]]
|2=[[File:India - Actors - 0258.jpg|thumb|Actors at the [[avant-garde]] theatre Koothu-P-Pattarai in Chennai apply make up to each other in preparation for a performance.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news| last =Santhanam| first =Kausalya| title =Master of avant-garde theatre| newspaper =The Hindu| url =https://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| access-date =1 February 2009| date =21 September 2005| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121103201109/https://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| archive-date =3 November 2012| url-status =dead}}</ref>]]
|3=[[File:Plucked string instruments (5) Indian string instruments, Sarod, Sitar, Iktara - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|upright|Three plucked string instruments of Indian music, L to R, [[Sarod]], Sitar, which are used in North Indian classical music and the Iktara, lit. "one string instrument," commonly used in Indian folk music.]]
|4=[[File:Satyajit Ray with Ravi Sankar recording for Pather Panchali.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Film director [[Satyajit Ray]] (left) and sitar maestro Ravi Shankar discussing the musical score of the movie ''Pather Panchali'', which was to win Ray the ''Best Human Document'' award at the Cannes Film Festival in 1956,<ref name="Cooper2000">{{citation|last=Cooper|first=Darius|title=The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zCgk3ld8EMkC&pg=PA4|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62980-5|page=4}}</ref> and set in motion a career that led to an Academy Honorary Award in 1992.<ref name="Ganguly2010">{{citation|last=Ganguly|first=Keya|title=Cinema, Emergence, and the Films of Satyajit Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEOSyjLc4L8C&pg=PA26|year=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26216-4|page=26}}</ref> ]]
}}-->
The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.{{sfn|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}} Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu languages.{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1999|page = 652}} The Hindi language film industry (''Bollywood'') is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.<ref name="deloitte">{{cite web|url=https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/in-tmt-economic-contribution-of-motion-picture-and-television-industry-noexp.pdf|title=Economic Contribution of the Indian Motion Picture and Television Industry|publisher=[[Company:Deloitte|Deloitte]]|date=March 2014|access-date=21 April 2014}}</ref>

Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.{{sfn|Narayan|2013|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Kaminsky|Long|2011|pp = 684–692}} The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|pp = 1–10}} Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that {{As of|2012|lc=y}} there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462&nbsp;million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350&nbsp;million), radio (156&nbsp;million) or internet (37&nbsp;million).{{sfn|Hansa Research|2012}}

=== Society ===
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Muslims praying in mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir.jpg|caption1=Muslims offer ''[[Religion:Salah|namaz]]'' at a mosque in [[Place:Srinagar|Srinagar]], Jammu and Kashmir.}}
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as ''jātis'', or "castes".{{sfn|Schwartzberg|2011}} India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.

[[Philosophy:Family values|Family values]] are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though [[Social:Nuclear family|nuclear families]] are becoming common in urban areas.{{sfn|Makar|2007}} An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.{{sfn|Medora|2003}} Marriage is thought to be for life,{{sfn|Medora|2003}} and the divorce rate is extremely low,{{sfn|Jones|Ramdas|2005|p = 111}} with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054|title=What divorce and separation tell us about modern India|first=Soutik|last=Biswas|date=29 September 2016|access-date=18 October 2021|work=BBC News}}</ref> [[Social:Child marriage|Child marriage]]s are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.{{sfn|Cullen-Dupont|2009|p = 96}} Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63&nbsp;million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India's female electorate.<ref name="The Hindu_November_17_2019c">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/indias-missing-women/article5670801.ece |title=India's missing women|newspaper=The Hindu|date=10 February 2014|last1=Kapoor|first1=Mudit|last2=Shamika|first2=Ravi |access-date= 17 November 2019 |quote=In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the growth in the overall population, but, rather, of the fact that this dangerous trend has worsened with time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent}}</ref> According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.<ref name="The_Guardian_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/30/more-than-63-million-women-missing-in-india-statistics-show |title=More than 63 million women 'missing' in India, statistics show |newspaper=Associated Press via The Guardian |date= 30 January 2018 |access-date= 17 November 2019}} Quote: "More than 63 million women are "missing" statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government's annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that "families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born".</ref> Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.<ref name="Foreign_Policy_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/15/a-generation-of-girls-is-missing-in-india/ |title=A Generation of Girls Is Missing in India – Sex-selective abortion fuels a cycle of patriarchy and abuse.|newspaper=Foreign Policy |first=Ira|last=Trivedi |date=15 August 2019 |access-date= 17 November 2019}} Quote: "Although it has been illegal nationwide for doctors to disclose the sex of a fetus since the 1994 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, the ease of ordering cheap and portable ultrasound machines, especially online, has kept the practice of sex-selective abortions alive."</ref> The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.<ref>{{cite news|first=Dean|last=Nelson|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|title=Woman killed over dowry 'every hour' in India|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=10 February 2014|date=2 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323074436/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|archive-date=23 March 2014}}</ref> Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|title=Rising number of dowry deaths in India: NCRB|work=The Hindu|access-date=10 February 2014|first=Ignatius |last=Pereira|date=6 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207050439/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|archive-date=7 February 2014}}</ref>

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, [[Biology:Ganesh Chaturthi|Ganesh Chaturthi]], Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|title=Indian Festivals|website=sscnet.ucla.edu|publisher=[[Organization:University of California, Los Angeles|University of California, Los Angeles]] |access-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701222430/https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|archive-date=1 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Popular India Festivals |url=https://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |website=festivals.indobase.com |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728120656/https://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>

=== Education ===
[[File:47 Raika School - eating together (3384824242).jpg|thumb|right|220px|Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The salutation ''[[Jai Bhim]]'' written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader [[Biography:B. R. Ambedkar|B. R. Ambedkar]].]]
In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Rajni|last=Pathania|title=Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality|url=https://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf|volume=17|website=bangladeshsociology.org|publisher=Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology|date=January 2020|issue=1|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Dandapani|last=Natarajan|title=Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy|url=https://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|year=1971|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Latika|last=Chaudhary|title=Determinants of primary schooling in British India|journal=Journal of Economic History|date=March 2009|volume=69|pages=269–302|number=1|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231178962|doi=10.1017/S0022050709000400|s2cid=21620741}}</ref>

The education system of India is the world's second-largest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation|title=Study in India|website=studyinindia.gov.in|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges<ref name="highered1">{{cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms |title=HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=15 January 2019|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> and 1.5&nbsp;million schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home|title=UDISE+ Dashboard|website=dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in|publisher=Ministry of Education|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.<ref name=Sify>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=1475704|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220170624/https://www.sify.com/finance/india-achieves-27-decline-in-poverty-news-news-jegxaXgfcab.html|title=India achieves 27% decline in poverty|work=Press Trust of India via Sify.com|date=12 September 2008|archive-date=20 February 2014|access-date=18 October 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=N. Jayapalan|title=History of Education in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC|year=2005|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-7156-922-9}}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 360
| align       = right
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| image1      = India School.jpg
| caption1    = Women in sari at an adult literacy class in Tamil Nadu
| image2      = Water pump, Varanasi (15563170660) Cropped.jpg
| caption2    = A man in dhoti and wearing a woollen shawl, in Varanasi
}}
From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|p=26}}</ref> For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body's contours.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|pp=26–28}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| image1            = Strolling Shoppers in Paltan Bazaar.jpg
| caption1          = Women (from left to right) in churidars and kameez (with back to the camera), jeans and sweater, and pink Shalwar kameez<!-- a boy in kurta with chikan embroidery-->
}}

