View source for Place:Ottoman Empire

{{Short description|Turkish empire (1299–1922)}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox country
| common_name            = Ottoman Empire
| life_span              = {{circa}} 1299–1922
| native_name            = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}|{{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Sublime Ottoman State
| status                 = [[Social:Empire|Empire]]
| image_coat             = [[File:Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire (1882–1922).svg|70px]]
| image_flag             = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg
| flag_type_article      = Flags of the Ottoman Empire
| flag_type              = Flag<br />{{Nowrap|(1844–1922)}}
| symbol_type_article    = Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire
| symbol_type            = Coat of arms<br />{{Nowrap|(1882–1922)}}
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:OttomanEmpire1481.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1481|upright=1.15|frameless|The Ottoman Empire in 1566|[[File:OttomanEmpireMain.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1683|
[[File:OttomanEmpire1739.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1739|[[File:OttomanEmpire1914.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1914|default=5}}
| national_motto         = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت ابد مدت}}|{{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i Ebed-müddet}}|"The Eternal State"<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Sean |last2=Moore |first2=Simon |date=2015-10-20 |title=Communicating Identity in the Ottoman Empire and Some Implications for Contemporary States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |journal=Atlantic Journal of Communication |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=269–283 |doi=10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |issn=1545-6870 |s2cid=146299650 |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151026/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| national_anthem        = ''various''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eScv14bXOtI|title=All imperial anthems (1808–1922) of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922/1923)|publisher=The London Academy of Ottoman Court Music|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034747/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eScv14bXOtI|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/European-Music-at-Ottoman-Court/dp/B0000542KD|title=European Music at the Ottoman Court|publisher=The London Academy of Ottoman Court Music|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=25 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125141610/https://www.amazon.co.uk/European-Music-at-Ottoman-Court/dp/B0000542KD|url-status=live}}</ref>
| capital                = {{Plainlist|
* Söğüt<ref name="Shaw-13">{{Cite book |first1=Stanford |last1=Shaw |first2=Ezel |last2=Shaw |date=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=I |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |page=13}}</ref>
* ({{Circa}} 1299–1331)
* [[Place:Nicaea|Nicaea]] (İznik){{sfn|Atasoy|Raby|1989|p=19–20}}
* (1331–1335)
* [[Place:Bursa|Bursa]]<ref name="auto">"In 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne<!--Do not change as this is an exact quote-->, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance." [http://www.kultur.gov.tr/–EN,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html ''Ottoman Capital Bursa''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305185907/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/%e2%80%93en,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html |date=5 March 2016 }}. Official website of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref>
* (1335–1363)
* Adrianople ([[Place:Edirne|Edirne]])<ref name="auto"/>
* (1363–1453)
* Constantinople (Istanbul){{efn|In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were {{transliteration|ota|Ḳosṭanṭīnīye}} ({{Lang|ota|قسطنطينيه}}) (replacing the suffix ''-polis'' with the Arabic suffix), ''Istanbul'' ({{Lang|ota|استنبول}}) and ''Islambol'' ({{lang|ota|اسلامبول}}, {{lit|full of Islam}}); see Names of Istanbul). Kostantiniyye became obsolete in Turkish after the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923,<ref name="Edhemp286">{{Cite book |last=Edhem |first=Eldem |chapter=Istanbul |editor-first=Ágoston |editor-last=Gábor |editor-first2=Bruce Alan |editor-last2=Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=21 May 2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA286 286] |quote=With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city.}}</ref> and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,<ref>{{ cite book
| title= History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
| volume= 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975
| author1-first= Stanford J. 
| author2-first= Ezel Kural
| author1-last= Shaw | author2-last= Shaw
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
 |date= 1977b | isbn= 9780511614972 | doi= 10.1017/CBO9780511614972
}}</ref> the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use ''Istanbul'', and that name became widely accepted internationally.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977b|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AIET_7ji7YAC&pg=PA386 386], volume 2}}; {{Cite book |author=Robinson |date=1965 |title=The First Turkish Republic |page=298}}; {{Cite web |last=Society |date=2014-03-04 |title=Istanbul, not Constantinople |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople |access-date=2019-03-28 |publisher=National Geographic Society |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707175747/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ |url-status=dead }})</ref> Eldem Edhem, author of an entry on Istanbul in ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'', stated that the majority of the Turkish people {{Circa|2010}}, including historians, believe using "Constantinople" to refer to the Ottoman-era city is "politically incorrect" despite any historical accuracy.<ref name=Edhemp286/><!--From https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/QjzYdCxumFcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22With+the+collapse+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+establishment+of+the+Republic+of+Turkey,+all+previous+names+were+abandoned+and+Istanbul+came+to+designate+the+entire+city.%22&pg=PA286&printsec=frontcover "Today the use of the name Constantinople to describe the Ottoman capital,[...]" which means he was speaking about people in 2010 -->}} 
* (1453–1922)}}
| common_languages       = {{hlist|
| [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]]{{efn|Liturgical language; among Arabic-speaking citizens}}
| [[Social:Greek language|Greek]]{{efn|Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.}}
| [[Social:Chagatai language|Chagatai]]{{efn|Decrees in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayşe Gül Sertkaya |title=Archivum Ottomanicum |date=2002 |editor-last=György Hazai |volume=20 |pages=114–115 |chapter=Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı |quote=As a result, we can claim that ''Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı'' was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (''bitig'') and firmans (''yarlığ'') sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result%2C+we+can%22 |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132428/https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result,+we+can%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Social:French language|French]]{{efn|Foreign language among educated people in the post-Tanzimat/late imperial period.<ref name="Strauss-2010">{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |date=2010 |publisher=Orient-Institut Istanbul |editor-last=Herzog, Christoph |location=Würzburg |pages=21–51 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor-last2=Malek Sharif |chapter-url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |url-status=live }} ([http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 info page on book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 |date=20 September 2019 }} at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 26 (PDF p. 28): "French had become a sort of semi-official language in the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the ''Tanzimat'' reforms.[...] It is true that French was not an ethnic language of the Ottoman Empire. But it was the only Western language which would become increasingly widespread among educated persons in all linguistic communities."</ref>}}
| many others}}
| official_languages     = [[Social:Ottoman Turkish|Ottoman Turkish]]
| religion               = {{Plainlist|
* Sunni Islam ([[Religion:State religion|state]])
* School: Hanafi}}
| government_type        = {{plainlist|
* [[Social:Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchy]] 
* ({{circa}} 1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922)
* [[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchy]] 
* (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
* Triumvirate dictatorship 
* (1913–1918)}}
| title_leader           = Sultan
| leader1                = Osman I
| year_leader1           = {{Nowrap|{{circa}} 1299–1323/4 (first)}}
| leader2                = Mehmed VI
| year_leader2           = 1918–1922 (last)
| title_representative   = Caliph
| year_representative1   = 1517–1520 (first)
| representative1        = Selim I<ref name="Lambton-1995"/>{{efn|The sultan from 1512 to 1520.}}
| year_representative2   = 1922–1924 (last)
| representative2        = Abdulmejid II
| title_deputy           = Grand vizier
| deputy1                = Alaeddin Pasha
| year_deputy1           = 1320–1331 (first)
| deputy2                = Ahmet Tevfik Pasha
| year_deputy2           = 1920–1922 (last)
| legislature            = {{nowrap|General Assembly<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| house1                 = {{nowrap|Chamber of Notables<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| type_house1            = Upper house (unelected)
| house2                 = {{nowrap|Chamber of Deputies<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| type_house2            = Lower house (elected)
| event_start            = Founded
| year_start             = {{circa|1299}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pamuk|first=Şevket|title=A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-521-44197-8|pages=30–31|quote=The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of Orhan Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as "the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman" [...] Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the Seljuk sultan at Konya. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the Ilkhanids [...] Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|access-date=21 October 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}</ref>
| date_start             = 
| event_end              = [[Place:Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] established
| year_end               = 1923{{efn|The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the Grand National Assembly (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople<!--As it's still not 1923 yet--> were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the occupation of Constantinople under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the Government of Ankara was achieved through the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923, which ended the Ottoman Empire in history.}}
| date_end               = 29 October
| event1                 = Interregnum
| date_event1            = 1402–1413
| event2                 = Conquest of Constantinople
| date_event2            = 29 May 1453
| event4                 = Constitutional Era I
| date_event4            = 1876–1878
| event5                 = Constitutional Era II
| date_event5            = 1908–1920
| event6                 = Ottoman coup d'état
| date_event6            = 23 January 1913
| event7                 = Sultanate abolished
| date_event7            = 1 November 1922{{efn|1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.}}
| event_post             = Caliphate abolished
| date_post              = 3 March 1924
| stat_year1             = 1481
| stat_area1             = 1,220,000
| stat_year2             = 1521
| stat_area2             = 3,400,000
| ref_area2              = <ref name="Taagepera-1997" />
| stat_year3             = 1683
| stat_area3             = 5,200,000
| ref_area3              = <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |access-date=12 September 2016 |archive-date=20 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| stat_year4             = 1913
| stat_area4             = 2,550,000
| ref_area4              = <ref name="Taagepera-1997"/>
| stat_year5             = 1912
| stat_pop5              = 24,000,000
| ref_pop5               = <ref name="Erickson2003">{{Cite book |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |title=Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913 |date=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-97888-4 |page=59}}</ref>
| demonym                = Ottoman
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| currency               = akçe, sultani; para, kuruş (piastre); lira 
{{collapsed infobox section begin|td=yes|Predecessor states and Successor states}}
| p1                     = Sultanate of Rum
| p2                     = Anatolian beyliks
| p3                     = Byzantine Empire
| p4                     = Despotate of the Morea{{!}}Despotate of the Morea
| p5                     = Empire of Trebizond
| p6                     = Principality of Theodoro
| p7                     = Second Bulgarian Empire
| p8                     = Tsardom of Vidin
| p9                     = Despotate of Dobruja
| p10                    = Despotate of Lovech
| p11                    = Serbian Despotate
| p12                    = Kingdom of Bosnia
| p13                    = Zeta under the Crnojevići{{!}}Zeta
| p14                    = Kingdom of Hungary
| p15                    = Croatia in union with Hungary{{!}}Kingdom of Croatia
| p16                    = League of Lezhë
| p17                    = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo){{!}}Mamluk Sultanate
| p18                    = Hafsid dynasty{{!}}Hafsid Kingdom
| p19                    = Aq Qoyunlu
| p20                    = Hospitaller Tripoli
| p21                    = Kingdom of Tlemcen
| s1                     = Turkey
| s2                     = First Hellenic Republic{{!}}Hellenic Republic
| s3                     = Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917){{!}}Caucasus Viceroyalty
| s4                     = Principality of Bulgaria
| s5                     = Eastern Rumelia
| s6                     = Independent Albania{{!}}Albania
| s7                     = Kingdom of Romania
| s8                     = Revolutionary Serbia
| s9                     = Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina{{!}}Bosnia and Herzegovina
| s10                    = Principality of Montenegro
| s11                    = Idrisid Emirate of Asir{{!}}Emirate of Asir
| s12                    = Kingdom of Hejaz
| s13                    = Occupied Enemy Territory Administration{{!}}OETA
| s14                    = Mandatory Iraq
| s15                    = French Algeria
| s16                    = British Cyprus
| s17                    = French protectorate of Tunisia{{!}}French Tunisia
| s18                    = Italian Tripolitania
| s19                    = Italian Cyrenaica
| s20                    = Sheikhdom of Kuwait
| s21                    = Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen{{!}}Kingdom of Yemen
| s22                    = Sultanate of Egypt
| footnotes              = }}
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
<!-- This infobox intentionally does not contain a "today part of" section. Please do not add one without establishing consensus on the talk page. -->

