View source for Place:Samarkand

{{Short description|City in southeastern Uzbekistan}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Samarkand
| native_name        = {{lang|uz|Самарқанд}} / {{native name|uz|Samarqand}}<br/>{{native name|fa|سمرقند}}
| native_name_lang   = 
| other_name         = Самарканд
| settlement_type    = City
| image_skyline      = {{Photomontage
 |photo1a = Registan square Samarkand.jpg
 |photo2a = Mausoleum of Amir Temur (1).JPG
 |photo2b = Shah-i-Zinda (8145369659).jpg
 |photo3a = Sherdor madrasah 3.jpg
 |photo3b = Mosque Bibi Khanum (5).JPG
 |photo4a = Samarkand registan 02.png
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| image_caption      = <div>'''Clockwise from the top:<br/>'''Registan square, Shah-i-Zinda necropolis, Bibi-Khanym Mosque, view inside Shah-i-Zinda, Sher-Dor Madrasah in Registan, Timur's Mausoleum Gur-e-Amir.</div>
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| pushpin_map        = Uzbekistan#West Asia#Asia
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| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uzbekistan
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| coordinates        = {{coord|39|39|17|N|66|58|33|E|region:UZ-SA_type:city|display=it}}
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| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = {{flag|Uzbekistan}}
| subdivision_type1  = Vilayat
| subdivision_name1  = Samarqand Vilayat
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| established_title  = Settled
| established_date   = 8th century BCE
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| government_type    = City Administration
| governing_body     = Hakim (Mayor)
| leader_party       = Furqat Rahimov
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| unit_pref          = Metric
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| area_total_km2     = 120
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| elevation_m        = 705
| population_as_of   = 1 January 2019
| population_footnotes = 
| population_total   = 513,572<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography |title=The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics |access-date=2020-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429095401/https://stat.uz/en/181-ofytsyalnaia-statystyka-en/6383-demography |archive-date=2020-04-29 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro   = 950,000
| population_note    = 
| population_demonym = Samarqandian / Samarqandi
| timezone1          = 
| utc_offset1        = +5
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| postal_code_type   = Postal code
| postal_code        = 140100
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| website            = {{URL|https://samarkand.uz/en|samarkand.uz}}
| module             = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
 |child = yes
 |Official_name = Samarqand – Crossroads of Cultures
 |Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iv
 |ID = 603
 |Year = 2001
 |Area = 1,123 ha
 |Buffer_zone = 1,369 ha}}
| official_name      = 
}}
'''Samarqand''' or  '''Samarkand''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|m|ər|k|æ|n|d}} {{respell|SAM|ər|kand}}; [[Social:Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and {{lang-tg|Самарқанд}}, {{IPA-uz|sæmærqænd, -ænt|pron}}; {{lang-fa|سمرقند}}) is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]. Samarqand is the capital of Samarqand Region and a district-level city, that includes the urban-type settlements Kimyogarlar, Farhod and Khishrav.<ref name=class>{{cite web |url=https://stat.uz/uploads/docs/soato(mhobt)_2020.xlsx |title=Classification system of territorial units of the Republic of Uzbekistan |language=uz, ru |date=July 2020 |publisher=The State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on statistics}}</ref> With 551,700 inhabitants (2021),<ref name=samstat>{{cite web |url=https://samstat.uz/files/284/Demografiya/1705/Hududlar-boyicha-shahar-va-qishloq-aholisi-soni.pdf |title=Urban and rural population by district |publisher=Samarkand regional department of statistics |language=uz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213143332/https://samstat.uz/uz/?option=com_dropfiles&format=&task=frontfile.download&catid=284&id=1705&Itemid=1000000000000 |archive-date=2022-02-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> it is the second-largest city of Uzbekistan. 

There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city dating from the late [[Earth:Paleolithic|Paleolithic]] Era. Though there is no direct evidence of when Samarqand was founded, several theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between [[Place:East Asia|China]], Persia and [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], at times Samarqand was one of the largest<ref>{{cite news |last1=Varadarajan |first1=Tunku |title=Metropolitan Glory |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=24 October 2009 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704500604574483701746375742}}</ref> cities in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]],<ref name="ReferenceC">Guidebook of history of Samarqand", {{ISBN|978-9943-01-139-7}}</ref> and was an important city of the empires of [[Place:Greater Iran|Greater Iran]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=NikTalab |first=Poopak |title=From the Alleyways of Samarqand to the Mediterranean Coast (The Evolution of the World of Child and Adolescent Literature) |publisher=Faradid publishing |year=2019 |isbn=9786226606622 |location=Tehran, Iran |pages=18–27}}</ref> By the time of the Persian [[Place:Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Empire]], it was the capital of the [[Place:Sogdia|Sogdia]]n satrapy. The city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in [[Social:Greek language|Greek]] as {{lang|grc|Μαράκανδα}}.<ref name="History of Samarkand">{{cite web |title=History of Samarkand |url=http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand |publisher=Sezamtravel |access-date=1 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103035234/http://www.sezamtravel.com/en/Samarkand |archive-date=3 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and Turkic rulers until it was conquered by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in 1220.

The city is noted as a centre of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]]ic [[Religion:Ulama|scholarly]] study and the birthplace of the Timurid Renaissance. In the 14th century, Timur made it the capital of his empire and the site of his mausoleum, the Gur-e Amir. The Bibi-Khanym Mosque, rebuilt during the Soviet era, remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarqand's Registan square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting.<ref>Энциклопедия туризма Кирилла и Мефодия. 2008.</ref> In 2001, [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]] added the city to its World Heritage List as ''Samarqand – Crossroads of Cultures''.

Modern Samarqand is divided into two parts: the old city, and the new city, which was developed during the days of the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]] and [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]. The old city includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; the new city includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm |title=History of Samarkand |website=www.advantour.com |access-date=2018-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516174124/https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/history.htm |archive-date=2018-05-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> On September 15–16, 2022, the city hosted the 2022 SCO summit.

Samarkand has a rich multicultural and plurilingual history that was significantly modified by the process of national delimitation in Central Asia. Many inhabitants of the city are native or bilingual speakers of the [[Social:Tajik language|Tajik language]],<ref>"The Persian-speaking cities of Bukhara and Samarqand, rightly considered by today’s Tajiks as the constituting the historical centres of Tajik civilization" Foltz, Richard. A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East. I.B. Tauris, 2019. p.9</ref><ref>D.I. Kertzer/D. Arel, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187 Census and identity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117053532/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMxbzF4NdFUC&pg=PA187&dq=&hl=en |date=2022-11-17 }}, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 186–188.</ref> whereas [[Social:Uzbek language|Uzbek]] is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere, as per Uzbekistan's language policy.

==Etymology==
The name comes from [[Social:Sogdian language|Sogdian]] {{lang|sog|samar}} "stone, rock" and {{lang|sog|kand}} "fort, town."<ref>{{cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=McFarland |location=London |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 |page=330 |quote=Samarkand City, southeastern Uzbekistan. The city here was already named ''Marakanda'', when captured by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE. Its own name derives from the Sogdian words ''samar'', "stone, rock", and ''kand'', "fort, town".}}</ref> In this respect, ''Samarqand'' shares the same meaning as the name of the Uzbek capital [[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]], with ''tash-'' being the Turkic term for "stone" and ''-kent'' the Turkic analogue of ''kand''.<ref>Sachau, Edward C. Alberuni’s India: an Account of the Religion. Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030, vol. 1 London: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRtJBNBR & CO. 1910. p.298.</ref>

According to 11th-century scholar Mahmud al-Kashghari, the city was known in [[Social:Karakhanid language|Karakhanid]] as ''{{Transliteration|Arab|Sämizkänd}}'' ({{Script/Arabic|سَمِزْکَنْدْ}}), meaning "fat city."<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Kashghari |first=Mahmud |url=https://archive.org/details/CompendiumOfTheTurkicDialectsPart1-MahmudAl-Kashghari/page/n283/mode/2up |title=Compendium of The Turkic Dialects |date=1074 |publisher=Harvard University Printing Office |year= |series=Part 1 |publication-date=1982 |page=270 |translator-last=Dankoff |translator-first=Robert |quote=sämiz känd meaning “Fat city (balda samina)” is called thus because of its great size; it is, in Persian, Samarqand. |translator-last2=Kelly |translator-first2=James Michael |translator-link=Robert Dankoff |via=Archive.org}}</ref> 16th-century Mughal emperor Babur also mentioned the city under this name, and 15th-century Castillian traveler Ruy González de Clavijo stated that Samarqand was simply a distorted form of it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragagnin |first=Elisabetta |date=2020 |title=About Marco Polo Samarkand |url=https://uzlc.navoiy-uni.uz/index.php/uzlangcult/article/view/41 |journal=Uzbekistan: Language and Culture |language=en |publisher={{Interlanguage link|Alisher Navo’i Tashkent State University of Uzbek Language and Literature|uz|Toshkent davlat oʻzbek tili va adabiyoti universiteti}} |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=79–87 |issn=2181-922X}}</ref>

==History==

===Early history===

Along with [[Place:Bukhara|Bukhara]],<ref>Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, ''Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents'', p.&nbsp;374</ref> Samarqand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]], prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarqand date the city's founding to the 8th–7th centuries BCE.