The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi sultanate ({{Circa|1300 CE}}) and then continued by the Mughal Empire ({{Circa|1525 CE}}).<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002">{{citation |last=Alkazi |first=Roshen |editor=Rahman, Abdur |title=India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-565789-0 |pages=464–484 |chapter=Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times}}</ref> Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002" /> In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002" />

Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.<ref name="StevensonWaite2011">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1272|year=2011|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|access-date=3 September 2019|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=1272}}</ref> The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,<ref name="StevensonWaite2011-b">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA774|year=2011|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=774}}</ref> its side seams left open below the waist-line.<ref>{{citation|url=https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|author=Platts, John T. (John Thompson)|title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English|location=London|page=418|publisher=W. H. Allen & Co.|year=1884|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224204345/https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|url-status=dead}} (online; updated February 2015)</ref> The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.<ref name="Shukla2015">{{citation|last=Shukla|first=Pravina|title=The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlObCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|year=2015|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-02121-2|page=71}}</ref>

In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.<ref name="Dwyer2014">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|title=Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqwBBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244|year=2014|publisher=Reaktion Books| isbn=978-1-78023-304-8|pages=244–245}}</ref> The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,<ref name="BruzziGibson2013">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|editor=Stella Bruzzi, Pamela Church Gibson|title=Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYGMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA178|year=2013|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-136-29537-9|pages=178–189|chapter=Bombay Ishtyle}}</ref>
is seldom seen in the cities.<ref name="Dwyer2014" />

=== Cuisine ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 1/2|total_width = 180
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| image2      = Odia Mutton Curry (Mansha Tarkari) Rotated.jpg
| caption2    = Railway mutton curry from Odisha
| image1      = South Indian Thali Cropped.jpg
| caption1    = South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter
}}
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409|year=2014|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=409}}</ref> The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry;<ref name="Davidson2014-p161">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2014|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=161|quote=Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.}}</ref> the idli, a steamed breakfast cake, or dosa, a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and [[Biology:Vigna mungo|gram]] meal.<ref name=tamang-yeast-idlidosa>{{citation|last1=Tamang|first1=J. P.|last2=Fleet|first2=G. H.|editor1-last=Satyanarayana|editor1-first=T.|editor2-last=Kunze|editor2-first=G.|chapter=Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages|title=Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications|publisher=Springer|page=180|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4020-8292-4|quote=Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.}}</ref> The savoury dishes might include [[Biology:Lentil|lentil]]s, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and [[Biology:Garlic|garlic]], but also with a combination of spices that may include [[Biology:Coriander|coriander]], [[Biology:Cumin|cumin]], [[Biology:Turmeric|turmeric]], [[Biology:Cinnamon|cinnamon]], cardamon and others as informed by culinary conventions.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409" /> They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.<ref name=jhala-princely-biryani>{{citation|last=Jhala|first=Angma Day|title=Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India|publisher=Routledge|page=70|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-31657-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70|quote=With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, 'architecture and cuisine' were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan),  and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.}}</ref>

A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409" />

[[File:Making Khameeri Roti in Tandoor in Turkman Gate Old Delhi.webm|thumb|left|180px|A tandoor chef in the [[Turkman Gate]], Old Delhi, makes Khameeri roti (a Muslim-influenced style of leavened bread).<ref name="Panjabi1995">{{citation|last=Panjabi|first=Camellia|title=The Great Curries of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYCFJMLZ_-4C&pg=PA158|year=1995|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-80383-8|pages=158–|quote=The Muslim influenced breads of India are leavened, like ''naan'', ''Khamiri roti'', ...}}</ref>]]
India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410|year=2014|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=410}}</ref> The appearance of ''[[Philosophy:Ahimsa|ahimsa]]'', or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially [[Religion:Upanishads|Upanishadic Hinduism]], [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]] and [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jainism]], is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the [[Social:Hindi|Hindi]]-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410" /> Although meat is eaten widely in India,  the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.<ref name="SahakianSaloma2016-50">{{citation|last1=Sahakian|first1=Marlyne|last2=Saloma|first2=Czarina|last3=Erkman|first3=Suren|title=Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|year=2016|publisher=[[Company:Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-31050-1|page=50}}</ref> Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.<ref name="OECDNations2018">{{citation|author1=OECD|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuBiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2018|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-06203-0|page=21}}</ref>

The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf,{{sfn|Roger|2000}} developed in the Abbasid caliphate,<ref name=sengupta-74>{{citation|last=Sengupta|first=Jayanta |editor=Freedman, Paul |editor2=Chaplin, Joyce E. |editor3=Albala, Ken |title=Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNQkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|year=2014|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-27745-8|page=74|chapter=India}}</ref> and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007">{{citation|last=Collingham|first=Elizabeth M.|title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH88DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2007|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-532001-5|page=25}}</ref> To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007" /> Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian biryani,<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007" /> a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.<ref name=nandy2004>{{citation|last1=Nandy|first1=Ashis|author-link=Ashis Nandy|title=The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes|journal=South Asia Research|volume=24|issue=1|year=2004
|pages=9–19|issn=0262-7280|doi=10.1177/0262728004042760|citeseerx=10.1.1.830.7136|s2cid=143223986}}</ref> In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the [[Engineering:Tandoor|tandoor]] oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition of India.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410" />

=== Sports and recreation ===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg
| caption1 = Girls play hopscotch in Jaora, Madhya Pradesh.  Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref>
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Several traditional indigenous sports such as ''kabaddi'', ''kho kho'', ''pehlwani'' and ''gilli-danda'', and also [[Social:Indian martial arts|martial arts]] such as ''Kalarippayattu'' and ''marma adi'', remain popular. Chess is commonly held to have originated in India as ''chaturaṅga'';{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 2}} in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Indian grandmasters.{{sfn|Rediff 2008 b}} Viswanathan Anand became the Chess World Champion in 2007 and held the status until 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |title=Candidates' R13: Anand Draws, Clinches Rematch with Carlsen |access-date=14 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111220728/https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |archive-date=11 January 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Parcheesi is derived from ''Pachisi'', another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.{{sfn|Binmore|2007|p = 98}}