The '''Ottoman Empire''',{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|t|ə|m|ə|n}}{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-ota|دولت عليه عثمانيه|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye||Sublime Ottoman State|lit=Sublime Ottoman State}}{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-tr|Osmanlı İmparatorluğu}} or {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı Devleti}}{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-fr|Empire ottoman}}, the common Western language among the educated in the late Ottoman Empire<ref name="Strauss-2010"/><!--French has affinity with the late Ottoman Empire from Tanzimat until 1923, see Languages of the Ottoman Empire-->{{indent}}Minority languages: 
{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-hyw|Օսմանեան տէրութիւն|Osmanean Têrut'iwn|Ottoman Authority/Governance/Rule}}, {{lang-hyw|Օսմանեան պետութիւն|Osmanean Petut'iwn|Ottoman State|label=none}} and {{lang-hyw|Օսմանեան կայսրութիւն|Osmanean Kaysrut'iwn|Ottoman Empire|label=none}} 
{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-bg|Османска империя|Otomanskata Imperiya}}; {{lang|bg|Отоманска империя}} is an archaic version. The definite article forms {{lang|bg|Османската империя}} and {{lang|bg|Османска империя}} were synonymous 
{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-el|Оθωμανική Επικράτεια|Othōmanikē Epikrateia}} and {{lang-el|Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία|Othōmanikē Avtokratoria|label=none}} 
{{indent}}{{*}}{{Lang-lad|Imperio otomano}}<ref name="Strauss-2010a">{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |date=2010 |publisher=Orient-Institut Istanbul |editor-last=Herzog, Christoph |location=Würzburg |pages=21–51 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor-last2=Malek Sharif |chapter-url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |url-status=live }} ([http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 info page on book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 |date=20 September 2019 }} at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 36 (PDF p. 38/338)</ref>}} historically and colloquially known as the '''Turkish Empire''',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=P. |first=E. A. |date=1916 |title=Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=470–472 |doi=10.2307/1779249 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1779249 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710152110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |url-status=live }}</ref> was an empire{{efn|The Ottoman dynasty also held the title "caliph" from the Ottoman victory over the [[Place:Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo]] in the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517 to the abolition of the Caliphate by the Turkish Republic in 1924.}} that controlled much of [[Place:Southeast Europe|Southeast Europe]], [[Place:West Asia|West Asia]], and [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]] between the 14th and early 20th centuries. The empire also controlled parts of southeastern [[Place:Central Europe|Central Europe]] from the early 16th to the early 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |title=The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718 |date=2011-08-12 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=978-1-61249-179-0 |editor-last=Ingrao |editor-first=Charles |doi=10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12 |jstor=j.ctt6wq7kw |editor-last2=Samardžić |editor-first2=Nikola |editor-last3=Pešalj |editor-first3=Jovan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=János B. |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=263–275 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_013 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moačanin |first=Nenad |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=277–286 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_014 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The empire was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]] in the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of the [[Place:Balkans|Balkans]], the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II.

Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566, the Ottoman Empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity, as well as the highest development of its governmental, social, and economic systems. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries.{{efn|The empire also temporarily gained authority over distant overseas lands through declarations of allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and Caliph, such as the declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as [[Earth:Lanzarote|Lanzarote]] in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2010 |title=Türk Deniz Kuvvetleri – Turkish Naval Forces |url=http://www.dzkk.tsk.tr/turkce/tarihimiras/AtlantikteTurkDenizciligi.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329023319/http://www.dzkk.tsk.tr/turkce/tarihimiras/AtlantikteTurkDenizciligi.php |archive-date=29 March 2010 |access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref>}} With Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as its capital and control of lands around the [[Place:Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Basin]], the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] and Europe for six centuries.

While the empire was once thought to have entered a [[History:Ottoman Decline Thesis|period of decline]] following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The newer academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military throughout the 17th and for much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of its European rivals, the Habsburg and [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian]] Empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The successful Greek War of Independence concluded with the establishment of modern Greece as an independent state, under the London Protocol (1830) and Treaty of Constantinople (1832). This and other defeats such as Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) prompted the Ottoman state to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the {{Transliteration|ota|Tanzimat}}. Thus, over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged.

The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) established the Second Constitutional Era in the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, turning the Empire into a constitutional monarchy, which conducted competitive multi-party elections. However, after the disastrous Balkan Wars, the now radicalized and nationalistic CUP took over the government in the 1913 coup d'état, creating a one-party regime. The CUP allied the Empire with [[Place:German Empire|Germany]], hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation which had contributed to its recent territorial losses, and thus joined [[Social:World War I|World War I]] on the side of the Central Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the Arab Revolt in its Arabian holdings. During this time, the Ottoman government engaged in genocide against the Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks. The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its southern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence, led by [[Biography:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the [[Place:Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy.

== Name ==
The word ''Ottoman'' is a historical [[Social:Anglicisation|anglicisation]] of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name {{transliteration|ota|ʿUthmān}} ({{Lang|ota|عثمان}}). In [[Social:Ottoman Turkish|Ottoman Turkish]], the empire was referred to as {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}), {{lit|'''Sublime Ottoman State'''}}, or simply {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عثمانيه‎}}), {{lit|'''Ottoman State'''}}.

The Turkish word for "Ottoman" ({{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}}) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" ({{Lang|tr|Türk}}) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}</ref>{{rp|26}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |edition=2 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |place=New York |date=2009 |page=3 |quote=By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse.}}</ref> In the [[History:Early modern period|early modern period]], an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish-speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as an {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}} nor as a {{Lang|tr|Türk}}, but rather as a {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} ({{Lang|ota|رومى}}), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |date=2007 |title=A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24}}</ref>{{rp|11}} As applied to Ottoman Turkish-speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greene |first=Molly |title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768 |date=2015}}</ref>{{rp|51}}

In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established [[Place:Ankara|Ankara]]-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.<ref name="Soucek-2015">{{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul |page=8 |quote=The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" from acceptable vocabulary, declaring "Ottoman" and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its "Turkish" rival only in linguistic and philological contexts.}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Rise ({{c.|1299–1453}}) ===

As the Rum Sultanate declined well into the 13th century, [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]] was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of [[Earth:Bithynia|Bithynia]] on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish<ref>{{Cite book |last1=A'goston |first1=Ga'bor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Masters |first2=Bruce Alan |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing, NY |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |page=444}} "Osman was simply one among a number ''Turkoman'' tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; {{Cite web |title=Osman I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |archive-date=24 April 2018 |access-date=1 July 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}} Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born {{circa|1258|lk=no}}—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state.</ref> tribal leader Osman I ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=2006-02-13 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 |pages=2, 7}}</ref> a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kermeli |first=Eugenia |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Osman I |editor-last2=Masters |editor-first2=Bruce |orig-date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|444}} Osman's early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |date=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_the_Early_Ottoman_State/fAppWuoFv3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|59}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |date=1995}}</ref>{{rp|127}} Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River. A Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise as well. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving from this period. The [[History:Ghaza thesis|Ghaza thesis]] popular during the twentieth century credited their success to their rallying of religious warriors to fight for them in the name of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00850-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|5, 10}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi Paul |title=The Cambridge History of Turkey |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 |location=Cambridge |chapter=Anatolia, 1300–1451}}</ref>{{rp|104}}

[[File:Battle of Nicopolis.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature from 1523]]

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the [[Place:History of the Balkans|Balkans]]. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]] in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the Bulgarian–Ottoman wars and the Serbian–Ottoman wars waged beginning in the mid 14th century. Much of this period was characterised by [[Place:Rumelia|Ottoman expansion into the Balkans]]. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of [[Place:Bursa|Bursa]] in 1326, making it the new capital of the Ottoman state and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port city of [[Place:Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] was captured from the [[Place:Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|95–96}} The Battle of Nicopolis for the [[Place:Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] Tsardom of Vidin in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale [[Religion:Crusades|crusade]] of the [[History:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade |date=1999 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-918-8}}</ref>

As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the Bosporus Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the [[Place:Timurid Empire|Timurid Empire]], invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated the Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war, also known as the ''Fetret Devri'', lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ágoston |first1=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |orig-date=2008 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|363}}

[[File:Sultan Uthman I.jpg|thumb|Ottoman miniature of Osman I by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th Century)|283x283px]]

The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the Crusade of Varna by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Edward J. Erickson |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|29}}

According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the fast Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the Black Death from the mid-fourteenth century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague outbreaks, which facilitated the Ottoman expansion. In addition, the slave hunting — executed at first by akinci irregulars expediting before the Ottoman army — was the main economic driving force behind the Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans into the ''akıncı phase'', which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by the phase of administrative integration into the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Schmitt-Kiprovska">{{cite journal |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml |last1=Schmitt |first1=O. J. |last2=Kiprovska |first2=M. |date=2022 |title=Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–582 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341575 |s2cid=249355977 |access-date=12 November 2022 |archive-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106181200/https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nükhet_Varlik">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|title=Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600|author=Nükhet Varlik|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139004046|isbn=978-1-139-00404-6|s2cid=197967256|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202092936/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ayalon-2014">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|title=Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes|author=Yaron Ayalon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139680943|isbn=978-1-139-68094-3|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202093507/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|url-status=live}}</ref> where the [[Medicine:Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]] [[Finance:Pandemic|pandemic]] occurred between 1347 and 1349.<ref name="Nükhet_Varlik"/><ref name="Ayalon-2014"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|title=The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)|author1=D. Cesana |author2=O.J. Benedictow |author3=R. Bianucci |publisher=Anthropological Science |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008073522/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Expansion and peak (1453–1566) ===
[[File:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror's entry into Constantinople; painting by Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929)]]

The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="Quataert2005">{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83910-5 |edition=2 |page=4}}</ref> Mehmed allowed the [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Church]] to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=94 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.<ref name="books.google"/> Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.<ref>Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240</ref>

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. It also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karpat, Kemal H. |title=The Ottoman state and its place in world history |publisher=Brill |date=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03945-2 |location=Leiden}}</ref>{{rp|111}}{{efn|A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, ''Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama'' (1998), 9; I. Stavans, ''Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage'' (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, ''Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877'' (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", ''English Historical Review'', 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)'' (1978), 335).}}

Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of [[Place:Safavid Iran|Safavid Iran]], in the Battle of Chaldiran.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Savory |first=R. M. |date=1960 |title=The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907–930/1501–1524) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00149006 |jstor=609888|s2cid=154467531}}</ref>{{rp|91–105}} Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt by defeating and annexing the [[Place:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the [[Place:Portuguese Empire|Portuguese Empire]] and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |date=January 1973 |title=The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800027276 |jstor=162225|s2cid=162219690 }}</ref>{{rp|55–76}}

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| footer   = Suleiman the Magnificent and his wife Hürrem Sultan, by 16th century [[Place:Republic of Venice|Venetian]] painter Titian
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Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> captured [[Place:Belgrade|Belgrade]] in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the [[History:Kingdom of Hungary|Kingdom of Hungary]] as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, and, after his historic victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3}}</ref>{{rp|50}} In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the siege of Güns.<ref name="Thompson442">{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Bard |title=Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-6348-5 |page=442}}</ref><ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583">{{Cite book |last=Ágoston and Alan Masters |first=Gábor and Bruce |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=583}}</ref> [[Place:Transylvania|Transylvania]], Wallachia and, intermittently, [[Place:Moldavia|Moldavia]], became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took [[Place:Baghdad|Baghdad]] from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of [[Place:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] and naval access to the Persian Gulf. In 1555, the [[Earth:Caucasus|Caucasus]] became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a ''[[Philosophy:Status quo|status quo]]'' that remained until the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). By this partitioning of the Caucasus as signed in the Peace of Amasya, [[Social:Western Armenia|Western Armenia]], western [[Place:Kurdistan|Kurdistan]], and Western Georgia (including western Samtskhe) fell into Ottoman hands,<ref>''The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'', V.J. Parry, ''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730'', ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.</ref> while southern Dagestan, [[Social:Eastern Armenia|Eastern Armenia]], Eastern Georgia, and [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] remained Persian.<ref>''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.</ref>

[[File:Battle of Mohács, with Suleiman I in the middle.jpg|thumb|upright|Ottoman miniature of the Battle of Mohács in 1526<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lokman |date=1588 |title=Battle of Mohács (1526) |url=http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529094441/http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref>|left]]

In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the Spanish garrison of Castelnuovo on the Adriatic coast; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937) |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> but [[Place:Republic of Venice|Venice]] agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the Aegean and the Morea. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule,<ref name="AksanOW">{{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7 |pages=130–135}}</ref> became strong allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Hayreddin Barbarossa and Dragut.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3 |page=53}}</ref> A month before the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman I died of natural causes in his tent during the siege of Szigetvár in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.<ref name="decline">{{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 |page=8 |quote=historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation}}; {{Cite book |last=Tezcan |first=Baki |title=The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41144-9 |page=9 |quote=Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.}}; {{Cite book |last=Woodhead |first=Christine |title=The Ottoman World |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-44492-7 |editor=Christine Woodhead |page=5 |chapter=Introduction |quote=Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'}}</ref>

By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately {{Cvt|877888|mi2}}, extending over three continents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Masters |editor-first=Bruce |chapter=Süleyman I}}</ref>{{rp|545}}

[[File:IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg|thumb|Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeated the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.]]

In addition, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924 |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-14-026246-9 |location=London |author-link=Philip Mansel}}</ref>{{rp|61}} By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a major part of the European political sphere. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the Iberian Union. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of all Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two were locked in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean Sea<ref>Crowley, Roger [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7RuHr4wP3AC Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141246/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Empires_of_the_Sea/Y7RuHr4wP3AC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}, Random House, 2008</ref> and [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective |url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729152826/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |archive-date=29 July 2019 |access-date=11 September 2019 |website=historycooperative.org}}</ref> where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized Latin America and had sent expeditions that traversed the Pacific in order to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to further attack the Muslims in the [[Place:Far East|Far East]].<ref>Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, [https://books.google.com/books?id=prA99TUDgKQC "Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141253/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusaders_in_the_Far_East/prA99TUDgKQC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> In this case, the Ottomans sent armies to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the Sultanate of Aceh in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Palabiyik |first=Hamit |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |publisher=Ankara |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|84}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=İsmail Hakkı Göksoy |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |title=''Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources'' |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135247/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

During the 1600s, the worldwide conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since both powers were at similar population, technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, despite the difference in the size of their respective territories, by the likes of the contemporary Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French political philosopher [[Biography:Jean Bodin|Jean Bodin]].<ref name="deringil709">{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |date=September 2007 |title=The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=709–723 |doi=10.1080/00263200701422600 |s2cid=144606323}}</ref>

=== Stagnation and reform (1566–1827) ===
==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ====

In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |page=xxxii |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}; {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=553 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. |editor2=Donald Quataert}}</ref> These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref>{{rp|413–414}} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.<ref name=decline/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.<ref name=decline/>

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The [[History:Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald}}</ref>{{rp|507–508}}

Under Ivan IV (1533–1584), the [[Place:Tsardom of Russia|Tsardom of Russia]] expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, commanded by the Ottomans, burned Moscow.<ref name="Davies2007">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-23986-8 |page=16 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids,<ref name="Subtelny2000">{{Cite book |last=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/106 106] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matsuki |first=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University}}</ref>
[[File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg|thumb|Order of battle of the two fleets in the Battle of Lepanto, with an allegory of the three powers of the Holy League in the foreground, fresco by Giorgio Vasari]]

The Ottomans decided to conquer Venetian Cyprus and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires (1600–1700) |publisher=BRILL}}</ref>{{rp|67}} On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The Siege of Famagusta claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |date=2019}}</ref>{{rp|328}} Meanwhile, the Holy League consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanlon |first=Gregory |title=The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 siege of Malta had recently set about eroding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand Braudel |title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |volume=II |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1995}}</ref> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kunt |first1=Metin |title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World |last2=Woodhead |first2=Christine |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-582-03827-1}}</ref>{{rp|53}} The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}}

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The Long Turkish War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to brigandage in the Celali rebellions (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halil İnalcık |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|24}} With the Empire's population reaching 30&nbsp;million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603–1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of [[Place:Safavid Iran|Safavid Iran]].<ref>Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 |date=1 November 2022 }} pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 {{ISBN|1-4381-1025-1}}</ref> The treaty ending the Cretan War cost Venice much of Dalmatia, its Aegean island possessions, and Crete. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|33}}

During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |date=2004-11-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79837-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Sultanate of Women (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the Köprülü era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of grand viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn, and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of [[Place:Podolia|Podolia]] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}}

[[File:Vienna Battle 1683.jpg|thumb|The Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, by Frans Geffels (1624–1694)]]

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}}

==== Military defeats ====
Aside from the loss of the Banat and the temporary loss of Belgrade (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the [[Place:Danube|Danube]] and Sava remained stable during the eighteenth century. Russian expansion, however, presented a large and growing threat. {{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721).{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711, in Moldavia. {{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=372}}

[[File:1720 Huchtenburg Eroberungs Belgrads 1717 anagoria.JPG|thumb|Austrian troops led by Prince Eugene of Savoy captured Belgrade in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739). With the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire regained northern Bosnia, Habsburg Serbia (including Belgrade), Oltenia and the southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar.]]

After the Austro-Turkish War, the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and [[Place:Oltenia|"Little Walachia" (Oltenia)]] to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=376}} The Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739), which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern Bosnia, [[History:Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Place:Oltenia|Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar; but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]].{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=392}}

Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Technical University}}</ref> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of [[Philosophy:Theodicy|theodicy]].<ref name="books.google_a">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=97 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="books.google_a"/> In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, the [[Religion:Grand Mufti|Grand Mufti]], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders).<ref name="katip celebi">{{Cite web |date=5 May 2009 |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Utrecht University Library}}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<ref name="katip celebi"/><ref name="watson">{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}</ref>

[[File:January Suchodolski - Ochakiv siege.jpg|thumb|Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the Siege of Ochakov in 1788]]

In North Africa, Spain conquered Oran from the autonomous Deylik of Algiers. The Bey of Oran received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture Oran; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=559}}</ref> In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.

In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamakas, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=405}} By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="books.google_a"/>

[[File:Ottoman Sultan Selim III (1789).jpg|thumb|Selim III receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, Topkapı Palace. Painting by Konstantin Kapıdağlı]]

Selim III (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to modernise the army, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the Janissary corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary revolted. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.

[[File:Siège de l'Acropoles.jpg|thumb|The siege of the Acropolis in 1826–1827 during the Greek War of Independence]]

The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the [[Place:Balkans|Balkans]] during the Eastern Question. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had Muhammad Ali Pasha of Kavala, the ''[[Religion:Wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the Eyalet of Egypt, tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the [[Place:Emirate of Diriyah|Emirate of Diriyah]] in 1818. The suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged ''de jure'' in 1830.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |archive-date=5 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Berend2003">{{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Tibor Iván |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93209-8 |page=127 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the Deylik of Algiers. The campaign that took 21 days, resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831">De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). ''Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique''. Dentu. p. 35.</ref> and about 2,600 French ones.<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |title=Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie |date=1831 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kateb |first=Kamel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11 |title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations |date=2001 |publisher=INED |isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9 |language=fr}}</ref> By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) decreased to a drastic 2,172,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyot |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |title=Lettres sur la politique coloniale |date=1885 |publisher=C. Reinwald |isbn=9798862369458 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt revolted against Sultan Mahmud II due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of [[Place:Syria (region)|Greater Syria]] and Crete, which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the Greek revolt (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal independence of Greece in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. Thus began the first Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833), during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]], reaching the city of Kütahya within {{cvt|200|mi|km|order=flip}} of the capital, Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim">{{cite book |last=Karsh |first=Effraim |title=Islamic Imperialism A History |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006}}</ref>{{rp|95}} In desperation, Sultan Mahmud II appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor Nicholas I to send an expeditionary force to assist him.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} In return for signing the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Under the terms of the Convention of Kütahya, signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the ''[[Religion:Wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the ''vilayets'' (provinces) of Crete, Aleppo, Tripoli, [[Place:Damascus|Damascus]] and [[Place:Sidon|Sidon]] (the latter four comprising modern [[Place:Syria|Syria]] and [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanon]]), and given the right to collect taxes in Adana.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan Mahmud II could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|95–96}}

In 1839, the Sublime Porte attempted to take back what it lost to the ''de facto'' autonomous, but ''de jure'' still Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt, but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the [[Place:Oriental Crisis of 1840|Oriental Crisis of 1840]]. Muhammad Ali had close relations with France, and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire [[Place:Levant|Levant]] into the French sphere of influence.<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}} As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Konya {{!}} Summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=2023-10-17 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |title=All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |date=2002 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-696-8 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]] and [[Place:Austrian Empire|Austrian Empire]] provided military assistance, and the second Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841) ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over Egypt Eyalet and the [[Place:Levant|Levant]].<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}}

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "[[Social:Sick man of Europe|sick man of Europe]]". Three suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and [[Place:Moldavia|Moldavia]] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

=== Decline and modernisation (1828–1908) ===
[[File:Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahce Palace in 1876.jpg|thumb|Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1876. The First Constitutional Era lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were restored 30 years later with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.]]