[[Earth:Archaeology|Archaeological]] excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the [[Earth:Upper Paleolithic|Upper Paleolithic]]. A group of Mesolithic (12th–7th millennia BCE) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om [[Earth:Canal|canal]]s, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BCE (early [[History:Iron Age|Iron Age]]).

From its earliest days, Samarqand was one of the main centres of [[Place:Sogdia|Sogdia]]n civilization. By the time of the [[Place:Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy.

===Hellenistic period===
[[File:Afrasiyab ruins in Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Ancient city walls of Samarqand, 4th century BCE]]
[[File:Daniël de Blieck - Alexander Slaying Cleitus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Alexander the Great Slaying Cleitus in Samarqand'', by Daniël de Blieck.<br>Ferens Art Gallery, Hull.]]
Alexander the Great conquered Samarqand in 329 BCE. The city was known as '''Maracanda''' (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks.<ref>''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972 reprint) p.&nbsp;1657</ref> Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government;<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Frances |title=The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia |year=2002 |location=London}}</ref> they mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shichkina |first=G.V. |title=Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=1994 |volume=8 |page=83}}</ref>

While Samarqand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques; oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of masonry and plastering were introduced.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shichkina |first=G.V. |title=Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=1994 |volume=8 |page=86}}</ref>

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia; for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, i.e. the [[Place:Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Empire]], [[Place:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]], and [[History:Kushan Empire|Kushan Empire]] (even though the Kushana themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century CE, Samarqand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.

===Sassanian era===
Samarqand was conquered by the Persian Sassanians c. 260 CE. Under Sassanian rule, the region became an essential site for [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaeism]] and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319">{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=California |pages=319–320}}</ref>

===Hephtalites and Turkic Khaganate era===
In AD 350–375 Samarqand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of [[Biology:Xionites|Xionites]], the origin of which remains controversial.<ref>Grenet Frantz, Regional interaction in Central Asia and northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephtalites periods in Indo-Iranian languages and peoples. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Oxford university press, 2003. Р.219–220</ref> The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarqand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle Syrdarya basin is spreading in the region.<ref>Buryakov Y.F. Iz istorii arkheologicheskikh rabot v zonakh oroshayemogo zemledeliya Uzbekistana // Arkheologicheskiye raboty na novostroykakh Uzbekistana. Tashkent, 1990. pp.&nbsp;9–10.</ref> In 457–509 Samarqand was part of the Kidarite state.<ref>Etienne de la Vaissiere, Sogdian traders. A history. Translated by James Ward. Brill. Leiden. Boston, 2005, pp.&nbsp;108–111.</ref>
[[File:Turkish officers during a audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab, Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarqand. 648–651 CE, Afrasiyab murals, Samarqand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |date=2004 |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. B |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]

After the Hephtalites ("White Huns") conquered Samarqand, they controlled it until the [[Place:Göktürks|Göktürks]], in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the Battle of Bukhara, c. 560 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bivar |first=A.D.H. |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hephthalites |title=Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2 |publisher=London et al. |pages=198–201}}</ref>

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the [[Place:First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. In 557–561, the [[Social:Hephthalites|Hephthalites]] empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires.<ref>History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, AD 250 to 750. Vol. 3. Unesco, 1996. p.&nbsp;332</ref>

In the early Middle Ages, Samarqand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates.<ref>Belenitskiy A.M., Bentovich I.B., Bolshakov O.G. Srednevekovyy gorod Sredney Azii. L., 1973.</ref>

An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarqand. It dates back to the 6th century.<ref>
Sprishevskiy V.I. Pogrebeniye s konem serediny I tysyacheletiya n.e., obnaruzhennoye okolo observatorii Ulugbeka. // Tr. Muzeya istorii narodov Uzbekistana. T.1.- Tashkent, 1951.</ref>

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Kaganate, Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarqand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter.<ref>Klyashtornyy S. G., Savinov D. G., Stepnyye imperii drevney Yevrazii. Sankt-Peterburg: Filologicheskiy fakul'tet SPbGU, 2005 god, s. 97</ref>

Some parts of Samarqand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a Nestorian chair was established in Samarqand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate.<ref>Masson M.Ye., Proiskhozhdeniye dvukh nestorianskikh namogilnykh galek Sredney Azii // Obshchestvennyye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1978, №10, p.&nbsp;53.</ref> Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] and [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaeism]], reflected in the documents.<ref>Sims-Wlliams Nicholas, A Christian sogdian polemic against the manichaens // Religious themes and texts of pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia. Edited by Carlo G. Cereti, Mauro Maggi and Elio Provasi. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2003, pp.&nbsp;399–407</ref>

===Early Islamic era===
[[File:Coin of Sogdian ruler Turgar, Ikhshid of Samarkand, Penjikent, 8th century CE (obverse and reverse), Tajikistan National Museum of Antiquities (319).jpg|thumb|Coin of Sogdian ruler Turgar, last Ikhshid of Samarqand, Penjikent, 8th century CE, National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or |date=2021 |publisher=Musée Guimet |location=Paris |isbn=978-9461616272 |page=152}}</ref>]]
The armies of the [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]] under Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city from the Tang dynasty c. 710 CE.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319"/>

During this period, Samarqand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]], [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaeism]], [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]], and Nestorian Christianity, with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California}}</ref>

Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarqand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab garrison and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian [[Religion:Fire temple|fire temple]]s were razed, and a [[Engineering:Mosque|mosque]] was built.<ref name="Wellhausen437438">{{cite book |last1=Wellhausen |first1=J. |editor1-last=Weir |editor1-first=Margaret Graham |title=The Arab Kingdom and its Fall |date=1927 |publisher=University of Calcutta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |pages=437–438 |isbn=9780415209045 |access-date=2019-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421054204/https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |archive-date=2019-04-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the city's population converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitfield |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Whitfield |title=Life Along the Silk Road |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |location=California |page=33}}</ref>

As a long-term result, Samarqand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning.<ref name="Wellhausen437438"/> At the end of the 740s, a movement of those dissatisfied with the power of the Umayyads emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander Abu Muslim, who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarqand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and the palace.<ref>Bartold V. V., Abu Muslim//Akademik V. V. Bartol'd. Sochineniya. Tom VII. Moskva: Nauka, 1971</ref>

Legend has it that during Abbasid rule,<ref>Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", ''Bookbinder'', 1989 (3): 29–36.</ref> the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first [[Engineering:Paper mill|paper mill]] in the Islamic world at Samarqand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[File:Dinar of al-Mu'tazz, AH 253.jpg|250px|thumb|Gold dinar of caliph al-Mu'tazz, minted at Samarqand in AH 253 (867 CE). His reign marks the apogee of the decline of the Caliphate's central authority]]
Abbasid control of Samarqand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of the Samanids (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the Caliph during their control of Samarqand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the Karakhanids around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarqand would be ruled by a succession of Turkic tribes, including the Seljuqs and the Khwarazmshahs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California |page=320}}</ref>

The 10th-century Persian author Istakhri, who travelled in [[Place:Transoxiana|Transoxiana]], provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":
<blockquote>I know no place in it or in Samarqand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of [[Religion:Allah|Allah]]; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.</blockquote>

===Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries)===
[[File:Shah-i-Zinda.jpg|thumb|Shah-i Zinda memorial complex, 11th–15th centuries]]

After the fall of the Samanids state in the year 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled.<ref name="ReferenceE">Kochnev B. D., Numizmaticheskaya istoriya Karakhanidskogo kaganata (991—1209 gg.). Moskva «Sofiya», 2006</ref> After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarqand became a part of the West [[Place:Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid Kaganate]] and in 1040–1212 was its capital.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Kaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068).<ref name="ReferenceE"/> For the first time, he built a madrasah in Samarqand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasah were established in Samarqand, where medicine was also taught.