Cricket is the most popular sport in India.<ref>{{citation|last=Shores|first=Lori|title=Teens in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|access-date=24 July 2011|date=15 February 2007|publisher=Compass Point Books|isbn=978-0-7565-2063-2|page=78|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617050252/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|archive-date=17 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Major domestic leagues include the Indian Premier League.  Professional leagues in other sports include the Indian Super League (football) and the Pro Kabaddi league.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 September 2021|title=From IPL to ISL, sports leagues in India to watch out for|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/sports/from-ipl-to-isl-sports-leagues-in-india-to-watch-out-for/2337628/|access-date=3 December 2021|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Super League: Odisha president says sacking Stuart Baxter was 'the only course of action'|url=https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11995/12207157/indian-super-league-odisha-president-says-sacking-stuart-baxter-was-the-only-course-of-action|access-date=3 December 2021|publisher=Sky Sports}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=6 August 2014|title=Kabaddi gets the IPL treatment|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-28660432|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Sachin Tendulkar about to score 14000th run in test cricket.jpg|thumb|upright=2|left|Indian [[cricket]]er Sachin Tendulkar about to score a record 14,000 runs in Test cricket while playing against Australia in Bangalore, 2010]]
India has won two Cricket World Cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition, as well as becoming the inaugural T20 World Cup Champions in 2007. India has also won the Champions Trophy twice, in 2002 and 2013. The only edition of the World Championship of Cricket was won by India in 1985. 

India also has eight field hockey gold medals in the summer olympics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/other-sports/story/independence-day-india-at-70-cricket-football-hockey-kabaddi-1029624-2017-08-14|title=What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?|website=India Today}}</ref>
The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.{{sfn|Futterman|Sharma|2009}} India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the [[Social:Olympic Games|Olympics]], the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.{{sfn|Commonwealth Games 2010}}{{sfn|Cyriac|2010}} Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a}} (Saina Nehwal and P. V. Sindhu are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing,{{sfn|Mint 2010}} and wrestling.{{sfn|Xavier|2010}} Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.{{sfn|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|pp = 1–5}}
<!---
{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}}
|0=[[File:Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg|thumb|left|Girls play hopscotch in Juara, Madhya Pradesh.  Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.}}<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref>]]
|1=[[File:Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg|thumb|left|Indian hockey team, captained by [[Dhyan Chand]] (standing second from left), after winning the finals at the 1936 Summer Olympics – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds.]]
|2=[[File:Sania Mirza during her first round match with Virginie Razzano, Day 2 of Wimbledon 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sania Mirza]] is an Indian professional tennis player, a former world No. 1 in doubles, who has won six Grand Slam titles in her career.}}<ref name=No1ranking>{{cite news|title=Hingis and Mirza win. Mirza becomes No. 1|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|access-date=19 April 2015|publisher=Women's Tennis Association|date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415000115/https://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|archive-date=15 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> She is shown here at Wimbledon, 2011.]]
|3=[[File:Kabaddi in Bagepalli Karnataka.jpg|thumb|left|A game of ''kabaddi'' in [[Bagepalli]], Karnataka]]
|4= [[File:Joueursindienspushkar.jpg|thumb|left|A street-corner game of ''pachisi'' in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan]]
|5=[[File:Street Cricket Batter India.jpg|thumb|left|Cricket is the most popular sport in India.<ref name="HongMangan2005">{{citation|last1=Hong|first1=Fan|last2=Mangan|first2=J.A.|title=Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0iQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA306|year=2005|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-76043-4|page=306}}</ref> Shown here is an example of street cricket.]]
|6=[[File:Viswanathan Anand 08 14 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Indian chess grandmaster and former world champion [[Vishwanathan Anand]] competes at a chess tournament in 2005. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in India in the 5th century CE.]]
|7=[[File:XIX Commonwealth Games-2010 Delhi Indian shuttler Saina Nehwal in action against her Barbados opponent during their match in the preliminary round of badminton event, at Sirifort Sports Complex, in New Delhi.jpg|left|thumb|Saina Nehwal is the only Indian female to have become world number one in badminton]]
}}-->

India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, 2011 and 2023 Cricket World Cup tournaments (and is also scheduled to host it in 2031); the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; the 2009 World Badminton Championships; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; the 2010 Commonwealth Games; the 2016 T20 World Cup; and the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Maharashtra Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The first Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.{{sfn|Dehejia|2011}} India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games. An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where the Indian team won four out of five tournaments to date.<ref>{{cite news |title=Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games |url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Jan-2010/basketball-team-named-for-11th-south-asian-games |access-date=23 November 2019 |work=The Nation |publisher=Nawaiwaqt Group |date=2 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202035448/https://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/lahore/02-Jan-2010/Basketball-team-named-for-11th-South-Asian-Games |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* Administrative divisions of India
* Outline of India

{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist|refs={{efn|name=remaining religions|Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011 Census were "Other religions and persuasions" (0.65%) and "Religion not stated" (0.23%).}}|33em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
'''Overview'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|title=India|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=10 July 2021|ref={{sfnRef|Central Intelligence Agency}}}}
* {{citation|date=December 2004|title=Country Profile: India|edition=5th|work=Library of Congress Country Studies|publisher=Library of Congress Federal Research Division|url=https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927131058/https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2011|access-date=30 September 2011|url-status=dead|ref={{sfnRef|Library of Congress|2004}}}}
* {{citation|last1=Heitzman|first1=James|last2=Worden|first2=Robert L.|year=1996|title=India: A Country Study|series=Area Handbook Series|publisher=Library of Congress|place=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-8444-0833-0|url=https://archive.org/details/indiacountrystud0000unse}}
* {{citation|title=India|publisher=[[Organization:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]]|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=534&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=88&pr1.y=9|access-date=14 October 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund}}}}
* {{citation|title=Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India|publisher=Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html|ref={{sfnRef|Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India}}|access-date=18 October 2021}}
* Robinson, Francis, ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives'' (1989)
* {{citation|date=24 January 1950|title=Constituent Assembly of India – Volume XII|publisher=National Informatics Centre, Government of India|url=https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm |access-date=17 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Constituent Assembly of India|1950}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721173243/https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm|archive-date=21 July 2011}}
{{refend}}

'''Etymology'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Barrow |first=Ian J. |title=From Hindustan to India: Naming change in changing names |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=26 |pages=37–49 |number=1 |year=2003 |doi=10.1080/085640032000063977|s2cid=144039519}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clémentin-Ojha |first=Catherine |title='India, that is Bharat…': One Country, Two Names |journal=South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal |volume=10 |year=2014 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/samaj/3717 |archive-date=28 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928035644/https://samaj.revues.org/3717}}
* {{cite book |last=Thieme |first=P. |chapter=Sanskrit ''sindu-/Sindhu-'' and Old Iranian ''hindu-/Hindu-'' |editor1=Mary Boyce |editor2=Ilya Gershevitch |year=1970 |title=W. B. Henning Memorial Volume |publisher=Lund Humphries |isbn=978-0-85331-255-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3UBAAAAMAAJ}}
{{refend}}