During the Tanzimat period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ishtiaq |first=Hussain |title=The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |publisher=Faith Matters |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-date=17 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017061131/http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor Samuel Morse received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan Abdülmecid, who personally tested the invention.<ref>Yakup Bektas, [https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas%2C%20Ott%20Telegraphy%2C%201847-1880%20%282000%29.pdf "The sultan's messenger: Cultural constructions of ottoman telegraphy, 1847–1880."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909033749/https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas,%20Ott%20Telegraphy,%201847-1880%20(2000).pdf |date=9 September 2021 }} ''Technology and Culture'' 41.4 (2000): 669–696.</ref> The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''Kanûn-u Esâsî''. The empire's First Constitutional era was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.

[[File:Turkish troops storming Fort Shefketil (cropped).jpg|Ottoman troops storming Fort Shefketil during the Crimean War of 1853–1856|thumb]]

The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.<ref name="books.google_b">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=95 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<ref name="books.google_b"/> Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written until 1928, was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sursock House |url=https://sursockhouse.com/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062827/https://sursockhouse.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="books.google_b"/> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=93}}

[[File:Charles Porion - The kings of Europe in Paris for the opening of the Exposition of 1867.jpg|thumb|250px|The Kings of Europe are in [[Place:Paris|Paris]] (Napoleon III is at the centre, Sultan Abdulaziz is second from right) for the opening of the Universal Exposition of 1867]]

The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5{{nbsp}}million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.<ref>{{Cite book |last=V. Necla Geyikdagi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |title=Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-84885-461-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|32}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Douglas Arthur Howard |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug |title=The History of Turkey |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-30708-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug/page/71 71] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Bryan Glynn |date=2000 |title=Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=79–108 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.39 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|79–108}} Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed<ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. ''The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future''. Routledge. 2008.</ref> and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |title=The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future |publisher=Taylor & Francis US |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77615-8 |page=79 |quote=the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.<ref name="Jaimoukha2001">{{Cite book |last=Amjad M. Jaimoukha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jVmQgAACAAJ |title=The Circassians: A Handbook |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-312-23994-7 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151040/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jVmQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2013}}<ref name="Hille2010">{{Cite book |last=Charlotte Mathilde Louise Hille |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFP6K8iZzQC&pg=PA50 |title=State building and conflict resolution in the Caucasus |publisher=BRILL |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-17901-1 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151041/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFP6K8iZzQC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ChirotMcCauley2010">{{Cite book |last1=Daniel Chirot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9sPJnd0cwV0C&pg=PA23 |title=Why Not Kill Them All?: The Logic and Prevention of Mass Political Murder (New in Paper) |last2=Clark McCauley |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4008-3485-3 |page=23 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151040/https://books.google.com/books?id=9sPJnd0cwV0C&pg=PA23 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totalling 1–1.5{{nbsp}}million deported or killed. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both Pan-Turkism and a sense of Turkish nationalism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 p. 95.</ref>

[[File:Ottomans 1875.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire in 1875 under Sultan Abdulaziz]]

In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>{{rp|50}} As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=105}} The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}} By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}}

The Ottoman bashi-bazouks brutally suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jelavich |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 |last2=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |date=1986 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151039/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|139}} The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Romania achieved full independence; and Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, [[Place:Austria-Hungary|Austria-Hungary]] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.

British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the [[History:Congress of Berlin|Congress of Berlin]], and in return, Britain assumed the administration of [[Place:Cyprus|Cyprus]] in 1878.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A.J.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt/page/228 |title=The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1955 |isbn=978-0-19-822101-2 |location=Oxford |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}</ref>{{rp|228–254}} Britain later sent troops to [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]] in 1882 to put down the Urabi Revolt (Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II, popularly known as "Abdul Hamid the Damned" on account of his cruelty and paranoia, was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Akmeșe |first=Handan Nezir |title=The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I |location=London |publisher=I.B Tauris}}</ref>{{rp|24}}

From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42 |author-link=Taner Akçam}}</ref>{{rp|42}}

In 1897 the population was 19{{nbsp}}million, of whom 14{{nbsp}}million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20{{nbsp}}million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.<ref>Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire'' 2:236.</ref>

As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9{{nbsp}}million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace.<ref name="Karpat2004">{{Cite book |last=Kemal H Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC |title=Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays |publisher=Brill |date=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13322-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=762 |chapter=The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shams El-Din |first=Osama |title=A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106154526/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trevor N. Dupuy |title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-0062700568 |pages=851}}</ref> After the Empire lost the First Balkan War (1912–1913), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from [[Medicine:Cholera|cholera]] brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Zürcher |first1= Erik-Jan|title=Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 |url=http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |url-status=dead |website=Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive|publisher=Universiteit Leiden |date=January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007 |location=Leiden, Netherlands}}</ref> Justin McCarthy estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5{{nbsp}}million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5{{nbsp}}million.<ref name="McCarthy1995">{{Cite book |last=Justin McCarthy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Carmichael2012">{{Cite book |last=Carmichael |first=Cathie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition |publisher=Routledge |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-134-47953-5 |page=21 |quote=During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Buturovic2010">{{Cite book |last=Buturovic |first=Amila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |title=Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-980381-1 |page=9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) ===

==== Young Turk movement ====
[[File:Declaration of the 1908 Revolution in Ottoman Empire.png|thumb|Declaration of the Young Turk Revolution by the leaders of the Ottoman millets in 1908]]

The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908{{mdash}}1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Michael A.|title=Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918 |date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521149167|pages=1, 324}}</ref> Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.

Members of Young Turks movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Erickson |title=Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1137362209 | page=32 }}</ref> Among them "Committee of Union and Progress", and "Freedom and Accord Party" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organised under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to [[Social:World War I|World War I]], including the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913.

==== World War I ====
[[File:M 113 5 amiral Souchon et ses officiers.jpg|thumb|Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, who commanded the Black Sea raid on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms]]

The Ottoman Empire entered [[Social:World War I|World War I]] on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven |page=200}}</ref> The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined German-Ottoman surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]] on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline">{{Cite book |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |title=Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923) |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford Reference |isbn=978-0-19-173764-0 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |url-status=live }}</ref> and its allies [[Place:French Third Republic|France]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> and the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> declared war on the Ottoman Empire (also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the Khedivate of Egypt and Cyprus, which were de jure Ottoman territories prior to the war, as British protectorates.)

The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]] and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution in 1917.

===== Genocides =====
[[File:Column of deportees walking through Harput vilayet during the Armenian genocide.jpg|thumb|The Armenian genocide was the result of the Ottoman government's deportation and ethnic cleansing policies regarding its Armenian citizens after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915) and the collapse of the Caucasus Front against the Imperial Russian Army and Armenian volunteer units during World War I. An estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.</ref> people were killed.]]

In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5{{nbsp}}million Armenians in the Armenian genocide.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bijak |first1=Jakub |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |last2=Lubman |first2=Sarah |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |page=39 |language=en |chapter=The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter Balakian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |title=The Burning Tigris |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-06-186017-1 |page=xvii |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) |page=186}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470}}</ref> The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |title=Armenia: The Survival of A Nation |pages=200–203 |date=1980 |place=London |publisher=Croom Helm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Viscount James |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden |pages=635–649 |date=2000 |editor-last=Sarafian |editor-first=Ara |edition=uncensored |place=Princeton |publisher=Gomidas Institute |isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6 |last2=Toynbee |first2=Arnold |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce}}</ref> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies&nbsp;– introduction |url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-03 |quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious |s2cid=71515470}}</ref>

===== Arab Revolt =====

The Arab Revolt began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, an agreement between the British government and Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.{{efn|Though the revolt was officially initiated on the 10 June, bin Ali's sons 'Ali and Faisal had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.<ref>Eliezer Tauber, ''The Arab Movements in World War I,'' Routledge, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-135-19978-4}} p. 80-81</ref>}} The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent Arab state stretching from Aleppo, [[Place:Syria|Syria]], to [[Place:Aden|Aden]], Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.

The Sharifian Army, led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the [[Place:Hejaz|Hejaz]] and Transjordan. The rebellion eventually took [[Place:Damascus|Damascus]] and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein.

Following the terms of the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into mandate territories. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger.

===== Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence =====
[[File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|right|Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922]]

Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Istanbul was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir).

The partition of the Ottoman Empire was finalized under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.

A nationalist opposition arose in the Turkish national movement. It won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) under the leadership of [[Biography:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The [[Place:Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was [[History:History of Turkey#Republic of Turkey|established]] in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of [[Place:Ankara|Ankara]]. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Ozoglu">{{Cite book |last=Hakan Özoğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37957-4 |page=8 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-10747-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]}}</ref>

== Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state ==
{{See also|Ghaza thesis}}{{History of Turkey}}
Several historians, such as British historian [[Biography:Edward Gibbon|Edward Gibbon]] and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis, have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a Turkish [[Religion:Muslims|Muslim]] guise.<ref>Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror", pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 pp. 92–93</ref> The American historian Speros Vryonis writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".<ref name="Stone, pp. 86-100">Stone, pp. 86–100</ref> Kitsikis and the American historian Heath Lowry posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath W. |title=The nature of the early Ottoman state |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003}}</ref><ref>Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan" in Peter Fibiger Bang, and Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, eds. ''Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012) pp. 175–193.</ref><ref>Sinan Ed Kuneralp, ed. ''A Bridge Between Cultures'' (2006) p. 9.</ref> Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian Paul Wittek, who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "[[Religion:Jihad|jihad]] state" dedicated to expanding the [[Religion:Muslim world|Muslim world]].<ref name="Stone, pp. 86-100"/> Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian Mehmet Fuat Köprülü championed the [[History:Ghaza thesis|Ghaza thesis]], according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from [[Religion:Iran|Persia]].<ref>Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the Gazi-thesis." ''Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes'' 76 (1986): 151–161 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328042350/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782 |date=28 March 2020 }}.</ref>

The British historian Norman Stone suggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that the ''zeugarion'' tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman ''Resm-i çift'' tax, that the ''pronoia'' land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman ''timar'' system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the ''dönüm'' was the same as the Byzantine ''stremma''. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Church]], which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the ''timar'' system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged ''Timariots'' from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.<ref>Stone, pp. 94–95.</ref>

== Government ==
{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Topkapı - 01.jpg
| image2            = Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg
| caption2          = Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and 1856 to 1922,<ref name=dolmabahcepalace>{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}}</ref> respectively.
}}

Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|page=38}} According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<ref name="Kapucu-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n71 77] |access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Jean Baptiste Vanmour - Dinner at the Palace in Honour of an Ambassador - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Ambassadors at the Topkapı Palace]]
The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=199 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.<ref name="Kapucu-2008"/> As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI ({{reign|1918|1922}}) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations.