The memorial complex Shah-i-Zinda was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century.<ref>Nemtseva, N.B., Shvab, IU. Ansambl Shah-i Zinda: istoriko-arkhitektymyi ocherk. Tashent: 1979.</ref>

The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarqand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.<ref>Karev, Yury. Qarakhanid wall paintings in the citadel of Samarqand: First report and preliminary observations in Muqarnas 22 (2005): 45–84.</ref>

===Mongol period===
[[File:Afrosiab (8145369219).jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of Afrasiab – ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.]]

The Mongols conquered Samarqand in 1220. Juvaini writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and [[Social:Conscription|conscripted]] 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarqand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the [[Place:Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai Khanate]] (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.

''The Travels'' of Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarqand as "a very large and splendid city..."<ref>{{cite web |title=Samarkand Travel Guide |url=https://caravanistan.com/uzbekistan/center/samarkand/ |access-date=2021-03-20 |website=Caravanistan}}</ref>

The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Chinese origin, and Samarqand and [[Place:Outer Mongolia|Outer Mongolia]] both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by Changchun.<ref name="Gernet1996">{{cite book |author=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=31 May 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/377 377]– |access-date=25 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615032106/https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |archive-date=15 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarqand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own.<ref>{{cite book |title=E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ |year=1928 |page=451}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=E. Bretschneider |date=1888 |title=Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources |chapter=The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |publisher=Barnes & Noble |pages=37–108 |access-date=2018-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430220305/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |archive-date=2018-04-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).

===Timur's rule (1370–1405)===
[[File:Bibi-Khanym Mosque (8145400614).jpg|thumb|Bibi-Khanym Friday Mosque, 1399–1404]]
Ibn Battuta, who visited in 1333, called Samarqand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via ''[[Engineering:Noria|noria]]s''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Battutah |first1=Ibn |title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah |date=2002 |publisher=Picador |location=London |isbn=9780330418799 |page=143}}</ref>

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarqand.<ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> In 1370, the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the [[Place:Timurid Empire|Timurid Empire]], made Samarqand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand.<ref>Malikov Azim, The cultural traditions of urban planning in Samarqand during the epoch of Timur. In: Baumer, C., Novák, M. and Rutishauser, S., Cultures in Contact. Central Asia as Focus of Trade, Cultural Exchange and Knowledge Transmission. Harrassowitz. 2022, p.343</ref> Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarqand grew to become the centre of the region of [[Place:Transoxiana|Transoxiana]]. Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38">{{cite journal |last=Marefat |first=Roya |title=The Heavenly City of Samarkand |journal=The Wilson Quarterly |date=Summer 1992 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=33–38 |jstor=40258334}}</ref> By his orders, Samarqand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls {{cvt|5|mi|km|abbr=off|order=flip|0}} in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Frances |title=The Silk Roads: two thousand ears in the heart of Asia |year=2002 |location=Berkeley |pages=136–7}}</ref> At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'', p.&nbsp;1657</ref>

Henry III of Castile's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was stationed at Samarqand between 1403 and 1406, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarqand. "<ref>{{cite book |last=Le Strange |first=Guy (trans) |title=Clavijo: Embassy to Tamburlaine 1403–1406 |year=1928 |location=London |page=280}}</ref>

===Ulugh Beg's period (1409–1449)===
[[File:Ulugh Beg's Astronomic Observatory.jpg|thumb|left|Many prominent astronomers worked at Ulugh Beg's observatory, which contained this mural sextant, constructed in Samarkand during the 15th century.]]
In 1417–1420, Timur's grandson [[Biography:Ulugh Beg|Ulugh Beg]] built a [[Engineering:Madrasa|madrasa]]h in Samarqand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarqand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including Jamshid al-Kashi, [[Biography:Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī|Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī]], and [[Biography:Ali Qushji|Ali Qushji]]. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the [[Astronomy:Mural instrument|wall quadrant]], which was unique in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Ulugh_Beg/ |title=Ulugh Beg – Biography |website=Maths History}}</ref> It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ulugh Beg |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography}}</ref> Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.

===16th–18th centuries===
In 1500, [[Social:Nomad|nomad]]ic Uzbek warriors took control of Samarqand.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The Shaybanids emerged as the city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarqand was finally taken by Muhammad Shaybani from the Uzbek dynasty of Shaybanids, and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarqand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarqand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasah, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about the Shaybani Khan madrasah dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasah in Samarqand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan.<ref name="ReferenceF">Mukminova R. G., K istorii agrarnykh otnosheniy v Uzbekistane XVI veke. Po materialam «Vakf-name». Tashkent. Nauka. 1966</ref>

Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan {{Who|date=November 2022}} in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasah, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasah.<ref>Fazlallakh ibn Ruzbikhan Isfakhani. Mikhman-name-yi Bukhara (Zapiski bukharskogo gostya). M. Vostochnaya literatura. 1976, p.&nbsp;3</ref> Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasah several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent.<ref name="ReferenceF"/>

Abdulatif Khan, the son of Mirzo Ulugbek's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarqand in 1540–1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under the literary pseudonym Khush.<ref>B.V. Norik. Rol' shibanidskikh praviteley v literaturnoy zhizni Maverannakhra XVI veka. Sankt-Peterburg: Rakhmat-name, 2008. p.&nbsp;233.</ref>

During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarqand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarqand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, Tillya-Kari madrasah and Sherdor madrasah.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Zarafshan Water Bridge is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the Zarafshan River, 7–8&nbsp;km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by Shaibani Khan at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://uzsmart.uz/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/66708.html|title= ZARAFSHON SUVAYIRGʻICH KOʻPRIGI |website= uzsmart.uz |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.centralasia-travel.com/ru/countries/uzbekistan/places/most-sheybanixana |title= МОСТ ШЕЙБАНИ-ХАНА |website= www.centralasia-travel.com |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref>

After an assault by the [[Place:Afsharid dynasty|Afshar]] Shahanshah Nader Shah, the city was abandoned in the early 1720s.<ref>''Britannica''. 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> From 1599 to 1756, Samarqand was ruled by the Ashtrakhanid branch of the [[Place:Khanate of Bukhara|Khanate of Bukhara]].
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:Rajasthan3.jpg|Ulugh Beg Madrasah
File:Rajasthan.jpg|Sher-Dor Madrasah
File:Registan Tillya-Kari madrasah2014.JPG|Tilya Kori Madrasah
Ulugh-beg Madrassa courtyard.JPG|Ulugh Beg Madrasah courtyard
File:Lion(or tiger) on the Sher-dor madrassa.JPG|Tiger on the Sher-Dor Madrasah iwan
</gallery>

===Second half of the 18th–19th centuries===
[[File:Mosque Hazrat-Hyzr (1).JPG|thumb|right|Khazrat Hizr mosque, 1854]]

From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the Manghud Emirs of [[Place:Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]].<ref name="ReferenceA">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer''. p.&nbsp;1657</ref> The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarqand.<ref>Materialy po istorii Sredney i Tsentral'noy Azii X—XIX veka. Tashkent: Fan, 1988, рр.&nbsp;270—271</ref>

===Russian Empire period===
[[File:Самарканд - 6.jpg|thumb|Samarqand in 1890]]
The city came under imperial Russian rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves besieged. The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the [[Place:Emirate of Bukhara|Bukharan Emir]], as well as Baba Beg of Shahrisabz and Jura Beg of Kitab, was repelled with heavy losses. General Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov became the first Governor of the Military Okrug, which the Russians established along the course of the Zeravshan River with Samarqand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city.

In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan and regained even more importance when the Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888.