'''History'''
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* {{citation|last=Ludden|first=D.|year=2002|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-85168-237-9}}
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* {{citation|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|year=2017|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-98128-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Sripati|first=V.|year=1998|title=Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950–2000)|journal=American University International Law Review |volume=14 |issue=2|pages=413–496}}
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|year=1998|title=A History of India |publisher=[[Company:Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley-Blackwell]]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC}}
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* {{citation|last=Witzel|first=Michael|editor=Gavin D. Flood|title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C|access-date=15 March 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|chapter=Vedas and Upanișads}}
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{{refend}}

'''Geography'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last1=Ali|first1=J. R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=J. C.|year=2005|title=Greater India|journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]]|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=170–173|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A}}
* {{citation|last1=Basu|first1=Mahua|last2=Xavier|first2=Savarimuthu|year=2017|title=Fundamentals of Environmental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-87051-8}}
* {{citation|last=Chang|first=J. H.|year=1967|title=The Indian Summer Monsoon|periodical=[[Earth:Geographical Review|Geographical Review]]|volume=57|issue=3|pages=373–396|doi=10.2307/212640|jstor=212640|publisher=[[Organization:American Geographical Society|American Geographical Society]], Wiley}}
* {{citation|year=1988 |title=Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with Amendments Made in 1988 |publisher=Department of Environment and Forests, Government of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands |url=https://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf |access-date=25 July 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Department of Environment and Forests|1988}} |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163118/https://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf}}
* {{citation|last1=Dikshit|first1=K. R.|last2=Schwartzberg|first2=Joseph E.|title=India: Land|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=2023 |pages=1–29}}
* {{citation|last=Duff|first=D.|year=1993|title=Holmes Principles of Physical Geology|edition=4th|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-7487-4381-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT353}}
* {{citation|last=Kaul|first=R. N.|editor-last=Kaul|editor-first=R. N.|year=1970|chapter=The Indian Subcontinent: Indo-Pakistan|title=Afforestation in Arid Zones|isbn=978-94-010-3352-7|location=The Hague|publisher=Dr. W. Junk, N.V., Publishers}}
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* {{citation|year=2007|title=India Yearbook 2007|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-230-1423-4|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting|2007}}}}
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* {{citation|last=Prasad|first=Ishwar|editor-last=Mani|editor-first=M. S.|year=1974|chapter=The Ecology of Vertebrates of the Indian Desert|title=Ecology and Biogeography in India|location=The Hague|publisher=Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers|isbn=978-94-010-2333-7}}
{{refend}}

'''Biodiversity'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Basak|first=R. K.|year=1983|title=Botanical Survey of India: Account of Its Establishment, Development, and Activities|publisher=India. Department of Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXAVcgAACAAJ|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Crame|first1=J. A.|last2=Owen|first2=A. W.|year= 2002|title=Palaeobiogeography and Biodiversity Change: The Ordovician and Mesozoic–Cenozoic Radiations|series=Geological Society Special Publication|issue=194|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=978-1-86239-106-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YswVy5YolYsC&pg=PA142|access-date=8 December 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Karanth|first1=K. Ullas|last2=Gopal|first2=Rajesh |editor=Rosie Woodroffe |editor2=Simon Thirgood |editor3=Alan Rabinowitz |year=2005 |title=People and Wildlife, Conflict Or Co-existence? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vNzRzcjntAC|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53203-7|chapter=An ecology-based policy framework for human-tiger coexistence in India}}
* {{citation|last=Karanth|first=K. P.|year=2006|title=Out-of-India Gondwanan Origin of Some Tropical Asian Biota|journal=Current Science|volume=90|issue=6|pages=789–792 |url=https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223533/https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Mace|first=G. M.|date= 1994|title=1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals |work=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|publisher=[[Organization:International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature]] |isbn=978-2-8317-0194-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyy0HilL9ecC&pg=PR4}}
* {{citation|last=Tritsch|first=M. F.|year=2001|title=Wildlife of India|publisher=HarperCollins|place=London|isbn=978-0-00-711062-9|url=https://archive.org/details/wildlifeofindia0000trit}}
* {{citation|title=Biosphere Reserves of India|work=C. P. R. Environment Education Centre|publisher=Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India |url=https://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm|access-date=17 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Environment and Forests}}|archive-date=25 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725202217/http://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=9 September 1972|title=Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972|publisher=Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India |url=https://envfor.nic.in/legis/wildlife/wildlife1.html|access-date=25 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Environment and Forests 1972}}}}
* {{citation|date=4 June 2007|title=The List of Wetlands of International Importance|publisher=The Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands|page=18|url=https://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf|access-date=20 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621011113/https://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf |archive-date=21 June 2007|ref={{sfnRef|Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands}}}}
{{refend}}

'''Politics'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Banerjee|first1=Sumanta|title=Civilising the BJP|journal=Economic & Political Weekly|date=22 July 2005|volume=40|issue=29|pages=3116–3119|jstor=4416896}}
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* {{citation|agency=Press Trust of India|date=16 May 2009|title=Second UPA Win, A Crowning Glory for Sonia's Ascendancy|url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/news/second-upa-wincrowning-glory-for-sonia%5Cs-ascendancy/61892/on |access-date=13 June 2009 |ref={{sfnRef|Business Standard|2009}}|newspaper=Business Standard India|last1=India |first1=Press Trust of }}
* {{citation|last=Chander|first=N. J.|year=2004|title=Coalition Politics: The Indian Experience|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-092-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_QtMGIczhMC&pg=PA117|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Dunleavy|first1=P.|last2=Diwakar|first2=R.|last3=Dunleavy|first3=C.|year=2007|title=The Effective Space of Party Competition|issue=5|publisher=[[Organization:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]] and Political Science |url=https://www2.lse.ac.uk/government/research/resgroups/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf|access-date=27 September 2011|archive-date=28 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028005708/https://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/government/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Dutt|first=S.|year=1998|title=Identities and the Indian State: An Overview|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=19|issue=3|pages=411–434|doi=10.1080/01436599814325}}
* {{citation|last=Echeverri-Gent|first=J.|editor-last=Ayres|editor-first=A.|editor2-last=Oldenburg|editor2-first=P.|date=January 2002|title=Quickening the Pace of Change|chapter=Politics in India's Decentred Polity|series=India Briefing|publisher=[[Company:M. E. Sharpe|M. E. Sharpe]]|place=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiabriefingqui0000unse/page/19 19–53]|isbn=978-0-7656-0812-3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/indiabriefingqui0000unse/page/19}}
* {{citation|date=14 March 2009|title=Current Recognised Parties|work=Election Commission of India|url=https://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/Symbols_Sep_2009.pdf|access-date=5 July 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Election Commission of India}}}}
* {{citation|last=Gledhill|first=A.|year=1970|title=The Republic of India: The Development of its Laws and Constitution|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-8371-2813-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHAjPQAACAAJ|access-date=21 July 2011}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Malik|first1=Yogendra K.|last2=Singh|first2=V. B.|title=Bharatiya Janata Party: An Alternative to the Congress (I)?|journal=Asian Survey|date=April 1992|volume=32|issue=4|pages=318–336 |jstor=2645149 |doi=10.2307/2645149}}
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* {{citation|title=National Symbols|work=Know India|publisher=National Informatics Centre, Government of India|url=https://www.india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols|access-date=18 April 2021|ref={{sfnRef|National Informatics Centre|2005}}|url-status=live|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418054958/https://www.india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols}}
* {{citation|last=Neuborne|first=Burt|year=2003|title=The Supreme Court of India|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=1|issue=3|pages=476–510|doi=10.1093/icon/1.3.476|doi-access=free}}
* {{citation|last=Pylee|first=M. V.|year=2003a|title=Constitutional Government in India|chapter=The Longest Constitutional Document|edition=2nd|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=978-81-219-2203-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C}}
* {{citation|last=Pylee|first=M. V.|year=2003b|title=Constitutional Government in India|chapter=The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court|edition=2nd|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=978-81-219-2203-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA314|access-date=2 November 2007}}
* {{citation|last=Sarkar|first=N. I.|title=Sonia Gandhi: Tryst with India|year=2007|publisher=Atlantic|isbn=978-81-269-0744-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26flsWUf8fkC|access-date=20 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Sharma|first=R.|year=1950|title=Cabinet Government in India|journal=Parliamentary Affairs|volume=4|issue=1|pages=116–126|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pa.a052755}}
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* {{citation|title=World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day|publisher=United Nations Population Division |ref={{sfnRef|United Nations Population Division}} |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/pubsarchive/india/ind1bil.htm|access-date=5 October 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Wheare|first=K. C.|year= 1980|title=Federal Government|edition=4th|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-313-22702-8|url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen00whearich}}
{{refend}}