The highest position in Islam, [[Religion:Caliphate|caliph]], was claimed by the sultans starting with Selim I,<ref name="Lambton-1995">{{Cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |volume=2 |page=320 |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |access-date=25 July 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |url-status=live }}</ref> which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, ''pâdişâh'' or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the valide sultan. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan.{{Dubious|reason=this is demonstrably not true, just look at any list of sultans |date=September 2016}} The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the [[Engineering:Madrasa|Madrasa]] ({{Lang|ota|Medrese}}) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by ''[[Religion:Waqf|vakif]]''s, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern |title=Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |date=1963 |isbn=978-0-8061-1060-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern/page/151 151] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the ''Enderûn'',<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 2010 |title=The Ottoman Palace School Enderun and the Man with Multiple Talents, Matrakçı Nasuh |url=https://tamu.academia.edu/SencerCorlu/Papers/471488/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |journal=Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical Education, Series D |series=Research in Mathematical Education |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=11 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111105849/http://www.academia.edu/480968/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |url-status=live }}</ref> which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in [[Place:Rumelia|Rumelia]] or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme ({{Lang|ota|Devşirme}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |title=Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis |publisher=Brill |date=1973 |isbn=978-90-04-03817-2 |page=204 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a ''Beylik'', was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the ''de facto'' head of state.<ref name="Black-2001"/>

[[File:Yusuf Ziya Paşa.jpg|thumb|Yusuf Ziya Pasha, Ottoman ambassador to the United States, in Washington DC, 1913]]

Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.

This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the [[Social:Greek language|Greek language]] to the west.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n72 78] |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>

The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized ''Tughra'' spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.

=== Law ===
{{Main|Religion:Ottoman law}}

The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the ''[[Religion:Qanun (law)|Qanun]]'' (or ''Kanun''), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or [[Religion:Sharia|Sharia]].<ref name="otmkanun">{{Cite web |title=Balancing Sharia: The Ottoman Kanun |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009012204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |archive-date=9 October 2013 |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>Washbrook, D. and Cohn, H., Law in the Ottoman Empire: Shari'a Law, Dynastic Law, Legal Institutions.</ref> The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local [[Social:Jurisprudence|jurisprudence]]. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<ref name="Benton-2001">{{Cite book |last=Benton |first=Lauren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |title=Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 |date=3 December 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00926-3 |pages=109–110 |access-date=11 February 2013 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151659/https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet.<ref name="Benton-2001"/> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<ref name="Benton-2001"/> The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative ''Qanun'', i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic ''Yassa'' and ''Töre'', which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Streusand |first=Douglas E. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1202464532 |title=Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-96813-6 |location=Milton |oclc=1202464532 |access-date=9 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1202464532 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1082195426 |title=The Ashgate research companion to Islamic law |author1=P. J. Bearman |author2=Rudolph Peters |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-315-61309-3 |location=London |pages=109 |oclc=1082195426}}</ref>

[[File:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|thumb|upright=1.3|An Ottoman trial, 1877]]

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic ''Sharia'' law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the [[Religion:Hadith|Hadīth]], or words of the prophet Muhammad; ''[[Religion:Ijma|ijmā']]'', or consensus of the members of the [[Religion:Ummah|Muslim community]]; [[Religion:Qiyas|qiyas]], a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and [[Place:Bursa|Bursa]].

[[File:Zibik.jpg|thumb|185px|An unhappy wife complaining to the Qadi about her husband's impotence, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. Divorce is allowed in Islamic law and can be initiated by either the husband or the wife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/divorce.html|title=Islamic Perspective on Divorce|website=Mwlusa.org|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304141319/http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage%26divorce/divorce.html|archive-date=2019-03-04|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a ''Qadi'', or judge. Since the closing of the ''[[Religion:Ijtihad|ijtihad]]'', or 'Gate of Interpretation', ''Qadi''s throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.<ref name="Benton-2001"/> However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839.<ref name="review-niza">{{Cite web |last=Selçuk Akşin Somel |title=Review of "Ottoman Nizamiye Courts. Law and Modernity" |url=http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |publisher=Sabancı Üniversitesi |page=2 |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012013518/http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.<ref name="int-handbook"/> Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.<ref name="int-handbook">{{Cite web |last1=Epstein |first1=Lee |last2=O'Connor |first2=Karen |last3=Grub |first3=Diana |title=Middle East |url=http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525015655/http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |website=Legal Traditions and Systems: an International Handbook |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=223–224}}</ref>

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.<ref name="int-handbook"/> In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.<ref name="int-handbook"/>

=== Military ===
[[File:Walka o sztandar turecki.jpg|thumb|Ottoman sipahis in battle, holding the crescent banner, by Józef Brandt]]

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using ''[[Engineering:Falconet (cannon)|falconets]]'', which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Mordaunt |title=The Godolphin Arabian: The Story of the Matchem Line |publisher=Robert Hale Limited |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-85131-476-1 |pages=3–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wall |first=John F |title=Famous Running Horses: Their Forebears and Descendants |isbn=978-1-163-19167-5 |page=8}}</ref> and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murphey |first=Rhoads |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=UCL Press |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005 |pages= 200–02}}</ref> falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.<ref name=AksanOW/>

[[File:The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Modernised Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment crossing the Galata Bridge in 1901]]

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.

[[File:OttomanNavy.jpg|thumb|280px|The Ottoman fleet in the Bosphorous near Ortaköy]]

The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first [[Engineering:Submarine|submarine]] in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="first submarine at shipyard">{{Cite web |title=Petition created for submarine name |url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423225019/http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |archive-date=23 April 2008 |access-date=11 February 2013 |website=Ellesmere Port Standard}}</ref>

However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The ''Ottoman Navy Foundation'' was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

[[File:Turkish pilots in 1912.jpg|thumb|Ottoman pilots in early 1912]]

The establishment of {{wipe|Ottoman Air Force}} dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Story of Turkish Aviation |url=http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512225046/http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |archive-date=12 May 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkey in the First World War}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Founding |url=http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007104345/http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |archive-date=7 October 2011 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkish Air Force}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (''Tayyare Mektebi'') in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (''Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi'') was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

== Administrative divisions ==
[[File:Ottoman Empire Administrative Divisions.png|thumb|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)]]

The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.<ref name="Imber">{{Cite web |last=Imber |first=Colin |date=2002 |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |url=http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726115700/http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2014 |pages=177–200}}</ref>

The Eyalet (also ''Pashalik'' or ''Beylerbeylik'') was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into Sanjaks.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raymond Detrez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |title=Europe and the historical legacies in the Balkans |last2=Barbara Segaert |publisher=Peter Lang |date=2008 |isbn=978-90-5201-374-9 |page=167 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" ({{Lang|tr|Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi}})<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n153 164] |access-date=1 June 2013}}</ref> in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.<ref name="trt">{{Cite book |last=Maḥmūd Yazbak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC&pg=PA28 |title=Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period 1864–1914: A Muslim Town in Transition |publisher=BRILL |date=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11051-9 |page=28 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Haifa_in_the_Late_Ottoman_Period_1864_19/DPseCvbPsKsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA28&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva/sanjak/mutasarrifate, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nahiye.<ref name="jpn">{{Cite book |last1=Mundy |first1=Martha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |title=Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria |last2=Smith |first2=Richard Saumarez |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-291-2 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Economy ==

[[File:AydınArchaeologicalMuseum (117).JPG|thumb|Coins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire at Aydın Archaeological Museum]]
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.<ref name="Inalcik1970209">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=209 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |}}</ref> To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the [[Social:Reconquista|Reconquista]]. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

[[File:Mehmed the Conqueror (1432 –1481).jpg|thumb|A European bronze medal from the period of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, 1481]]

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.<ref name="Inalcik1970217">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=217 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}</ref> The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Darling |first=Linda |title=Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660. |publisher=E.J. Brill |date=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10289-7 |pages=238–239}}</ref>

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.<ref name="Black-2001">{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=197 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }}</ref> This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.<ref name="Black-2001"/> The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |last2=Quataert |first2=Donald |date=1971 |page=120}}</ref>

[[File:Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg|thumb|The Ottoman Bank was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was occupied by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.|upright]]

Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.<ref>Donald Quataert, ''The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922'' (2005) p 24</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2016}} The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the [[Finance:Treaty of Balta Liman|Treaty of Balta Liman]] that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.

By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.<ref name="Inalcik1970218">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=218 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |}}</ref>

Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that [[Social:Free trade|free trade]] contributed to deindustrialisation in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the [[Finance:Protectionism|protectionism]] of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a [[Social:Economic liberalism|liberal trade]] policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered [[Finance:Duty (economics)|duties]] to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as John Ramsay McCulloch in his ''Dictionary of Commerce'' (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul Bairoch |title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes |publisher=[[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]] |date=1995 |pages=31–32 |}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
[[File:Ottoman Smyrna.jpg|thumb|Smyrna under Ottoman rule in 1900]]
A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.<ref name="Kabadayı"/> For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leila Erder and Suraiya Faroqhi |date=October 1979 |title=Population Rise and Fall in Anatolia 1550–1620 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=322–345 |doi=10.1080/00263207908700415}}</ref> An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.<ref name="Kabadayı"/>

Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=281}}<ref name="Kabadayı">{{Cite web |last=Kabadayı |first=M. Erdem |date=28 October 2011 |title=Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic |url=http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028114335/http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Bilgi University}}</ref> For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=S. J. |title=The Ottoman Census System and Population, 1831–1914 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1978 |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=325 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800033602 |s2cid=161326705 |quote=The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.}}</ref>
[[File:Bridge and Galata Area, Istanbul, Turkey by Abdullah Frères, ca. 1880-1893 (LOC).jpg|thumb|View of Galata (Karaköy) and the Galata Bridge on the Golden Horn, {{Circa|1880–1893}}]]

However, it began to rise to reach 25–32&nbsp;million by 1800, with around 10&nbsp;million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11&nbsp;million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3&nbsp;million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and [[Place:Syria|Syria]] and five times the population density of Arabia.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|pages=110–111}}

Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=112}} Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=113}}

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pamuk |first=S |date=August 1991 |title=The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=23 |issue=3}}</ref> Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}}
[[File:20180107_Safranbolu_1945_(39101010504).jpg|thumb|The town of [[Chemistry:Safranbolu|Safranbolu]] is one of the best preserved Ottoman villages.]]
Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian]] and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=115}} Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7&nbsp;million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8&nbsp;million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=116}} Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called ''Muhacir''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |page={{Page needed|date=February 2013}}}}</ref> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<ref name="books.google_b"/>

=== Language ===
[[File:1911 Ottoman Calendar.jpg|thumb|upright|1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish, Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian and French]]