===Soviet period===
[[File:Samarqand.jpg|thumb|Downtown with Bibi-Khanym Mosque in 1990s]]
Samarqand was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by [[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]]. During [[Social:World War II|World War II]], after [[Place:Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany]] invaded the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], a number of Samarqand's citizens were sent to Smolensk to fight the enemy. Many were taken captive or killed by the Nazis.<ref name=Soldat>{{Cite web |title=Советское Поле Славы |url=https://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413043841/http://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |url-status=dead |archivedate=April 13, 2020 |website=www.soldat.ru}}</ref><ref name="BBC2017CentralAsians">{{cite news |author=Rustam Qobil |publisher=BBC |title=Why were 101 Uzbeks killed in the Netherlands in 1942? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2017-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330201803/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |archive-date=2020-03-30 |url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] as a whole.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}
[[File:1872 Vereshchagin Triumphierend anagoria.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|''Triumph'' by Vasily Vereshchagin, depicting the Sher-Dor Madrasa in Registan.]]
European study of the history of Samarqand began after the conquest of Samarqand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarqand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarqand was reflected in the two-volume ''History of Samarqand'' edited by the academician of Uzbekistan Ibrohim Moʻminov.<ref>Montgomery David. Samarqand taarikhi (History of Samarqand) by I.M.Muminov, The American historical review, volume 81, no.8 (October 1976), pp.&nbsp;914–915</ref>

On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of Sharaf Rashidov, the 2500th anniversary of Samarqand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to [[Biography:Ulugh Beg|Ulugh Beg]] was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarqand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarqand was prepared and published.<ref>Istoriya Samarkanda v dvukh tomakh. Pod redaktsiyey I. Muminova. Tashkent, 1970</ref><ref>Montgomery David, Review of Samarkand taarikhi by I. M. Muminov et al. // The American historical review, volume 81, no. 4 (October 1976)</ref>

After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarqand.<ref>Shirinov T.SH., Isamiddinov M.KH. Arkheologiya drevnego Samarkanda. Tashkent, 2007</ref><ref>Malikov A.M. Istoriya Samarkanda (s drevnikh vremen do serediny XIV veka). Tom. 1. Tashkent: Paradigma, 2017.</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Samarkand, Uzbekistan.jpg|thumb|Samarqand from space in September 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116 |title=Samarkand, Uzbekistan |date=23 September 2013 |publisher=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov |access-date=2014-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917201736/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82116 |archive-date=2015-09-17 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Samarqand is located in southeastern Uzbekistan, in the Zarefshan River valley, 135&nbsp;km from Qarshi. Road M37 connects Samarqand to [[Place:Bukhara|Bukhara]], 240&nbsp;km away. Road M39 connects it to [[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]], 270&nbsp;km away. The Tajikistan border is about 35&nbsp;km from Samarqand; the Tajik capital [[Place:Dushanbe|Dushanbe]] is 210&nbsp;km away from Samarqand. Road M39 connects Samarqand to [[Place:Mazar-i-Sharif|Mazar-i-Sharif]] in Afghanistan, which is 340&nbsp;km away.

===Climate===
Samarqand has a cold semi-arid climate ([[Earth:Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk'') with hot, dry summers and relatively wet, variable winters that alternate periods of warm weather with periods of cold weather. July and August are the hottest months of the year, with temperatures reaching and exceeding {{cvt|40|C}}. Precipitation is sparse from December through April. January 2008 was particularly cold; the temperature dropped to {{cvt|-22|°C|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html |title=Weather in Samarqand |access-date=2009-06-11 |author=Samarkand.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604132408/http://www.samarkand.info/html/weather.html |archive-date=2009-06-04 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width=auto
|location=Samarkand (1991–2020, extremes 1891–present)
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
| Jan record high C=23.2
| Feb record high C=26.7
| Mar record high C=32.2
| Apr record high C=36.2
| May record high C=39.5
| Jun record high C=41.6
| Jul record high C=42.4
| Aug record high C=41.0
| Sep record high C=38.6
| Oct record high C=35.2
| Nov record high C=31.5
| Dec record high C=27.5
|year record high C=42.4
| Jan high C=7.3
| Feb high C=9.5
| Mar high C=15.2
| Apr high C=21.4
| May high C=27.0
| Jun high C=32.4
| Jul high C=34.5
| Aug high C=33.3
| Sep high C=28.6
| Oct high C=22.0
| Nov high C=14.4
| Dec high C=9.1
|year high C=
| Jan mean C=2.3
| Feb mean C=4.0
| Mar mean C=9.3
| Apr mean C=15.2
| May mean C=20.4
| Jun mean C=25.4
| Jul mean C=27.2
| Aug mean C=25.6
| Sep mean C=20.6
| Oct mean C=14.1
| Nov mean C=8.0
| Dec mean C=3.7
|year mean C=
| Jan low C=−1.3
| Feb low C=−0.2
| Mar low C=4.6
| Apr low C=9.7
| May low C=14.1
| Jun low C=18.0
| Jul low C=19.5
| Aug low C=17.9
| Sep low C=13.5
| Oct low C=7.8
| Nov low C=3.2
| Dec low C=−0.2
|year low C=
| Jan record low C=−25.4
| Feb record low C=−22.0
| Mar record low C=−14.9
| Apr record low C=−6.8
| May record low C=−1.3
| Jun record low C=4.8
| Jul record low C=8.6
| Aug record low C=7.8
| Sep record low C=0.0
| Oct record low C=−6.4
| Nov record low C=−18.1
| Dec record low C=−22.8
|year record low C=−25.4
|precipitation colour =green
| Jan precipitation mm=41
| Feb precipitation mm=53
| Mar precipitation mm=73
| Apr precipitation mm=64
| May precipitation mm=41
| Jun precipitation mm=7
| Jul precipitation mm=2
| Aug precipitation mm=2
| Sep precipitation mm=3
| Oct precipitation mm=16
| Nov precipitation mm=40
| Dec precipitation mm=39
|year precipitation mm=
| Jan humidity=76
| Feb humidity=74
| Mar humidity=70
| Apr humidity=63
| May humidity=54
| Jun humidity=42
| Jul humidity=42
| Aug humidity=43
| Sep humidity=47
| Oct humidity=59
| Nov humidity=68
| Dec humidity=74
|year humidity=59
| Jan rain days=8
| Feb rain days=10
| Mar rain days=13
| Apr rain days=11
| May rain days=9
| Jun rain days=3
| Jul rain days=2
| Aug rain days=1
| Sep rain days=2
| Oct rain days=6
| Nov rain days=8
| Dec rain days=9
| year rain days= 82
| Jan snow days=9
| Feb snow days=7
| Mar snow days=3
| Apr snow days=0.3
| May snow days=0.1
| Jun snow days=0
| Jul snow days=0
| Aug snow days=0
| Sep snow days=0
| Oct snow days=0.3
| Nov snow days=2
| Dec snow days=6
|year snow days=28
| Jan sun=119.2
| Feb sun=130.9
| Mar sun=172.2
| Apr sun=228.8
| May sun=297.7
| Jun sun=345.5
| Jul sun=373.1
| Aug sun=358.9
| Sep sun=305.9
| Oct sun=242.6
| Nov sun=150.7
| Dec sun=120.2
|year sun=
| Jan dew point C=-2
| Feb dew point C=-1
| Mar dew point C=2
| Apr dew point C=6
| May dew point C=9
| Jun dew point C=9
| Jul dew point C=10
| Aug dew point C=9
| Sep dew point C=6
| Oct dew point C=4
| Nov dew point C=2
| Dec dew point C=-1
| Jan uv=2
| Feb uv=3
| Mar uv=3
| Apr uv=4
| May uv=5
| Jun uv=6
| Jul uv=6
| Aug uv=6
| Sep uv=4
| Oct uv=3
| Nov uv=2
| Dec uv=2
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net <ref name = Pogoda >
{{cite web
| url = http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate.php?id=38696
| title = Weather and Climate-The Climate of Samarqand
| publisher = Weather and Climate
| language = ru
| access-date = 18 January 2021}}</ref>
|source 2=Weather Atlas (UV),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/uzbekistan/samarkand-climate |title=Samarqand, Uzbekistan – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast |publisher=Weather Atlas |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref> Time and Date (dewpoints, 1985–2015),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/uzbekistan/samarkand/climate |title=Climate & Weather Averages in Samarqand |publisher=Time and Date |access-date=24 July 2022}}</ref> NOAA<ref name= NOAA>{{cite web |url=https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Uzbekistan/CSV/Samarkand_38696.csv|title=Samarqand Climate Normals 1991–2020 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=November 1, 2023}}</ref>
|date=August 2023
}}