'''Foreign relations and military'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Alford|first=P.|date=7 July 2008|title=G8 Plus 5 Equals Power Shift|work=The Australian|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/g8-plus-5-equals-power-shift/story-e6frg6t6-1111116838759|access-date=21 November 2009}}
* {{citation|last=Behera|first=L. K.|date=7 March 2011|title=Budgeting for India's Defence: An Analysis of Defence Budget 2011–2012|publisher=Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|url=https://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/BudgetingforIndiasDefence2010-11_lkbehera_030310.html|access-date=4 April 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Behera|first=L. K.|date=20 March 2012|title=India's Defence Budget 2012–13|publisher=Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|url=https://www.defencereviewasia.com/articles/169/India-s-Defence-Budget-2012-13|access-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215014403/https://www.defencereviewasia.com/articles/169/India-s-Defence-Budget-2012-13|archive-date=15 December 2012|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=11 February 2009|title=Russia Agrees India Nuclear Deal|work=BBC News|publisher=BBC|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7883223.stm|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|British Broadcasting Corporation 2009}}}}
* {{citation|last=Curry|first=B.|date=27 June 2010|title=Canada Signs Nuclear Deal with India|work=The Globe and Mail|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/|access-date=13 May 2011|archive-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115702/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|date=8 April 2008|title=EU-India Strategic Partnership|work=Europa: Summaries of EU Legislation|url=https://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/asia/r14100_en.htm|access-date=14 January 2011|publisher=[[Social:European Union|European Union]]|ref={{sfnRef|European Union 2008}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503194700/https://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/asia/r14100_en.htm|archive-date=3 May 2011|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Ghosh|first=A.|title=India's Foreign Policy|year= 2009|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-81-317-1025-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y32u4JMroQgC}}
* {{citation|last=Gilbert|first=M.|year=2002|title=A History of the Twentieth Century|publisher=William Morrow|isbn=978-0-06-050594-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhwY1j8Ao3kC&pg=PA486|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Kumar|first=A. V.|date=1 May 2010|title=Reforming the NPT to Include India|work=[[Physics:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]|url=https://thebulletin.org/reforming-npt-include-india|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407061019/http://thebulletin.org/reforming-npt-include-india|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Miglani|first=S.|date=28 February 2011|title=With An Eye on China, India Steps Up Defence Spending|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-budget-military-idUSSGE71R02Y20110228|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-date=2 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110502153348/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/28/india-budget-military-idUSSGE71R02Y20110228|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|last=Nair|first=V. K.|year=2007|title=No More Ambiguity: India's Nuclear Policy|website=afsa.org|url=https://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|access-date=7 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041401/https://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}
* {{citation|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=27 July 2009|title=N-Submarine to Give India Crucial Third Leg of Nuke Triad|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-27/india/28212143_1_nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arihant-nuclear-submarine|access-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811144548/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-27/india/28212143_1_nuclear-powered-submarine-ins-arihant-nuclear-submarine|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=8 January 2015|title=Make-in-India: Plan to develop 5th-generation fighter aircraft|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Make-in-India-Plan-to-develop-5th-generation-fighter-aircraft/articleshow/45802270.cms|access-date=17 October 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311162056/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Make-in-India-Plan-to-develop-5th-generation-fighter-aircraft/articleshow/45802270.cms|archive-date=11 March 2015}}
* {{cite news|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=16 March 2021|title=India's weapon imports fell by 33% in last five years but remains world's second-largest arms importer|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/indias-weapon-imports-fell-by-33-in-last-five-years-but-remains-worlds-second-largest-arms-importer/amp_articleshow/81516403.cms|access-date=3 February 2022}}
* {{cite news|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=1 February 2022|title=Strong push for indigenous weapons amidst modest hike in defence budget|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/strong-push-for-indigenous-weapons-amidst-modest-hike-in-defence-budget/amp_articleshow/89275344.cms|access-date=3 February 2022}}
* {{citation|last=Perkovich|first=G.|year=2001|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDA9dUryS8EC|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|date=25 January 2008|title=India, France Agree on Civil Nuclear Cooperation|publisher=Rediff|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jan/25france.htm|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Rediff 2008 a}}}}
* {{citation|date=13 February 2010|title=UK, India Sign Civil Nuclear Accord|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-britain-nuclear-idUSTRE61C21E20100213?type=politicsNews|access-date=22 August 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Reuters|2010}}|archive-date=12 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512181522/https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/13/us-india-britain-nuclear-idUSTRE61C21E20100213?type=politicsNews|url-status=live}}
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* {{citation|last=Sharma|first=S. R.|year=1999|title=India–USSR Relations 1947–1971: From Ambivalence to Steadfastness|volume=1|publisher=Discovery|isbn=978-81-7141-486-4<!--8171414869-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTEge1JWK8oC}}
* {{citation|last=Shukla|first=A.|date=5 March 2011|title=China Matches India's Expansion in Military Spending|url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/news/china-matches-india%5Cs-expansion-in-military-spending/427365/|access-date=6 July 2011|newspaper=Business Standard India}}
* {{citation|last1=Sisodia|first1=N. S.|last2=Naidu|first2=G. V. C.|year=2005|title=Changing Security Dynamic in Eastern Asia: Focus on Japan|publisher=Promilla|isbn=978-81-86019-52-8<!--8186019529-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSgfLG3Ib9wC}}
* {{citation|year= 2008|title=SIPRI Yearbook 2008: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security|work=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-954895-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAyQ9KCJE2gC&pg=PA178|access-date=22 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2008}}}}
* {{citation|date=19 March 2012|title=Rise in international arms transfers is driven by Asian demand, says SIPRI|work=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|url=https://www.sipri.org/media/pressreleases/2012/rise-in-international-arms-transfers-is-driven-by-asian-demand-says-sipri|access-date=5 April 2016|ref={{sfnRef|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2012}}}}
* {{citation|date=11 October 2008|title=India, US Sign 123 Agreement|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-11/india/27905286_1_indian-nuclear-market-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-field|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107021602/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-11/india/27905286_1_indian-nuclear-market-sign-landmark-civil-nuclear-field|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 November 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|The Times of India 2008}}}}
{{refend}}