[[Social:Ottoman Turkish|Ottoman Turkish]] was the official language of the Empire.<ref>{{Cite constitution|article=18|polity=the Ottoman Empire|date=1876}}</ref> It was an [[Social:Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] [[Social:Turkic languages|Turkic language]] highly influenced by [[Social:Persian language|Persian]] and [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]], though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davison |first=Roderic H. |date=1964-12-31 |title=Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400878765 |doi=10.1515/9781400878765 |isbn=978-1-4008-7876-5 |quote=There was the ruling Ottoman group, now largely concentrated in the bureaucracy centered on the Sublime Porte, and the mass of the people, mostly peasants. The efendi looked down on "the Turk," which was a term of opprobrium indicating boorishness, and preferred to think of himself as an Osmanli. His country was not Turkey, but the Ottoman State. His language was also "Ottoman"; though he might also call it "Turkish," in such a case he distinguished it from ''kaba türkçe'', or coarse Turkish, the common speech. His writing included a minimum of Turkish words, except for particles and auxiliary verbs. |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400878765/html |url-status=live }}</ref> Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1908 |title=The Ottoman Constitution, promulgated the seventh Zilbridge, 1293 (11/23 December 1876) |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=376 |doi=10.2307/2212668 |jstor=2212668|s2cid=246006581 }}</ref>

The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as Albania, Bosnia<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69">{{Cite book |last=Bertold Spuler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |title=Persian Historiography And Geography |publisher=Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd |date=2003 |isbn=978-9971-77-488-2 |page=69 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the Megleno-Romanian-inhabited Nânti;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kahl |first=Thede |date=2006 |title=The Islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey |volume=34 |pages=71–90 |journal=Nationalities Papers |issue=1 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |doi=10.1080/00905990500504871 |s2cid=161615853 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415153900/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |url-status=live }}</ref> Persian, only spoken by the educated;<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69"/> Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the [[Place:Levant|Levant]], Arabia, Iraq, North Africa, Kuwait and parts of the [[Place:Horn of Africa|Horn of Africa]] and Berber in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69"/> while [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]] was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-Tanzimat period French became the common Western language among the educated.<ref name="Strauss-2010"/>

Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (''arzuhâlci''s) to be able to communicate with the government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kemal H. Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |title=Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays |publisher=Brill |date=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12101-0 |page=266 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.{{Sfn|Davison|1964|p=62|ps=It was true also that there was a partial linguistic amalgam of the peoples in the empire. Many Greeks and Armenians did not know their national languages and spoke Turkish alone, though they wrote it in Greek and Armenian characters.}} In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|Abdülmecid II was the last caliph of Islam and a member of the Ottoman dynasty.]]

Sunni Islam was the prevailing ''[[Religion:Din (Arabic)|Dīn]]'' (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official ''[[Religion:Madhhab|Madh'hab]]'' (school of Islamic [[Social:Jurisprudence|jurisprudence]]) was ''Hanafi.''<ref name="Gunduz">Gunduz, Sinasi [https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104 Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, pp. 104–05</ref> From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the [[Religion:Caliphate|caliph]], or politico-religious leader, of the [[Religion:Muslim world|Muslim world]]. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to [[Religion:Sufism|Sufism]] and followed Sufi orders, and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yılmaz |first=Hüseyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |title=Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought |date=2018-01-08 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7 |language=en |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |archive-date=14 January 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.<ref name="emigrnonm" />

Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.<ref name="Benton-2001" /> Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and secession.<ref name="emigrnonm" /> The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.<ref name="emigrnonm" /> By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.<ref name="emigrnonm">{{Cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |date=1 February 2008 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937 |hdl=11729/308 |s2cid=143541451}}</ref>

==== Islam ====
{{See also|Islam in Turkey}}Turkic peoples practiced a form of [[Unsolved:Shamanism|shamanism]] before adopting Islam. The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana under the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the [[Religion:Maturidi|Maturidi school of]] [[Religion:Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]], which emphasized [[Philosophy:Reason|human reason]], [[Philosophy:Rationality|rationality]], the pursuit of science and [[Religion:Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] (''falsafa'').<ref>Alpyağıl, Recep (28 November 2016). "[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0232.xml Māturīdī]". ''Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies''. Oxford: [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]. {{doi|10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0232}}. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |website=The National Interest |title=Turkey's 200-Year War against 'ISIS' |first1=Selim |last1=Koru |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131711/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |archive-date=6 February 2018 |date= 24 July 2015 }}</ref> The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence,<ref>{{cite book |first=John L. |last=Esposito |date=1999 |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |pages=112–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |access-date=16 November 2023 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145710/https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104 Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, p.104-105</ref><ref>[http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse Middle East Institute: "Salafism Infiltrates Turkish Religious Discourse" By Andrew Hammond – Middle East Policy Fellow – European Council on Foreign Relations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807091143/http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse |date=7 August 2018 }} 22 July 2015,</ref>
[[File:Istanbul asv2021-10 img15 Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque.jpg|thumb|The Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey]]
The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]], [[Religion:Isma'ilism|Ismailis]], Alevis, and Alawites.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606173420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Religion:Sufism|Sufism]], a diverse body of Islamic [[Philosophy:Mysticism|mysticism]], found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (''[[Religion:Tariqa|tariqa]]''), such as the Bektashi and Mevlevi, were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sufism in the Ottoman Empire Research Papers - Academia.edu |url=https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www.academia.edu |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323021442/https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,<ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4408-5353-1 |pages=364–366}}</ref> with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of [[Biography:Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]], a member of the conservative Hanbali school.<ref>{{Cite book |last=S. Swayd |first=Samy |title=The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography |publisher=University of Michigan Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-9662932-0-3 |page=25}}</ref> In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (''[[History:Qizilbash|Qizilbash]]''), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival [[Place:Safavid Iran|Safavid Empire]].

During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an [[Religion:Caliphate|Islamic caliphate]], although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).<ref name="Lambton-1995" /> The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the office's abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Republic of Turkey (and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France).

==== Christianity and Judaism ====
[[File:Gennadios II and Mehmed II.jpg|thumb|upright|Mehmed the Conqueror and Patriarch Gennadius II]]

In accordance with the Muslim ''[[Religion:Dhimmi|dhimmi]]'' system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "[[Religion:People of the Book|people of the book]]", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms ([[Religion:Zakat|z''akat'']]) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or {{Lang|ota|dhimmi}}) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the ''[[Religion:Jizya|jizya]],'' which was a key source of state revenue.<ref>Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). ''Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. {{ISBN|978-90-04-07785-0}}. <q>the ''jizya'' was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.</q></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |title-link=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/24 24] |}}</ref> Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.

The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the millet, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning ''dhimmi.'' A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of Mount Athos, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2022-10-21 |title=Greek monastery manuscripts tell new story of Ottoman rule |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |access-date=2022-10-24 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024010806/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ''Rum'' Millet, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era {{Lang|la|Corpus Juris Civilis}} (Code of Justinian), with the [[Religion:Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch]] designated the highest religious and political authority (''millet-bashi'', or [[Social:Ethnarch|ethnarch]]). Likewise, Ottoman Jews came under the authority of the ''[[Religion:Hakham Bashi|Haham Başı]],'' or Ottoman Chief Rabbi, while Armenians were under the authority of the chief bishop of the Armenian Apostolic Church.<ref name="Syed-2011">{{Cite book |last=Syed |first=Muzaffar Husain |title=A Concise History of Islam |date=2011 |publisher=Vij Books India |isbn=978-93-81411-09-4 |location=New Delhi |page=97}}</ref> As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krummerich |first=Sean |date=1998–1999 |title=The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula |url=http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |url-status=dead |journal=The Student Historical Journal |publisher=Loyola University New Orleans |volume=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610014150/http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |archive-date=10 June 2009 |access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish Toleration |url=http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010320091629/http://globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |archive-date=20 March 2001 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=The American Forum for Global Education}}</ref>

Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of [[Religion:Religious pluralism|religious pluralism]], as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96 |title=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism |date=2001 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-513991-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96 96–97] |quote=The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government.}}</ref>

=== Social-political-religious structure ===

[[File:Subject Nationalities of the German Alliance (1917) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = Lazes, Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = Nestorians]]

Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.<ref>Philip D. Curtin, ''The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire'' (2002), pp. 173–192.</ref><ref>Fatma Muge Gocek, ''Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change'' (1996) pp 138–42</ref> In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. His successor Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.<ref>Kemal H. Karpat, "The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 3#3 (1972): 243–281. [http://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Karpat,%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Ott%20State,%201789-1908%20(1972).pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417032011/http://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Karpat,%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Ott%20State,%201789-1908%20(1972).pdf |date=17 April 2018 }}</ref> The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amit Bein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |title=Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7311-9 |page=141 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151702/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Istanbul asv2021-11 img71 StAnthony of Padua Church.jpg|thumb|The original Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.]]

The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.<ref>Peter Mansfield, ''A History of the Middle East'' (1991) p. 31.</ref><ref>Oleg Benesch, "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace." ''Comparative Civilizations Review'' 55.55 (2006): 6:37–55 [https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1669&context=ccr Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109153441/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1669&context=ccr |date=9 November 2019 }}.</ref> The political system was transformed by the destruction of the Janissaries, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the Auspicious Incident of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.

The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.<ref>Karen Barkey, and George Gavrilis, "The Ottoman millet system: non-territorial autonomy and its contemporary legacy." ''Ethnopolitics'' 15.1 (2016): 24–42.</ref> They were primarily Greek, Armenian, or Jewish. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.

Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Quataert|1983}} In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.<ref>Youssef M. Choueiri, ''Arab Nationalism: A History: Nation and State in the Arab World'' (2001), pp. 56–100.</ref>
[[File:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg|thumb|Hemdat Israel Synagogue of Istanbul]]

At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the ayans or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA64 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=64 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151704/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/QjzYdCxumFcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.<ref>Naci Yorulmaz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2-eKDwAAQBAJ ''Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Personal Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141247/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arming_the_Sultan/2-eKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }} (IB Tauris, 2014).</ref>

== Culture ==
[[File:WaldmeierLebanon.gif|thumb|Depiction of a hookah shop in Lebanon]]

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE |encyclopedia=Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117192349/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |url-status=live }}</ref>

Slavery was part of Ottoman society,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halil Inalcik |title=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |archive-date=11 September 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref> with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of [[Social:Slavery|chattel slavery]], slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521234122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the Ottoman slave trade but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.<ref name="Syed-2011"/>

[[Medicine:Plague (disease)|Plague]] remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul<!--Exact quote, so keep naming here-->, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |date=1998 |title=Migration into Eighteenth-century 'Greater Istanbul' as Reflected in the Kadi Registers of Eyüp |url=https://secure.peeters-leuven.be/POJ/purchaseform.php?id=2004296&sid= |journal=Turcica |location=Louvain |publisher=Éditions Klincksieck |volume=30 |page=165 |doi=10.2143/TURC.30.0.2004296}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.<ref>''Halil İnalcık, [https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_İnalcık_-_Has_Bağçede_Ayş_u_Tarab.pdf "Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726055101/https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf |date=26 July 2019 }}, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)''</ref>

Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, [[Place:Safavid Iran|Safavid Iran]] and Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids of [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]].<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023">{{cite book |last1=Comstock-Skipp |first1=Jaimee |editor1-last=Paskaleva |editor1-first=Elena |editor2-last=van den Berg |editor2-first=Gabrielle |title=Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-54099-6 |page=54 |chapter=Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic ''Shāhnāma'' Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)}}</ref> Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/> But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/>

=== Education ===
[[File:Beyazıt State Library (14667026514).jpg|thumb|The Beyazıt State Library was founded in 1884.]]