==People==
According to official reports, a majority of Samarqand's inhabitants are Uzbeks, while many sources refer to the city as majority Tajik,<ref>Akiner, Shirin; Djalili, Mohammad-Reza; Grare, Frederic (2013). Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-136-10490-9}} p.&nbsp;78, "Bukhara and Samarqand, inhabited by a marked Tajik majority (...)"</ref><ref name="Lena Jonson 2006. pg 108">Lena Jonson (1976) "Tajikistan in the New Central Asia", I.B.Tauris, p.&nbsp;108: "According to official Uzbek statistics there are slightly over 1 million Tajiks in Uzbekistan or about 3% of the population. The unofficial figure is over 6 million Tajiks. They are concentrated in the Sukhandarya, Samarqand and Bukhara regions."</ref><ref name="catoday.org">{{cite web |url=http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya |title=Узбекистан: Таджикский язык подавляется |website=catoday.org — ИА "Озодагон" |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322114708/http://catoday.org/tjru/11180-uzbekistan-tadzhikskiy-yazyk-podavlyaetsya |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="news.tj">{{cite web |url=https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva |title=Таджики – иранцы Востока? Рецензия книги от Камолиддина Абдуллаева |website=«ASIA-Plus» Media Group / Tajikistan — news.tj |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090939/https://news.tj/ru/news/opinion/20190318/tadzhiki-irantsi-vostoka-retsenziya-knigi-ot-kamoliddina-abdullaeva |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> up to 70 percent of the city's population.<ref name="Foltz">{{cite journal |author=Richard Foltz |title=The Tajiks of Uzbekistan |journal=Central Asian Survey |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |year=1996 |doi=10.1080/02634939608400946}}</ref> Tajiks are especially concentrated in the eastern part of the city, where the main architectural landmarks are.

According to various independent sources, Tajiks are Samarqand's majority ethnic group. Ethnic Uzbeks are the second-largest group<ref name="PB">Paul Bergne: ''The Birth of Tajikistan. National Identity and the Origins of the Republic''. International Library of Central Asia Studies. I.B. Tauris. 2007. Pg. 106</ref> and are most concentrated in the west of Samarqand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people in Uzbekistan identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak [[Social:Tajik language|Tajiki]] as their first language, often because they are registered as Uzbeks by the central government despite their Tajiki language and identity. As explained by Paul Bergne:

<blockquote>During the census of 1926 a significant part of the Tajik population was registered as Uzbek. Thus, for example, in the 1920 census in Samarqand city the Tajiks were recorded as numbering 44,758 and the Uzbeks only 3301. According to the 1926 census, the number of Uzbeks was recorded as 43,364 and the Tajiks as only 10,716. In a series of kishlaks [villages] in the Khojand Okrug, whose population was registered as Tajik in 1920 e.g. in Asht, Kalacha, Akjar i Tajik and others, in the 1926 census they were registered as Uzbeks. Similar facts can be adduced also with regard to Ferghana, Samarqand, and especially the Bukhara oblasts.<ref name="PB" /></blockquote>

Samarqand is also home to large ethnic communities of "Iranis" (the old, [[Social:Persian language|Persian]]-speaking, Shia population of [[Place:Merv|Merv]] city and oasis, deported en masse to this area in the late 18th century), Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Armenians, Azeris, Tatars, Koreans, Poles, and Germans, all of whom live primarily in the centre and western neighborhoods of the city. These peoples have emigrated to Samarqand since the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era; by and large, they speak the [[Social:Russian language|Russian language]].

In the extreme west and southwest of Samarqand is a population of Central Asian Arabs, who mostly speak Uzbek; only a small portion of the older generation speaks Central Asian Arabic. In eastern Samarqand there was once a large mahallah of Bukharian (Central Asian) Jews, but starting in the 1970s, hundreds of thousands of Jews left Uzbekistan for [[Place:Israel|Israel]], {{wipe|United States}}, {{wipe|Canada}}, {{wipe|Australia}}, and [[Earth:Europe|Europe]]. Only a few Jewish families are left in Samarqand today.

Also in the eastern part of Samarqand there are several quarters where Central Asian "Gypsies"<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266387780 |title=Migrations and Identities of Central Asian 'Gypsies' |doi=10.1057/ces.2008.3 |author1=Marushiakova |last2=Popov |first2=Vesselin |date=January 2014 |s2cid=154689140 |accessdate=2022-02-28 |conference=Asia Pacific Sociological Association (APSA) Conference "Transforming Societies: Conestations and Convergences in Asia and the Pacific"}}</ref> ([[Social:Lyuli|Lyuli]], Djugi, [[Social:Parya language|Parya]], and other groups) live. These peoples began to arrive in Samarqand several centuries ago from what are now {{wipe|India}} and {{wipe|Pakistan}}. They mainly speak a dialect of the Tajik language, as well as their own languages, most notably [[Social:Parya language|Parya]].

===Language===
[[File:Bilingual Samarkand.jpg|thumb|right|Greeting in two languages: Uzbek (Latin) and Tajik (Cyrillic) at the entrance to one of the mahallahs (Bo'zi) of Samarqand]]
The state and official language in Samarqand, as in all Uzbekistan, is the [[Social:Uzbek language|Uzbek language]]. Uzbek is one of the [[Social:Turkic languages|Turkic languages]] and the mother tongue of Uzbeks, Turkmens, Samarkandian Iranians, and most Samarqandian Arabs living in Samarqand.

As in the rest of Uzbekistan, the [[Social:Russian language|Russian language]] is the de facto second official language in Samarqand, and about 5% of signs and inscriptions in Samarqand are in this language. Russians, Belarusians, Poles, Germans, Koreans, the majority of Ukrainians, the majority of Armenians, Greeks, some Tatars, and some Azerbaijanis in Samarqand speak Russian. Several Russian-language newspapers are published in Samarqand, the most popular of which is "Samarkandskiy vestnik" (Russian: ''Самаркандский вестник'' — ''Samarqand Herald''). The Samarqandian TV channel STV conducts some broadcasts in Russian.

De facto, the most common native language in Samarqand is [[Social:Tajik language|Tajik]], which is a dialect or variant of the [[Social:Persian language|Persian language]]. Samarqand was one of the cities in which the Persian language developed. Many classical Persian poets and writers lived in or visited Samarqand over the millennia, the most famous being Abulqasem Ferdowsi, [[Biography:Omar Khayyam|Omar Khayyam]], Abdurahman Jami, Abu Abdullah Rudaki, Suzani Samarqandi, and Kamal Khujandi.

While the official stance is that Uzbek is the most common language in Samarqand, some data indicate that only about 30% of residents speak it as a native tongue. For the other 70%, Tajik is the native tongue, with Uzbek the second language and Russian the third. However, as no population census has been taken in Uzbekistan since 1989, there are no accurate data on this matter. Despite Tajik being the second most common language in Samarqand, it does not enjoy the status of an official or regional language.<ref name="Karl Cordell 1999. pg 201">Karl Cordell, "Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe", Routledge, 1998. p.&nbsp;201: "Consequently, the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajikis within and outside of the republic, Samarqand State University (SamGU) academic and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30% of the republic's 22 million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7% (Foltz 1996: 213; Carlisle 1995: 88).</ref><ref name="Lena Jonson 2006. pg 108"/><ref name="catoday.org"/><ref name="lingvomania.info">{{cite web |url=http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html |title=Статус таджикского языка в Узбекистане |website=Лингвомания.info — lingvomania.info |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029222029/http://lingvomania.info/2016/status-tadzhikskogo-yazyka-v-uzbekistane.html |archive-date=29 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="news.tj"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html |title=Есть ли шансы на выживание таджикского языка в Узбекистане — эксперты |website="Биржевой лидер" — pfori-forex.org |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322113157/http://www.profi-forex.org/novosti-mira/novosti-sng/uzbekistan/entry1008185843.html |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nevertheless, at Samarqand State University ten faculties offer courses in Tajiki, and the Tajik Language and Literature Department has an enrolment of over 170 students.<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing">{{cite book|last1=Foltz|first1=Richard|title=A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, 2nd edition |date=2023|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7556-4964-8|page=186}}</ref> Only one newspaper in Samarqand is published in Tajiki, in the [[Social:Tajik alphabet|Cyrillic Tajik alphabet]]: ''Ovozi Samarqand'' (Tajik: ''Овози Самарқанд'' — ''Voice of Samarqand''). Local Samarqandian STV and "Samarqand" TV channels offer some broadcasts in Tajik, as does one regional radio station. In 2022 a quarterly literary magazine in Tajiki, ''Durdonai Sharq'', was launched in Samarqand.<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing"/>

In addition to Uzbek, Tajik, and Russian, native languages spoken in Samarqand include [[Social:Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Social:Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Social:Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Social:Tatar language|Tatar]], [[Social:Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]], [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]] (for a very small percentage of Samarqandian Arabs), and others.