'''Economy'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Alamgir|first=J.|year=2008|title=India's Open-Economy Policy: Globalism, Rivalry, Continuity|publisher=[[Company:Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-415-77684-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JL7QfWJ5Yk0C|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Bonner|first=B|date=20 March 2010|title=Make Way, World. India Is on the Move|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/The-Daily-Reckoning/2010/0320/Make-way-world.-India-is-on-the-move|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Farrell|first1=D.|last2=Beinhocker|first2=E.|date=19 May 2007|title=Next Big Spenders: India's Middle Class|publisher=McKinsey & Company|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/In_the_news/Next_big_spenders_Indian_middle_class|access-date=17 September 2011|archive-date=5 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205035707/https://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/In_the_news/Next_big_spenders_Indian_middle_class|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Gargan|first=E. A.|date=15 August 1992|title=India Stumbles in Rush to a Free Market Economy|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html|access-date=22 July 2011}}
* {{citation|date=January 2011|title=The World in 2050: The Accelerating Shift of Global Economic Power: Challenges and Opportunities|first1=John|last1=Hawksworth|first2=Anmol|last2=Tiwari|publisher=[[Company:PricewaterhouseCoopers|PricewaterhouseCoopers]]|url=https://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/psrc/pdf/world_in_2050_jan2011.pdf|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Nayak|first1=P. B.|last2=Goldar|first2=B.|last3=Agrawal|first3=P.|year=2010|title=India's Economy and Growth: Essays in Honour of V. K. R. V. Rao|publisher=[[Company:SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1Ho2SGXUHwC|isbn=978-81-321-0452-0}}
* {{citation|last1=Pal|first1=P.|last2=Ghosh|first2=J|title=Inequality in India: A Survey of Recent Trends |work=DESA Working Paper No. 45 |date=July 2007 |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2007/wp45_2007.pdf|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Schwab|first=K.|year=2010|title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011|publisher=[[Organization:World Economic Forum|World Economic Forum]]|url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |access-date=10 May 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Sheth|first=N.|date=28 May 2009|title=Outlook for Outsourcing Spending Brightens|work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124344190542659025#articleTabs_comments%3D%26articleTabs%3Darticle |access-date=3 October 2010}}
* {{citation|last=Yep|first=E.|date=27 September 2011|title=ReNew Wind Power Gets $201 Million Goldman Investment|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204422404576595972728958728|access-date=27 September 2011|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal}}
* {{citation|date=10 April 2010|title=India Second Fastest Growing Auto Market After China|work=Business Line|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/article988689.ece|access-date=23 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Business Line 2010}}}}
* {{cite web|title=India world's second largest textiles exporter: UN Comtrade|work=The Economic Times |date=2 June 2014|ref={{sfnref|Economic Times 2014}} |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/garments-/-textiles/india-worlds-second-largest-textiles-exporter-un-comtrade/articleshow/35958852.cms?from=mdr|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605121831/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-06-02/news/50272849_1_textiles-exports-india-calender-year|archive-date=5 June 2014|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|date=8 October 2011|title=India's Economy: Not Just Rubies and Polyester Shirts|newspaper=[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]]|url=https://www.economist.com/node/21531527|access-date=9 October 2011|ref={{sfnRef|Economist 2011}}}}
* {{citation|date=13 October 2009|title=Indian Car Exports Surge 36%|work=Express India |url-status=dead|url=https://expressindia.indianexpress.com/karnatakapoll08/story_page.php?id=528633|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428102326/https://expressindia.indianexpress.com/karnatakapoll08/story_page.php?id=528633|archive-date=28 April 2016|access-date=5 April 2016|ref={{sfnRef|Express India 2009}}}}
* {{citation|date=21 March 2017|title=Measuring the cost of living worldwide|newspaper=[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/03/daily-chart-13|access-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525140627/https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/03/daily-chart-13|archive-date=25 May 2017|url-status=live|ref={{sfnref|Economist 2017}}}}
* {{citation |date=October 2007 |title=Economic Survey of India 2007: Policy Brief |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=https://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf |access-date=22 July 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606112149/https://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2011 }}
* {{citation|date=April 2011|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand|publisher=[[Organization:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=25&pr.y=15&sy=1991&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C558%2C513%2C564%2C566%2C524%2C534%2C578%2C536%2C548&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=|access-date=23 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund 2011b}}}}
* {{citation |date=6 April 2011 |title=Information Note to the Press (Press Release No.29 /2011) |publisher=Telecom Regulatory Authority of India |ref={{sfnRef|Telecom Regulatory Authority 2011}} |url= https://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/816/Press_release_feb%20-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516025431/https://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/816/Press_release_feb%20-11.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2011 |access-date=23 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation|title=India: Undernourished Children – A Call for Reform and Action|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|url=https://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20916955~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|access-date=23 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507071806/https://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20916955~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|archive-date=7 May 2012}}
* {{citation|date=26 March 2010|title=Trade to Expand by 9.5% in 2010 After a Dismal 2009, WTO Reports|publisher=[[Organization:World Trade Organization|World Trade Organization]]|ref={{sfnRef|World Trade Organization 2010}} |url=https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres10_e/pr598_e.htm|access-date=23 July 2011}}
* {{citation|year=2011–2012|title=Indian IT-BPO Industry|publisher=[[Organization:NASSCOM|NASSCOM]] |url=https://www.nasscom.org/indian-itbpo-industry|access-date=22 June 2012|ref={{sfnRef|Nasscom 2011–2012}} |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509061653/https://nasscom.org/indian-itbpo-industry|archive-date=9 May 2012}}
* {{citation |year=1995 |title=Understanding the WTO: The Organization Members and Observers |publisher=[[Organization:World Trade Organization|World Trade Organization]] |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm |access-date=23 June 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|World Trade Organization 1995}} |archive-date=29 December 2009|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091229021759/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm}}
* {{citation|date=June 2011|title=World Economic Outlook Update|publisher=[[Organization:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]]|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C548%2C558%2C564%2C566%2C524%2C578%2C534%2C536&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=60&pr.y=17|access-date=22 July 2011|ref={{sfnRef|International Monetary Fund 2011a}}}}
{{refend}}

