View source for Place:Oriental Crisis of 1840

{{Short description|Episode in the Egyptian–Ottoman War}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Oriental Crisis of 1840
|partof=Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)
|image=The Bombardment and Capture of St Jean D'Acre RMG PAH8189 7019.jpg
|caption=The bombardment and capture of St Jean D'Acre
|date= Summer-November 1840
|place= [[Place:Nile Delta|Nile Delta]], [[Place:Beirut|Beirut]], Acre
|casus=
|territory=
|result= Convention of London enforced by allied powers while Muhammad Ali Pasha secures his position in [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]
|combatant1= {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[History:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]<br />{{flag|Austrian Empire}}<br />{{flag|Prussia|1803}}<br />{{flag|Russian Empire}}<br />{{flag|Ottoman Empire}}
|combatant2= {{flagicon|Egypt|Ottoman}} Khedivate of Egypt
|commander1  = {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} Archduke Friedrich<br>{{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} Admiral Robert Stopford
* John Ommanney
* Henry Codrington
* Arthur Fanshawe
|commander2  = {{flagicon|Egypt|Ottoman}} Muhammad Ali
* Ibrahim Pasha
|strength1   =
|strength2   =
|casualties1 =
|casualties2 =
}}

The '''Oriental Crisis of 1840''' was an episode in the Egyptian–Ottoman War in the eastern Mediterranean, triggered by the self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan Muhammad Ali Pasha's aims to establish a personal empire in the Ottoman province of Egypt.

==Background==
In the preceding decades, Muhammad Ali had expanded and strengthened his hold on Ottoman territory, beginning with Egypt where he acted as a viceroy for the Sultan. Called upon to assist the Ottomans in the Greek War of Independence, Muhammad Ali in return demanded parts of Ottoman Syria to be transferred to his personal rule. When the war ended and the Porte failed to keep its promise, Muhammad Ali launched a military campaign against his Ottoman masters and easily took most of the Syrian lands.

===Syrian War===
[[Image:Egypt under Muhammad Ali map de.svg|thumb|Extent of Muhammad Ali's rule in 1840]]
In 1839, the Ottoman Empire attempted to retake Syria from Muhammad Ali but was defeated by his son, Ibrahim Pasha in the Battle of Nezib. Thus, a new war between Muhammad Ali and the Ottomans escalated, with the latter failing once again  to wage it successfully. In June 1840, the entire Ottoman navy defected to Muhammad Ali, and the French planned to offer full support to his cause.<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 36-37.</ref>

On the verge of total collapse and defeat to Muhammad Ali, an alliance of European powers comprising [[History:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], the [[Place:Austrian Empire|Austrian Empire]], [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Place:Russian Empire|Russia]] decided to intervene on behalf of the young Sultan Abdülmecid I.

==Convention of London==
By the Convention of London, signed on 15 July 1840, the Great Powers offered Muhammad Ali and his heirs permanent control over Egypt, Sudan, and the Eyalet of Acre, provided that these territories would nominally remain part of the Ottoman Empire. If he did not accept the withdrawal of his forces within ten days, he would lose the offer in southern Syria; if he delayed acceptance more than 20 days, he would forfeit everything offered.<ref>Geoffrey G. Butler, Simon Maccoby, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hEK83BhHp-4C&pg=PA440& The Development of International Law], p. 440</ref> The European powers agreed to use all possible means of persuasion to effect the agreement, but Muhammad Ali hesitated, believing in support from France.<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 38.</ref>

===French position===
The French under the newly formed cabinet of Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers sought to increase French influence in North Africa following their conquest of Algeria. For this, supporting Muhammad Ali's so far successful revolt seemed suitable. Counter Admiral Julien Pierre Anne Lalande was dispatched to the Mediterranean to eventually join forces with the defected Ottoman fleet.<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 37.</ref> But France became politically isolated when the other Great Powers backed up the Sultan, and Thiers wasn't prepared to bring the country into open war with Britain. France switched sides and aligned against Muhammad Ali in October 1840.

==Military campaign==
[[Image:The Bombardment and Capture of St Jean D'Acre. Scene 2. 45324.jpg|right|thumb|{{HMS|Phoenix|1832}} in the bombardment of Acre, 1840]]
In September 1840, the European powers eventually moved from diplomatic means to military action. When French support for Muhammad Ali failed to materialize, British and Austrian naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean moved against Syria and Alexandria.<ref>H. Wood Jarvis, Pharaoh to Farouk, (London: John Murray, 1956), 134.</ref>

[[Place:Alexandria|Alexandria]] was the port where the defecting Ottoman fleet had withdrawn. After the Royal Navy and the Austrian Navy first blockaded the Nile delta coastline, they moved east to shell [[Place:Sidon|Sidon]] and [[Place:Beirut|Beirut]] on 11 September 1840. British and Austrian forces then attacked Acre. Following the bombardment of the city and the port on 3 November 1840 a small landing party of Austrian, British and Ottoman troops (which were led personally by the Austrian fleet commander, Archduke Friedrich) took the citadel after Muhammad Ali's Egyptian garrison in Acre had fled.

==Long-term results==
After the surrender of Acre, Muhammad Ali finally accepted the terms of the Convention on 27 November 1840. He renounced his claims over Crete and the Hijaz and agreed to downsize his naval forces and his standing army to 18,000 men, provided that he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary [[Philosophy:Governance|rule]] over Egypt and Sudan — an unheard-of status for an [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] viceroy.<ref>Morroe Berger, ''Military Elite and Social Change: Egypt Since Napoleon'', (Princeton, New Jersey: Center for International Studies, 1960), 11.</ref>  A ''firman'', subsequently issued by the sultan, indeed confirmed Muhammad Ali's rule over Egypt and the Sudan. He withdrew from Syria, the Hijaz, the Holy Land, Adana, and Crete, and handed back the Ottoman fleet.

==See also==
* History of Ottoman Egypt
* [[Place:Ottoman Empire|History of the Ottoman Empire]]
* History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Charles R. Middleton. Cabinet Decision Making at the Accession of Queen Victoria: The Crisis of the East 1839-1840," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1979) 51#2 On Demand Supplement  pp. D1085-D1117 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1881124 in JSTOR]


[[Category:Middle East]]

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