Modern Samarqand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarqand Half Marathon.<ref>[https://worldsmarathons.com/marathon/samarkand-marathon Samarqand Half Marathon].</ref> In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time.

==Religion==
===Islam===
[[Religion:Islam|Islam]] entered Samarqand in the 8th century, during the invasion of the Arabs in Central Asia ([[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]]). Before that, almost all inhabitants of Samarqand were Zoroastrians, and many Nestorians and Buddhists also lived in the city. From that point forward, throughout the reigns of many Muslim governing powers, numerous [[Engineering:Mosque|mosque]]s, [[Engineering:Madrasa|madrasa]]hs, [[Engineering:Minaret|minaret]]s, shrines, and mausoleums were built in the city. Many have been preserved. For example, there is the Shrine of Imam Bukhari, an [[Religion:Ulama|Islamic scholar]] who authored the hadith collection known as ''[[Religion:Sahih al-Bukhari|Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', which Sunni Muslims regard as one of the most authentic (''sahih'') [[Religion:Hadith|hadith]] collections. His other books included ''[[Religion:Al-Adab al-Mufrad|Al-Adab al-Mufrad]]''. Samarqand is also home to the Shrine of Imam Maturidi, the founder of [[Religion:Maturidi|Maturidi]]sm and the Mausoleum of the Prophet Daniel, who is revered in [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]], and [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]].

Most inhabitants of Samarqand are Muslim, primarily Sunni (mostly Hanafi) and [[Religion:Sufism|Sufi]]. Approximately 80–85% of Muslims in the city are Sunni, comprising almost all Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Samarqandian Arabs living therein. Samarqand's best-known Islamic sacred lineages are the descendants of Sufi leaders
such as Khodja Akhror Wali (1404–1490) and Makhdumi A’zam (1461–1542), the descendants of Sayyid Ata (first half of 14th c.) and Mirakoni Xojas (Sayyids from Mirakon, a village in Iran).<ref>Malikov Azim, Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity in Anthropology of the Middle East, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, р.36</ref>
The liberal policy of President Shavkat Mirziyoyev opened up new opportunities for the expression of the religious identity. In Samarqand, since 2018, there has been an increase in the number of women wearing the hijab.<ref>https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/view/218533 Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarqand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 561</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:AlBukhari mausoleum.jpg|Imam Bukhari Shrine
File:Imammaturidi.jpg|Imam Maturidi Shrine
File:Ruhabad.JPG|Ruhabad Mausoleum
File:Nuriddin Basir Mausoleum 1.jpg|Nuriddin Basir Shrine
File:Mausoleum Khoja Daniyar 5221.JPG|Khoja Daniyar Mausoleum
</gallery>

====Shia Muslims====
The Samarqand Vilayat is one of the two regions of Uzbekistan (along with Bukhara Vilayat) that is home to a large number of Shiites. The total population of the Samarqand Vilayat is more than 3,720,000 people (2019).

There are no exact data on the number of Shiites in the city of Samarqand, but the city has several Shiite mosques and madrasas. The largest of these are the Punjabi Mosque, the Punjabi Madrassah, and the Mausoleum of Mourad Avliya. Every year, the Shiites of Samarqand celebrate [[Religion:Ashura|Ashura]], as well as other memorable Shiite dates and holidays.

Shiites in Samarqand are mostly Samarqandian Iranians, who call themselves ''Irani''. Their ancestors began to arrive Samarqand in the 18th century. Some migrated there
in search of a better life, others were sold as [[Social:Slavery|slaves]] there by Turkmen captors, and others were soldiers who were posted to Samarqand. Mostly they came from Khorasan, [[Place:Mashhad|Mashhad]], Sabzevar, Nishapur, and [[Place:Merv|Merv]]; and secondarily from Iranian Azerbaijan, [[Place:Zanjan, Iran|Zanjan]], [[Place:Tabriz|Tabriz]], and [[Place:Ardabil|Ardabil]]. Samarqandian Shiites also include Azerbaijanis, as well as small numbers of Tajiks and Uzbeks.

While there are no official data on the total number of Shiites in Uzbekistan, they are estimated to be "several hundred thousand." According to leaked diplomatic cables, in 2007–2008, the US Ambassador for International Religious Freedom held a series of meetings with Sunni [[Religion:Mullah|mullah]]s and Shiite [[Religion:Imam|imam]]s in Uzbekistan. During one of the talks, the imam of the Shiite mosque in [[Place:Bukhara|Bukhara]] said that about 300,000 Shiites live in the Bukhara Vliayat and 1&nbsp;million in the Samarqand Vilayat. The Ambassador slightly doubted the authenticity of these figures, emphasizing in his report that data on the numbers of religious and ethnic minorities provided by the government of Uzbekistan were considered a very "delicate topic" due to their potential to provoke interethnic and interreligious conflicts. All the ambassadors of the ambassador tried to emphasize that traditional Islam, especially [[Religion:Sufism|Sufism]] and Sunnism, in the regions of Bukhara and Samarqand is characterized by great religious tolerance toward other religions and sects, including Shiism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570 |title=Шииты в Узбекистане |work=www.islamsng.com |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003214455/http://www.islamsng.com/uzb/pastfuture/5570 |archive-date=October 3, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17 |title=Ташкент озабочен делами шиитов |work=www.dn.kz |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133434/http://www.dn.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1545:2013-11-29-08-08-10&catid=2:2011-10-23-11-43-45&Itemid=17 |archive-date=2019-04-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran |title=Узбекистан: Иранцы-шииты сталкиваются c проблемами с правоохранительными органами |work=catoday.org |access-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905092804/http://catoday.org/centrasia/uzbekistan-irancy-shiity-stalkivayutsya-c-problemami-s-pravoohranitelnymi-organami-iran |archive-date=September 5, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Panjab Shia Mosque in Samarkand.jpg|Panjab Shia Mosque
File:Panjab Madrasa in Samarkand.jpg|Panjab Shia Madrasa
File:Murad Avliya Mausoleum and Courtyard.jpg|Murad Avliya Shrine
</gallery>

===Christianity===
[[File:Church of the East provinces 10 c.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Provinces of the [[Religion:Church of the East|Church of the East]] in 10th century]]
[[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] was introduced to Samarqand when it was part of Soghdiana, long before the penetration of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]] into Central Asia. The city then became one of the centers of [[Religion:Nestorianism|Nestorianism]] in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]].<ref>Dickens, Mark "Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia. p.&nbsp;17</ref> The majority of the population were then Zoroastrians, but since Samarqand was the crossroads of trade routes among [[Place:East Asia|China]], [[Place:Greater Iran|Persia]], and [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], it was religiously tolerant. Under the [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]], Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by the Arab conquerors; the survivors fled to other places or converted to Islam. Several Nestorian temples were built in Samarqand, but they have not survived. Their remains were found by archeologists at the ancient site of Afrasiyab and on the outskirts of Samarqand.

In the three decades of 1329–1359, the Samarqand eparchy of the [[Organization:Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] served several thousand Catholics who lived in the city. According to Marco Polo and Johann Elemosina, a descendant of Chaghatai Khan, the founder of the [[Place:Chagatai Khanate|Chaghatai dynasty]], Eljigidey, converted to Christianity and was baptized. With the assistance of Eljigidey, the Catholic Church of St. John the Baptist was built in Samarqand. After a while, however, Islam completely supplanted Catholicism.

Christianity reappeared in Samarqand several centuries later, from the mid-19th century onward, after the city was seized by the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]]. [[Religion:Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]] was introduced to Samarqand in 1868, and several churches and temples were built. In the early 20th century several more Orthodox cathedrals, churches, and temples were built, most of which were demolished while Samarqand was part of the USSR.