'''Demographics'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Chandramouli|first=C.|date=15 July 2011|title=Rural Urban Distribution of Population|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india/Rural_Urban_2011.pdf|access-date=24 January 2015}}
* {{citation|last1=Dev|first1=S. M.|last2=Rao|first2=N. C.|year=2009|title=India: Perspectives on Equitable Development|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-685-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adhKjRoTjcIC}}
* {{citation|last=Dharwadker|first=A.|editor1-last=Canning|editor1-first=C. M.|editor2-last=Postlewait|editor2-first=T.|year=2010|title=Representing the Past: Essays in Performance Historiography|chapter=Representing India's Pasts: Time, Culture, and Problems of Performance Historiography|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=978-1-58729-905-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rgf0gbml2ocC|access-date=24 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Drèze|first1=J.|last2=Goyal|first2=A.|editor-last=Baru|editor-first=R. V.|year=2009|title=School Health Services in India: The Social and Economic Contexts|chapter=The Future of Mid-Day Meals|publisher=[[Company:SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]]|isbn=978-81-7829-873-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQ39RO9OET4C&pg=PA46|ref={{sfnRef|Drèze|Goyal|2008}}}}
* {{citation|last1=Dyson|first1=T.|last2=Visaria|first2=P.|editor-last=Dyson|editor-first=T.|editor2-last=Casses|editor2-first=R.|editor3-last=Visaria|editor3-first=L.|year=2005|title=Twenty-First Century India: Population, Economy, Human Development, and the Environment|chapter=Migration and Urbanisation: Retrospect and Prospects|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-928382-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bqU9T5c0wlYC |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/twentyfirstcentu0000unse_v0c4}}
* {{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|year=2018|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|year=2018|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11162-2 |lccn=2018021693|doi=10.1017/9781316276044|s2cid=134229667 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ|doi-access=free}}
* {{citation|last=Garg|first=S. C.|date=19 April 2005|title=Mobilizing Urban Infrastructure Finance in India|publisher=[[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]]|url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMF/Resources/339747-1105651852282/Garg.pdf|access-date=27 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824063911/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMF/Resources/339747-1105651852282/Garg.pdf|archive-date=24 August 2009|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Mallikarjun|first=B|date=November 2004|title=Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi – The Official Language of India|journal=Language in India|volume=4|issue=11|issn=1930-2940 |url=https://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html|access-date=24 July 2011|archive-date=10 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110230215/http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{citation|last=Ottenheimer|first=H. J.|year=2008|title=The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-0-495-50884-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4QHsORbZs4C}}
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* {{citation|last=Rorabacher|first=J. A.|year=2010|title=Hunger and Poverty in South Asia|publisher=Gyan|isbn=978-81-212-1027-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6hriMcSsE4C}}
* {{citation|date=27 April 1960 |title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |url=https://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3d |access-date=13 May 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|Ministry of Home Affairs 1960}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001005409/https://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3D |archive-date=1 October 2014}}
* {{citation|title=Census Data 2001|work=Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|date=2010–2011|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/National_Summary/National_Summary_DataPage.aspx|access-date=22 July 2011}}
{{refend}}

'''Art'''
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{citation|last=Blurton|first=T. Richard|title=Hindu Art|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&q=Hindu+Art,+1994,+British+Museum+Press|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5}}
* {{citation|last=Craven|first=Roy C|title=Indian art: a concise history|year=1997|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37895110|location=New York City|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20302-6|oclc=37895110|}}
* {{citation|last=Harle|first=James C.|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5}}
* {{citation|last=Michell|first=George|title=Hindu Art and Architecture|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVl2QgAACAAJ|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20337-8}}
* {{citation|last=Rowland|first=Benjamin|title=The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain|year=1970|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6L2fAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+India:+Buddhist,+Hindu,+Jain|publisher=Penguin Books}}
{{refend}}