In the Ottoman Empire, each millet established a schooling system serving its members.<ref name="Strauss-2016">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 PT194] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 |date=1 November 2022 }}-[https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.<ref name="StraussPT195">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref>

Several "foreign schools" (''Frerler mektebleri'') operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.<ref name="Strauss-2016"/> Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".<ref>Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane. ''Turkish Life in Town and Country''. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1904. p. [https://archive.org/details/turkishlifeinto00garngoog/page/n259 205].</ref>

=== Literature ===

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude ({{lang|ota|مراعات نظير}} {{transliteration|ota|mura'ât-i nazîr}} / {{lang|ota|تناسب}} {{transliteration|ota|tenâsüb}}) and opposition ({{lang|ota|تضاد}} {{transliteration|ota|tezâd}}) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of [[Social:Narrative poetry|narrative poetry]]; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzuli and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib. The Seyahatnâme of Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.

[[File:Nedim (divan edb.şairi).JPG|thumb|Ahmet Nedîm Efendi, one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets|upright]]

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of {{transliteration|ota|sec}} ({{lang|ota|سجع}}, also transliterated as {{transliteration|ota|seci}}), or rhymed prose,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murat Belge |title=Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |date=2005 |isbn=978-975-8998-03-6 |page=389}}</ref> a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât (''Fancies'') by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 ''The Story of Akabi'' (Turkish: ''Akabi Hikyayesi''). It was written in Turkish but with [[Social:Armenian language|Armenian]] script.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mignon |first=Laurent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |title=Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature |date=2005 |publisher=ISIS |isbn=978-975-428-303-7 |location=Istanbul |page=20 |quote=Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as Hisarian's novel. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Masters |first1=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Ágoston |first2=Gábor |date=2009 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |location=New York |page=440 |quote=Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pultar |first=Gönül |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |title=Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism |date=2013 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3342-6 |edition=First |location=[S.l.] |page=329 |quote=In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gürçaglar |first1=Şehnaz |title=Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey |last2=Paker |first2=Saliha |last3=Milton |first3=John |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6847-1 |page=5 |quote=It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.}}</ref>

Due to historically close ties with France, French literature constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of [[Philosophy:Romanticism|Romanticism]] can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the [[Biography:Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] and Parnassian movements was paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel ''İntibâh'' (''Awakening''), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy {{transliteration|ota|Şair Evlenmesi}} (''The Poet's Marriage''). An earlier play, a farce titled {{transliteration|ota|Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed}} (''The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed''), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (''Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr'', 1873; ''Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery''), Realism ({{transliteration|ota|Henüz on Yedi Yaşında}}, 1881; ''Just Seventeen Years Old''), and Naturalism ({{transliteration|ota|Müşâhedât}}, 1891; ''Observations''). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman [[Social:Social structure|social structure]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Berna |title=Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1 |date=1997 |isbn=978-975-470-054-1 |page=19|publisher=İletişim Yayınları }}</ref>

=== Media ===
The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including French,<ref name=BaruhMusnik>{{cite web|author=Baruh, Lorans Tanatar|author2=Sara Yontan Musnik|url=https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|title=Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=French National Library|access-date=13 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416115120/https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|url-status=live}}</ref> Greek,<ref name=StraussConstp32>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)</ref> and German.<ref name="Syed-2011"/> Many of these publications were centered in Constantinople,<ref name=Kendallp339>Kendall, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 339] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> but there were also French-language newspapers produced in [[Place:Beirut|Beirut]], Salonika, and Smyrna.<ref name=StraussLanguagep122>Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule''. Routledge, 7 July 2016. ({{ISBN|978-1-317-11845-9}}), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151548/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a lingua franca and used French-language publications,<ref name=BaruhMusnik/> while some provincial newspapers were published in [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]].<ref name=StraussConstp25>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)</ref> The use of French in the media persisted until the end of the empire in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the [[Place:Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name=BaruhMusnik/>

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg|thumb|Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, designed by Mimar Sinan in the 16th century and a major example of the Classical Ottoman style]]
[[File:P1020390.JPG|thumb|Blue Mosque in Istanbul, an example of the classical style of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.]]

The architecture of the empire developed from earlier Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influences from Byzantine and Iranian architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.<ref>"Seljuk architecture", ''Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture'', ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.</ref><ref name="Bloom-2009">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name="Freely-2011">{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."</ref> Early Ottoman architecture experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the Classical Ottoman style of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the Hagia Sophia.<ref name="Freely-2011" /><ref name="Goodwin">{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |location=London}}</ref> The most important architect of the Classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque.<ref name="AgostonMasters20102">{{cite book |author1=Gábor Ágoston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |author2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=21 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last1=M. Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan |chapter=Ottoman |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eli Shah |title=The Ottoman Artistic Legacy |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213131926/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of Iznik tiles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carswell |first=John |title=Iznik Pottery |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7141-2441-4 |edition=Second |pages=75}}</ref>

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the Baroque architecture in Western Europe, resulting in the Ottoman Baroque style.<ref name="Freely-2011a">{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=355}}</ref> Nuruosmaniye Mosque is one of the most important examples from this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the Balyan family.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} Empire style and [[History:Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] motifs were introduced and a trend towards eclecticism was evident in many types of buildings, such as the Dolmabaçe Palace.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the First National Architectural Movement,<ref name="Bloom-2009a">{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin |access-date=9 March 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151707/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Grove_Encyclopedia_of_Islamic_Art_Archit/un4WcfEASZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA1-PA379&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> by architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}}

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as Amasya and Manisa. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a ''külliye'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a [[Engineering:Madrasa|madrasa]], a hammam, an imaret, a [[Place:Sebil (fountain)|sebil]], a market, a caravanserai, a [[Religion:Kuttab|primary school]], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a ''vakıf'' agreement (Arabic ''waqf'').{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older Islamic architectural styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

=== Decorative arts ===

[[File:Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg|thumb|Ottoman miniature lost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.|upright]]

The tradition of Ottoman miniatures, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the Persian art form, though it also included elements of the Byzantine tradition of [[Engineering:Illuminated manuscript|illumination]] and painting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atil |first=Esin |date=1973 |title=Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=9 |pages=103–120 |jstor=4629273 |issn=0571-1371 |access-date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101140443/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |url-status=live }}</ref> A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'', was established in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added. Surname-i Hümayun (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.

Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in ''muraqqa'' or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (''taswir''), calligraphy (''hat''), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (''cilt'') and paper marbling (''ebru''). In the Ottoman Empire, [[Engineering:Illuminated manuscript|illuminated and illustrated manuscripts]] were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in ''Nakkashane'', the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums ''levha'' consisted of illuminated calligraphy (''hat'') of ''tughra'', religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.<ref name="foroqhi">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=152}}</ref> The weaving of such carpets originated in the [[Social:Nomad|nomad]]ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and kilims not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.<ref name="foroqhip153">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=153}}</ref>

=== Music and performing arts ===

Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.

The [[Engineering:Musical instrument|instruments]] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the [[Engineering:Oud|ud]], the tanbur, the [[Engineering:Qanun (instrument)|kanun]], the [[Engineering:Ney|ney]]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of [[Social:Folk music|folk music]] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

The traditional shadow play called [[Biology:Karagöz and Hacivat|Karagöz and Hacivat]] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2006 |title=Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |access-date=20 August 2012 |publisher=All About Turkey |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824133707/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Emin Şenyer |title=Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre |url=http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131082003/http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Karagoz.net}}</ref> It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by [[Biology:Tambourine|tambourine]] (''def''). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Surname 171b.jpg|Miniature from ''Surname-i Vehbi'' showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries
File:Karagoz figures.jpg|The shadow play [[Biology:Karagöz and Hacivat|Karagöz and Hacivat]] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.
File:Musicians and dancers from ottoman empire.jpg|Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from Surname-i Hümayun, 1720
File:A Musical Gathering - Ottoman, 18th century.jpg|A musical gathering in the 18th century
File:Surname-ı Hümayun acrobacy.png|Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun
</gallery>

=== Cuisine ===
[[File:François-Marie Rosset - Femmes Turcs turques de Serquin, leur manière de faire leur pain - Syrie - 1790.jpg|thumb|upright|Turkish women baking bread, 1790]]

Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through [[Religion:Ramadan|Ramadan]] events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish, and including Greek, Balkan, Armenian, and Middle Eastern cuisines.<ref name="Fragner">Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, ''A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East'', London, [[Place:Prague|Prague]] and New York, p. 52</ref> Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/[[Engineering:Tsipouro|tsipouro]]/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.

=== Sports ===

[[File:MedyaBJK.jpg|thumb|Members of Beşiktaş J.K. in 1903]]
[[File:GS_Kuruculari.jpg|thumb|Members of Galatasaray S.K. (football) in 1905]]

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish wrestling, hunting, [[Engineering:Turkish archery|Turkish archery]], horseback riding, [[Place:Jereed|equestrian javelin throw]], arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905), Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907), MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkaragücü) (1910) in Constantinople<!--Istanbul is the modern name for the whole city-->. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

== Science and technology ==
{{Main|Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire}}[[File:Istambul observatory in 1577.jpg|thumb|The Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din in 1577]]

Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.<ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583" /> A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of [[Biography:Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]. Another example is [[Biography:Ali Qushji|Ali Qushji]] – an [[Religion:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|astronomer]], mathematician and [[Physics:Physics in the medieval Islamic world|physicist]] originally from [[Place:Samarkand|Samarkand]] – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople<!--Here, use that instead of Istanbul--> before his death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragep |first=F. J. |date=2005 |title=Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |publisher=Science History Publications Ltd. |volume=36 |issue=125 |pages=359–371 |bibcode=2005JHA....36..359R |doi=10.1177/002182860503600401 |s2cid=119066552}}</ref>

[[Biography:Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]] built the Constantinople<!--Use Constantinople instead of Istanbul--> observatory of Taqi al-Din in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the [[Astronomy:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the [[Astronomy:Apsis|apogee]].<ref name="Tekeli">{{Cite encyclopedia |date=1997 |title=Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures |publisher=Kluwer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9 |author=Sevim Tekeli |entry=Taqi al-Din }}</ref> However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly [[Unsolved:Astrology|astrological]] rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 |pages=18–19}}</ref> He also experimented with [[Physics:Steam engine|steam power]] in Ottoman Egypt in 1551, when he described a [[Engineering:Roasting jack|steam jack]] driven by a rudimentary [[Engineering:Steam turbine|steam turbine]].<ref>Ahmad Y Hassan (1976), ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[Organization:University of Aleppo|University of Aleppo]]</ref>[[File:Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg|thumb|''Girl Reciting the Qurān'' (''Kuran Okuyan Kız''), an 1880 painting by the Ottoman polymath Osman Hamdi Bey, whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2017 |title=Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey? |url=http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey |access-date=13 June 2018 |website=How To Talk About Art History |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084633/http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