In present time, Christianity is the second-largest religious group in Samarqand with the predominant form is the [[Religion:Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)]]. More than 5% of Samarqand residents are Orthodox, mostly Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians, and also some Koreans and Greeks. Samarqand is the center of the Samarqand branch (which includes the Samarqand, Qashqadarya, and Surkhandarya provinces of Uzbekistan) of the Uzbekistan and Tashkent eparchy of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the [[Religion:Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate]]. The city has several active Orthodox churches: Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy, Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin, and Church of St. George the Victorious. There are also a number of inactive Orthodox churches and temples, for example that of Church of St. George Pobedonosets.<ref>В. А. Нильсен. У истоков современного градостроительства Узбекистана (ΧΙΧ — начало ΧΧ веков). —Ташкент: Издательство литературы и искусства имени Гафура Гуляма, 1988. 208 с.</ref><ref>''Голенберг В. А.'' «Старинные храмы туркестанского края». Ташкент 2011 год</ref>

There are also a few tens of thousands of [[Organization:Catholic Church|Catholics]] in Samarqand, mostly Poles, Germans, and some Ukrainians. In the center of Samarqand is St. John the Baptist Catholic Church, which was built at the beginning of the 20th century. Samarqand is part of the Apostolic Administration of Uzbekistan.<ref>Католичество в Узбекистане. Ташкент, 1990.</ref>

The third largest Christian sect in Samarqand is the Armenian Apostolic Church, followed by a few tens of thousands of Armenian Samarqandians. Armenian Christians began emigrating to Samarqand at the end of the 19th century, this flow increasing especially in the Soviet era.<ref>Armenians. Ethnic atlas of Uzbekistan, 2000.</ref> In the west of Samarqand is the Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin.<ref>Назарьян Р.Г. Армяне Самарканда. Москва. 2007</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Orthodox church in Samarkand 11-09.JPG|Orthodox Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy
File:Church Cover Blessed Virgin in Samarkand 12-55.JPG|Orthodox Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin
File:Church of St. George Victorious Samarkand 08-19.JPG|Orthodox Church of St. George the Victorious
File:Church of St. George Victorious in Samarkand 08-18.JPG|Orthodox Church of St. George Pobedonosets
File:Church Saint John Baptist in Samarkand 23-38.JPG|St. John the Baptist Catholic Church
File:St. Mary Church in Samarkand 10-54.JPG|Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin
</gallery>

Samarqand also has several thousand [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestants]], including [[Religion:Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Religion:Baptists|Baptists]], Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, [[Religion:Adventism|Adventists]], and members of the Korean Presbyterian church. These Christian movements appeared in Samarqand mainly after the independence of Uzbekistan in 1991.<ref>Бабина Ю. Ё. Новые христианские течения и страны мира. Фолкв, 1995.</ref>

==Main sights==

=== Silk Road Samarqand (Eternal city) ===
Silk Road Samarqand is a modern multiplex which is set to open in early 2022 in eastern Samarqand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes world-class business and medical hotels, eateries, recreational facilities, park grounds, an ethnographic corner and a large congress hall for hosting international events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Silk Road Samarkand Tourist Complex |url=https://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/samarkand/silk-road-samarkand.htm |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.advantour.com}}</ref>

Eternal city situated in Silk Road Samarqand complex. This site which occupies 17 hectares accurately recreates the spirit of the ancient city backed up by the history and traditions of Uzbek lands and Uzbek people for the guests of the Silk Road Samarqand. The narrow streets here house multiple shops of artists, artisans, and craftsmen. The pavilions of the Eternal City were inspired by real houses and picturesque squares described in ancient books. This is where you can plunge into a beautiful oriental fairy tale: with turquoise domes, mosaics on palaces, and high minarets that pierce the sky.

Visitors to the Eternal City can taste national dishes from different eras and regions of the country and also see authentic street performances. The Eternal City showcases a unique mix of Parthian, Hellenistic, and Islamic cultures so that the guests could imagine the versatile heritage of bygone centuries in full splendor. The project was inspired and designed by Bobur Ismoilov, a famous modern artist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eternal City |url=https://www.silkroad-samarkand.com/resort/eternal-city/ |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.silkroad-samarkand.com}}</ref>

===Architecture===
[[File:Building Samarkand Mosque.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Building the Great Mosque of Samarqand. Illustration by Bihzad for the Zafar-Nameh. Text copied in Herat in 1467–68 and illuminated the late 1480s. John Work Garret Collection, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.]]

Timur initiated the building of Bibi Khanum after his 1398–1399 campaign in India. Bibi Khanum originally had about 450 marble columns, which were hauled there and set up with the help of 95 elephants that Timur had brought back from Hindustan. Artisans and stonemasons from India designed the mosque's dome, giving it its distinctive appearance amongst the other buildings. An 1897 earthquake destroyed the columns, which were not entirely restored in the subsequent reconstruction.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/>

The best-known landmark of Samarqand is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir. It exhibits the influences of many cultures, past civilizations, neighboring peoples, and religions, especially those of Islam. Despite the devastation wrought by Mongols to Samarqand's pre-Timurid Islamic architecture, under Timur these architectural styles were revived, recreated, and restored. The blueprint and layout of the mosque itself, with their precise measurements, demonstrate the Islamic passion for [[Geometry|geometry]]. The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic calligraphy and inscriptions, the latter a common feature in Islamic architecture. Timur's meticulous attention to detail is especially obvious inside the mausoleum: the tiled walls are a marvelous example of [[Engineering:Mosaic|mosaic]] faience, an Iranian technique in which each tile is cut, colored, and fit into place individually.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> The tiles of the Gur-i Amir were also arranged so that they spell out religious words such as "[[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]]" and "Allah."<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/>

The ornamentation of the Gur-i Amir's walls includes floral and vegetal motifs, which signify gardens; the floor tiles feature uninterrupted floral patterns. In Islam, gardens are symbols of paradise, and as such, they were depicted on the walls of tombs and grown in Samarqand itself.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> Samarqand boasted two major gardens, the New Garden and the Garden of Heart's Delight, which became the central areas of entertainment for ambassadors and important guests. In 1218, a friend of Genghis Khan named Yelü Chucai reported that Samarqand was the most beautiful city of all, as "it was surrounded by numerous gardens. Every household had a garden, and all the gardens were well designed, with canals and water fountains that supplied water to round or square-shaped ponds. The landscape included rows of willows and cypress trees, and peach and plum orchards were shoulder to shoulder."<ref>{{cite book |last=Liu |first=Xinru |title=The Silk Road in world history |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-516174-8}}</ref> Persian carpets with floral patterns have also been found in some Timurid buildings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohn-Wiener |first=Ernst |title=An Unknown Timurid Building |journal=The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs |date=June 1935 |volume=66 |issue=387 |pages=272–273+277 |jstor=866154}}</ref>

The elements of traditional Islamic architecture can be seen in traditional mud-brick Uzbek houses that are built around central courtyards with gardens.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Samarqand – Crossroad of Cultures |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/ |access-date=2018-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516103352/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603/ |archive-date=2018-05-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most of these houses have painted wooden ceilings and walls. By contrast, houses in the west of the city are chiefly European-style homes built in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name=":1" />

Turko-Mongol influence is also apparent in Samarqand's architecture. It is believed that the melon-shaped domes of the mausoleums were designed to echo ''yurts'' or ''gers'', traditional Mongol tents in which the bodies of the dead were displayed before burial or other disposition. Timur built his tents from more-durable materials, such as bricks and wood, but their purposes remained largely unchanged.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> The chamber in which Timur's own body was laid included "tugs", poles whose tops were hung with a circular arrangement of horse or yak tail hairs. These banners symbolized an ancient Turkic tradition of sacrificing horses, which were valuable commodities, to honor the dead.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38"/> Tugs were also a type of cavalry standard used by many nomads, up to the time of the Ottoman Turks.

Colors of buildings in Samarqand also have significant meanings. The dominant architectural color is blue, which Timur used to convey a broad range of concepts. For example, the shades of blue in the Gur-i Amir are colors of mourning; in that era, blue was the color of mourning in Central Asia, as it still is in various cultures today. Blue was also considered the color that could ward off "the [[Biology:Evil eye|evil eye]]" in Central Asia; this notion is evidenced by in the number of blue-painted doors in and around the city. Furthermore, blue represented water, a particularly rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia; walls painted blue symbolized the wealth of the city.