'''Culture'''
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* {{citation|last=Chopra|first=P.|year= 2011|title=A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-7037-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhTiCnh6RqAC&pg=PA46}}
* {{citation|last=Cullen-Dupont|first=K.|date=July 2009|title=Human Trafficking|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7545-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2GeSNXy5CoC}}
* {{citation|last=Cyriac|first=B. B.|date=9 August 2010|title=Sawant Shoots Historic Gold at World Championships|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/Sawant-shoots-historic-gold-at-World-Championships/articleshow/6274795.cms?referral=PM |access-date=25 May 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Das|first=S. K.|year=2005|title=A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-2171-0}}
* {{citation|last=Datta|first=A.|year=2006|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature|volume=2|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0}}
* {{citation|last=Dehejia|first=R. S.|date=7 November 2011|title=Indian Grand Prix Vs. Encephalitis?|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2011/11/07/economics-journal-indian-grand-prix-vs-encephalitis/|access-date=20 December 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Deutsch|first=E.|year=1969|title=Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0271-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C}}
* {{citation|last1=Dissanayake|first1=W. K.|last2=Gokulsing|first2=M.|date=May 2004|title=Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change|edition=2nd|publisher=Trentham Books|isbn=978-1-85856-329-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_plssuFIar8C}}
* {{citation|last1=Futterman|first1=M|last2=Sharma|first2=A|date=11 September 2009|title=India Aims for Center Court|work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970203440104574406704026883502 |access-date=29 September 2010}}
* {{cite web|author=Hansa Research |url=https://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf |work=Indian Readership Survey 2012 Q1 : Topline Findings |title=Growth: Literacy & Media Consumption |publisher=Media Research Users Council |access-date=12 September 2012 |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407092737/https://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}
* {{citation|last=Hart|first=G. L.|year= 1975|title=Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and Their Sanskrit Counterparts|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02672-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5KwQwAACAAJ}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Heehs|editor-first=P.|year= 2002|title=Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3650-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgsu-aIm3ncC|access-date=24 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Hoiberg|first1=D.|last2=Ramchandani|first2=I.|year=2000|title=Students' Britannica India: Select Essays|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-762-9}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Johnson|editor-first=W. J.|title=The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night|year= 2008|edition=2nd|series=Oxford World's Classics|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-282361-8}}
* {{citation|last1=Jones|first1=G.|last2=Ramdas|first2=K.|year=2005|title=(Un)tying the Knot: Ideal and Reality in Asian Marriage|publisher=National University of Singapore Press|isbn=978-981-05-1428-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IttiQ3QdJ6YC}}
* {{citation|last1=Kālidāsa|last2=Johnson|first2=W. J.|year= 2001|title=The Recognition of Śakuntalā: A Play in Seven Acts|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-283911-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/recognitionofsak0000kali}}
* {{citation|last1=Kaminsky|first1=Arnold P.|last2=Long|first2=Roger D. |title=India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWDnTWrz4O8C|access-date=12 September 2012|year= 2011|publisher=[[Company:ABC-CLIO|ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-0-313-37462-3}}
* {{citation|last=Karanth|first=S. K.|date=2002|title=Yakṣagāna|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-357-1}}
* {{citation|editor1-last=Kiple|editor1-first=K. F.|editor2-last=Ornelas|editor2-first=K. C.|title=The Cambridge World History of Food|volume=2|year=2000|place=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-40215-6}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Kuiper|editor-first=K.|year=2010|title=The Culture of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiqloV4JnNUC|access-date=24 July 2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-203-1}}
* {{citation|last=Kumar|first=V.|title=Vastushastra|edition=2nd|series=All You Wanted to Know About Series|date= 2000|publisher=Sterling Publishing|isbn=978-81-207-2199-9}}
* {{citation|last=Lal|first=A.|title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 July 2011|year=2004|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
* {{citation|last1=Lang|first1=J.|last2=Moleski|first2=W.|date=1 December 2010|title=Functionalism Revisited|publisher=[[Company:Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4094-0701-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOCaSn8-ZboC&pg=PA151}}
* {{citation|last=MacDonell|first=A. A.|title=A History of Sanskrit Literature|year=2004|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-0619-2|title-link=s:A History of Sanskrit Literature}}
* {{citation|last1=Majumdar|first1=B.|last2=Bandyopadhyay|first2=K.|title=A Social History of Indian Football: Striving To Score|year=2006|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-34835-5}}
* {{citation|last=Makar|first=E. M.|year=2007|title=An American's Guide to Doing Business in India|publisher=Adams|isbn=978-1-59869-211-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujYmdNVIr7QC}}
* {{citation|last1=Massey|first1=R.|last2=Massey|first2=J|year=1998|title=The Music of India |publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-332-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yySNDP9XVggC}}
* {{citation|last=Medora|first=N.|editor1-last=Hamon|editor1-first=R. R.|editor2-last=Ingoldsby|editor2-first=B. B.|year=2003|title=Mate Selection Across Cultures|chapter=Mate Selection in Contemporary India: Love Marriages Versus Arranged Marriages|publisher=[[Company:SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]]|pages=209–230|isbn=978-0-7619-2592-7}}
* {{citation|last=Mehta|first=Nalin|title=Television in India: Satellites, Politics and Cultural Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-BsSzSjnTYC|access-date=12 September 2012|year=2008 |publisher=[[Company:Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis]] US|isbn=978-0-415-44759-1}}
* {{citation|last=Narayan |first=Sunetra Sen |year=2013|chapter=Context of Broadcasting in India |title=Globalization and Television: A Study of the Indian Experience, 1990–2010 |pages=55–69 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-809236-0 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198092360.003.0004}}
* {{citation|last=Sengupta|first=R.|date=24 September 2010|title=Is Boxing the New Cricket?|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/1jxksEgRhUYXq0ezp1iixM/Is-boxing-the-new-cricket.html|access-date=5 October 2010|ref={{sfnRef|Mint 2010}}}}
* {{citation|last=Nakamura|first=H.|year=1999|title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes|edition=12th|series=Buddhist Tradition Series|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0272-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC}}
* {{citation|editor1-last=Rajadhyaksha|editor1-first=A.|editor2-last=Willemen|editor2-first=P.|year=1999|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema|edition=2nd|publisher=British Film Institute|isbn=978-0-85170-669-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja}}
* {{citation|translator-last=Ramanujan|translator-first=A. K.|translator-link=A. K. Ramanujan|year=1985|title=Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil|publisher=Columbia University Press|place=New York|isbn=978-0-231-05107-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIybE0HRvdQC|ref={{SfnRef|Ramanujan|1985}}<!--|quote=These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilisation. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC – AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (''Eţţuttokai''), the Ten Long Poems (''Pattuppāţţu''), and a grammar called the ''Tolkāppiyam'' or the 'Old Composition.'&nbsp;... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as ''Cankam'' (pronounced ''Sangam'') literature.-->}}
* {{citation|last=Roberts|first=N. W.|year=2004|title=Building Type Basics for Places of Worship|publisher=[[Company:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-471-22568-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hOxOAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{harvc|last=Roger|first=Delphine|in1=Kiple|in2=Ornelas|year=2000|pages=1140–1150|c=The Middle East and South Asia (in Chapter: History and Culture of Food and Drink in Asia) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&pg=PA1140}}
* {{citation|last=Schwartzberg|first=J.|year=2011|title=India: Caste|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste|access-date=17 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last=Silverman|first=S.|year=2007|title=Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature|publisher=Gibbs Smith|isbn=978-1-4236-0132-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iwaryJd3fD8C&pg=PA20}}
* {{citation|last=Tarlo|first=E.|year=1996|title=Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India|publisher=[[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0-226-78976-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByoTXhXCuyAC|access-date=24 July 2011}}
* {{citation|last1=Xavier|first1=L.|date=12 September 2010|title=Sushil Kumar Wins Gold in World Wrestling Championship|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/wrestling/Sushil-Kumar-wins-gold-in-World-Wrestling-Championship/articleshow/6542488.cms?referral=PM|access-date=5 October 2010}}
* {{citation|last=Zvelebil|first=K. V.|year=1997|title=Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature|publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill Publishers]]|isbn=978-90-04-09365-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC}}
* {{citation|title=Anand Crowned World Champion|date=29 October 2008|publisher=Rediff |url=https://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm|access-date=29 October 2008|ref={{sfnRef|Rediff 2008 b}}}}
* {{citation|title=Taj Mahal|work=World Heritage Convention|publisher=[[Organization:UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation]]|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252|access-date=3 March 2012|ref={{sfnRef|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation}}}}
* {{citation|title=Saina Nehwal: India's Badminton Star and "New Woman"|date=1 August 2010|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10725584|access-date=5 October 2010|ref={{sfnRef|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a}}}}
* {{citation|title=Commonwealth Games 2010: India Dominate Shooting Medals|date=7 October 2010 |work=Commonwealth Games 2010|publisher=BBC|ref={{sfnRef|Commonwealth Games 2010}} |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9068886.stm |access-date=3 June 2011}}
{{refend}}

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'''Government'''
* [https://www.india.gov.in/ Official website of the Government of India]
* [https://goidirectory.nic.in/index.php Government of India Web Directory]

'''General information'''
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ India]. ''The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency.
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/India}}
* {{GovPubs|India}}
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12557384 India] from BBC News
* {{wikiatlas|India}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|304716}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=IN Key Development Forecasts for India] from [[International Futures]]

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