In 1660 the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ben-Zaken |first=Avner |date=2004 |title=The Heavens of the Sky and the Heavens of the Heart: the Ottoman Cultural Context for the Introduction of Post-Copernican Astronomy |url=https://www.academia.edu/1607448 |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |volume=37 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1017/S0007087403005302 |s2cid=171015647 |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024850/https://www.academia.edu/1607448/Avner_Ben-Zaken_The_Heavens_of_the_Sky_and_the_Heavens_of_the_Heart_the_Ottoman_Cultural_Context_for_the_Introduction_of_Post-Copernican_Astronomy_British_Journal_of_History_of_Science_37_1_March_2004_ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world. Though his work was largely based on Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's ''Al-Tasrif'', Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bademci |first=G. |date=2006 |title=First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu |journal=Neurocirugía |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=162–165 |doi=10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012 |pmid=16721484 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as [[Engineering:Forceps|forceps]], [[Medicine:Catheter|catheter]]s, [[Engineering:Scalpel|scalpels and lancets]] as well as [[Engineering:Pincers (tool)|pincers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ottoman Empire |url=https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=[[Unsolved:History (American TV network)|History.com]] |archive-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125011425/https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |url-status=live }} “Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets”</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2022}}

An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Horton |first=Paul |date=July–August 1977 |title=Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Saudi Aramco World |pages=10–13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122021637/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm |archive-date=22 November 2008 |access-date=12 July 2008}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using [[Physics:Steam engine|steam engine]]s for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as [[History:Ironworks|ironworks]], textile manufacturing, [[Engineering:Paper mill|paper mill]]s and [[Biology:Husk|hulling]] mills moving towards steam power.<ref name="batou193">{{Cite book |last=Jean Batou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjD4SCOE6IgC&pg=PA193 |title=Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870 |publisher=Librairie Droz |date=1991 |isbn=978-2-600-04293-2 |pages=193–196}}</ref> Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of [[Chemistry:Oil|oil]] as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.<ref name="batou193"/>

In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.

== See also ==
* ''16 Great Turkic Empires''
* Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire
* ''Empire of the Sultans''
* Gunpowder empires
* Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire
* Index of Ottoman Empire-related articles
* List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire
* List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire
* List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings
* List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
* Ottoman wars in Europe
* [[Earth:Outline of the Ottoman Empire|Outline of the Ottoman Empire]]
* Turkic history

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Atasoy |first1=Nurhan |first2=Julian |last2=Raby |title= Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey |editor-first=Yanni |editor-last=Petsopoulos |date=1989 |publisher=Alexandria Press |isbn=978-0-500-97374-5}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Sheila S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-300-06465-0|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151708/https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Freely|first=John|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|year=2011|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-506-9|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Itzkowitz |first=Norman |title=Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition |date=1980 |isbn=978-0-226-38806-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kinross |first=Lord |title=The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire |date=1979 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-688-08093-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies00kinr/page/n4 }} popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
* {{Cite book|last=Kuban|first=Doğan|title=Ottoman Architecture|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=2010|isbn=978-1-85149-604-4|translator-last=Mill|translator-first=Adair}}
* {{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908 |date=1983 |}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Quataert |first1=Donald |last2=Spivey |first2=Diane M. |title=Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922 |date=2000 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4431-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rogan |first=Eugene |title=The Arabs: A History |publisher=Penguin |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-465-03248-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16U0mEbf4nAC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151601/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Arabs/16U0mEbf4nAC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}

=== General surveys ===
{{Refbegin}}
* [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9 ''The Cambridge History of Turkey'' online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105213313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9 |date=5 November 2020 }}
** Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
** Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
** Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
** Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
* Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' (2008)
* Faroqhi, Suraiya. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Short History'' (2009) 196pp
* {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-521-72730-3 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite Q|Q19097235}}<!-- The promises of Turkey -->
* Koller, Markus (2012), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C= ''Ottoman History of South-East Europe''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160640/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C= |date=11 June 2021 }}, [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ |date=8 February 2013 }}, Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php |date=19 February 2016 }}, retrieved: March 25, 2021 ([http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011121258 pdf]).
* {{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-57451-9 |edition=2 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}} Two volumes.
* Kia, Mehrdad, ed. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2017)
* McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923.'' (1997) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanturksintr0000mcca The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923] online
* Mikaberidze, Alexander. ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2011)
* Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill online], strong on foreign policy
* Quataert, Donald. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922.'' 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-54782-2}}.
* Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." ''Renaissance Quarterly'' (2017) 70#1: 220–234 [http://www.academia.edu/download/52257343/RQ_review_essay.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Somel, Selcuk Aksin. ''Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003). pp.&nbsp;399 [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063618/https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323 |date=14 May 2022 }}
* Stavrianos, L. S. ''The Balkans since 1453'' (1968; new preface 1999) [https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst online]
* Tabak, Faruk. ''The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach'' (2008)

=== Early Ottomans ===
* {{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |publisher=U California Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-520-20600-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi P. |title=Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia |publisher=Indiana UP|date=1983 |isbn=978-0-933070-12-7 |location=Bloomington}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |location=Albany}}

=== Diplomatic and military ===
* {{Cite journal |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |date=2014 |title=Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=25 |pages=85–124 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2014.0005 |s2cid=143042353}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7}}
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." ''Journal of Early Modern History'' 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; [https://www.academia.edu/download/53818952/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_Matters.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in ''Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000'' ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)[https://www.academia.edu/download/35001786/Chapter-11-Aksan-Mobilization_of_warrior_populations-1.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." ''International History Review'' 24.2 (2002): 253–277 [https://www.academia.edu/download/46384567/Aksan_BreakingtheSpelloftheBarondeTottReframingtheQuesti_retrieved_2016-06-10_.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." ''Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East'' 27.2 (2007): 259–272 [http://www.academia.edu/download/53818899/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_and_State_Transformation_in__Globalizing_CSSAAMEAksan.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." ''War in History'' 5.1 (1998): 23–36 [https://web.archive.org/web/20200228231453/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9d7/c3a29abba101ebeb7705e2a733f2a8076187.pdf online].
* Albrecht-Carrié, René. ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000albr_b4c1 online free to borrow]
* Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." ''International Review of Turkish Studies'' 1.3 (2011): 8–30. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024900/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Fahmy, Khaled. '' All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt'' (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
* Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C= ''Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160637/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C= |date=11 June 2021 }}, [http://www.ieg-ego.eu EHO – European History Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ |date=8 February 2013 }}, Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php |date=19 February 2016 }}, retrieved: March 25, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34 pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505202644/https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34 |date=5 May 2021 }}).
* Hall, Richard C. ed. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014)
* Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." ''Middle East Journal'' 15.2 (1961): 141–152. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726195811/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345 |date=26 July 2020 }}
* Merriman, Roger Bigelow. ''Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'' (Harvard University Press, 1944) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87496 online]
* Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill online], strong on foreign policy
* Minawi, Mustafa. ''The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz'' (2016) [https://archive.org/details/kaoikaprophe007_gmail_20180922 online]
* Nicolle, David. ''Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774'' (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
* Palmer, Alan. ''The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire'' (1994).
* {{Cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Murphey |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-85728-389-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Erickson |first2=Edward |date=2009 |publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0}}

=== Specialty studies ===
* Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. ''A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground'' (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
* Barkey, Karen. ''Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.'' (2008) {{ISBN|978-0-521-71533-1}}
* Davison, Roderic H. ''Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876'' (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
* Deringil, Selim. ''The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909'' (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
* Findley, Carter V. ''Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922'' (Princeton University Press, 1980)
* McMeekin, Sean. ''The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power'' (2010)
* Mikhail, Alan. ''God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World'' (2020) {{ISBN|978-1-63149-239-6}} on Selim I (1470–1529)
* Pamuk, Sevket. ''A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire'' (1999). pp.&nbsp;276
* Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp.&nbsp;86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 {{ISBN|0-297-84913-1}}.
* Yaycioglu, Ali. ''Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions'' (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: {{doi|10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716}}  {{Cite journal |url=https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/ |title=Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" &#124; Middle East – Topics & Arguments |year=2018 |doi=10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141747/https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/ |url-status=live |last1=Cakir |first1=Burcin |journal=Middle East – Topics & Arguments |volume=10 |pages=109–112 }}.

=== Historiography ===
* Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809081242/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3 |date=9 August 2020 }}
** [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215 comment by Ehud R. Toledano] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809052829/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215 |date=9 August 2020 }} and [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary reply by Aksan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225081133/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary |date=25 February 2021 }}
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 25.1 (1993): 53–69 [http://www.academia.edu/download/35157878/Aksan_OttomanPOlitical_WritingIJMES_1993.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." ''International Journal of Turkish Studies'' 14.1/2 (2008).
* Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' 138#2 (2018), p.&nbsp;369+. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A551496598/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=04b4884e online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024929/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7CA551496598&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=04b4884e |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) [http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063633/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf |date=14 May 2022 }}.
* Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1#1 (2014), pp.&nbsp;23–35 {{doi|10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23}}  {{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |doi=10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |jstor=10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809062102/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |url-status=live |title=Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies |year=2014 |last1=Eissenstat |journal=Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=23–35 |s2cid=158272381 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kayalı |first=Hasan |date=December 2017 |title=The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends |journal=The Journal of Modern History |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=875–907 |doi=10.1086/694391 |issn=0022-2801 |s2cid=148953435}}
* Lieven, Dominic. ''Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals'' (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. [https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019121200/https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263 |date=19 October 2016 }}
* Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," ''Comparative Studies in Society & History'' (2012) 54#4 pp.&nbsp;721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
* Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892 |title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1999 |isbn=978-1-884964-33-6 |editor-last=Kelly Boyd |pages=892–896 |access-date=5 October 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892 |url-status=live }}
* Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" ''History Compass'' 1 (2003): 1–9.
* Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 7.1 (2020): 70–73 [http://www.academia.edu/download/64051313/Ali%20Yaycioglu%20-%20Ottoman%20Early%20Modern.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 48 (2017): 173–190. [https://www.academia.edu/download/52736768/Yilmaz__Yasir__-_nebulous_ottomans_vs_good_old_habsburgs_a_historiographical_comparison.pdf Online]{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://otap.bilkent.edu.tr/ Ottoman Text Archive Project]
* [https://guides.lib.umich.edu/NE/ottoman Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources] – University of Michigan
* [https://ottomanhistorians.uchicago.edu/en Historians of the Ottoman Empire] – University of Chicago
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11770 Turkey in Asia], 1920

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[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]

{{Sourceattribution|Ottoman Empire}}