Gold also has a strong presence in the city. Timur's fascination with vaulting explains the excessive use of gold in the Gur-i Amir, as well as the use of embroidered gold fabric in both the city and his buildings. The Mongols had great interests in Chinese- and Persian-style golden silk textiles, as well as ''nasij''<ref>{{cite web |title=Textiles in "The world of Kubilai Khan" @ Metropolitan Museum, New York |date=25 December 2010 |url=http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html |access-date=2020-05-23 |website=Alain.R.Truong |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118044543/http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2010/12/25/19964881.html |archive-date=2019-11-18 |url-status=deviated}}</ref> woven in [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] and Transoxiana. Mongol leaders like Ögedei Khan built textile workshops in their cities to be able to produce gold fabrics themselves.

===Suburbs===
Samarqand's recent expansion led to it having suburbs, including: Gulyakandoz, Superfosfatnyy, Bukharishlak, Ulugbek, Ravanak, Kattakishlak, Registan, Zebiniso, Kaftarkhona, Uzbankinty.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Superfosfatnyy,+Uzbekistan/@39.6761233,66.9140197,28690m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x3f4d1af650279a57:0x4ff7249d3d5dafb8!8m2!3d39.67305!4d66.853607 |title=Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan |website=Superfosfatnyy · Uzbekistan}}</ref>

==Transport==

===Local===
Samarqand has a strong public-transport system. From Soviet times up through today, municipal buses and taxis ([[Engineering:GAZ-21|GAZ-21]], [[Engineering:GAZ-24|GAZ-24]], [[Engineering:GAZ-3102|GAZ-3102]], [[Engineering:VAZ-2101|VAZ-2101]], [[Engineering:VAZ-2106|VAZ-2106]] and VAZ-2107) have operated in Samarqand. Buses, mostly SamAuto and [[Company:Isuzu Motors|Isuzu]] buses, are the most common and popular mode of transport in the city. Taxis, which are mostly Chevrolets and [[Company:Daewoo Motors|Daewoo]] sedans, are usually yellow in color. Since 2017, there have also been several Samarqandian tram lines, mostly Vario LF.S Czech trams. From the Soviet Era up until 2005, Samarqandians also got around via [[Engineering:Trolleybus|trolleybus]]. Finally, Samarqand has the so-called "Marshrutka," which are Daewoo Damas and [[Engineering:GAZelle|GAZelle]] minibuses.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Beruni street in Samarkand.jpg|Many yellow taxis on the streets of Samarqand
File:Hotel in Rudaki and Dahbed Streets in Samarkand.jpg|Taxi and tram on Rudaki Street in Samarqand
File:Tram in Samarkand.jpg|Tram in Samarqand
</gallery>
Until 1950, the main forms of transport in Samarqand were [[Engineering:Carriage|carriage]]s and "arabas" with [[Biology:Horse|horse]]s and [[Biology:Donkey|donkey]]s. However, the city had a [[Physics:Steam|steam]] tram in 1924–1930, and there were more-modern trams in 1947–1973.

===Air transport===
In the north of the city is Samarqand International Airport, which was opened in the 1930s, under the Soviets. As of spring 2019, Samarqand International Airport has flights to [[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]], Nukus, [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]], Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Istanbul, and [[Place:Dushanbe|Dushanbe]]; charter flights to other cities are also available.

===Railway===
Modern Samarqand is an important railway center of Uzbekistan; all national east–west railway routes pass through the city. The most important and longest of these is [[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]]–Kungrad. High-speed Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line trains run between Tashkent, Samarqand, and Bukhara. Samarqand also has international railway connections: Saratov–Samarqand, [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]]–Samarqand, and [[Place:Astana|Astana]]–Samarqand.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Samarkand Railway Station.jpg|Samarqand railway station
File:Afrosiyob Express Train in Station - Samarkand - Uzbekistan (7502824436) (3).jpg|Afrasiyab (Talgo 250) high-speed train in Samarqand railway station
</gallery>
In 1879–1891, the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]] built the Trans-Caspian Railway to facilitate its expansion into Central Asia. The railway originated in Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashi) on the Caspian Sea coast. Its terminus was originally Samarqand, whose station first opened in May 1888. However, a decade later, the railway was extended eastward to Tashkent and [[Place:Andijan|Andijan]], and its name was changed to Central Asian Railways. Nonetheless, Samarqand remained one of the largest and most important stations of the Uzbekistan SSR and Soviet Central Asia.

==International relations==
Samarqand is twinned with:<ref name=samarkand>{{cite web |title=Самарканд и Валенсия станут городами-побратимами |url=https://podrobno.uz/cat/podrobno/samarkand-i-valensiya-stanut-gorodami-pobratimami/ |website=podrobno.uz |language=ru |date=2018-01-27 |access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flagicon|IND}} [[Place:Agra|Agra]], India
*{{flagicon|AFG}} Balkh, Afghanistan
*{{flagicon|IDN}} Banda Aceh, Indonesia
*{{flagicon|PER}} Cusco, Peru
*{{flagicon|LVA}} Jūrmala, Latvia
*{{flagicon|TUN}} Kairouan, Tunisia
*{{flagicon|TJK}} Khujand, Tajikistan
*{{flagicon|RUS}} Krasnoyarsk, Russia
*{{flagicon|PAK}} Lahore, Pakistan
*{{flagicon|BEL}} Liège, Belgium
*{{flagicon|TKM}} Mary, Turkmenistan
*{{flagicon|TKM}} [[Place:Merv|Merv]], Turkmenistan
*{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Place:Mexico City|Mexico City]], Mexico
*{{flagicon|IND}} [[Place:New Delhi|New Delhi]], India
*{{flagicon|IRN}} Nishapur, Iran
*{{flagicon|BUL}} [[Place:Plovdiv|Plovdiv]], Bulgaria
*{{flagicon|BRA}} Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
*{{flagicon|RUS}} Samara, Russia
*{{flagicon|CHN}} Xi'an, China
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Place:Nara (city)|Nara]], Japan<ref>{{cite web | url=https://samarkand.uz/en/press/news/nara-va-samarqand-shaharlari-ortasida-birodarlik-bitimi-imzolandi | title=A brotherhood agreement has been signed between the cities of Nara and Samarkand }}</ref>


<!--rest of cities - other form of cooperation, they don't list Samarqand as their twin town-->
{{div col end}}

Samarqand has friendly relations with:<ref name=samarkand/><ref>{{cite web |title=Внешнеэкономическое сотрудничество |url=http://bobruisk.by/economics/part/?curPos=2 |website=bobruisk.by |publisher=Babruysk |language=ru |access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flagicon|TUR}} Antalya, Turkey
*{{flagicon|BLR}} Babruysk, Belarus
*{{flagicon|GER}} [[Place:Bremen|Bremen]], Germany
*{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Place:Canberra|Canberra]], Australia
*{{flagicon|TUR}} Eskişehir, Turkey
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Place:Florence|Florence]], Italy
*{{flagicon|KOR}} Gyeongju, South Korea
*{{flagicon|TUR}} Istanbul, Turkey
*{{flagicon|TUR}} İzmir, Turkey
*{{flagicon|FRA}} Lyon, France
*{{flagicon|UKR}} Lviv, Ukraine
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Place:Valencia|Valencia]], Spain
{{div col end}}

==In Literature==
In 2002, Nobel Laureate [[Biography:Wole Soyinka|Wole Soyinka]] titled his collection of poetry ''Samarqand and Other Markets I've Known.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samarqand and Other Markets I Have Known {{!}} poetry by Soyinka {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samarkand-and-Other-Markets-I-Have-Known |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*Samarkand non

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==General and cited references==
*Azim Malikov, "Cult of saints and shrines in the Samarqand province of Uzbekistan". ''International Journal of Modern Anthropology''. No. 4. 2010, pp.&nbsp;116–123.
*Azim Malikov, "The politics of memory in Samarkand in post-Soviet period". ''International Journal of Modern Anthropology''. (2018) Vol. 2. Issue No. 11. pp.&nbsp;127–145.
*Azim Malikov, "Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity". ''Anthropology of the Middle East'', Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, рp.&nbsp;34–49.
*Alexander Morrison, ''Russian Rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A Comparison with British India'' (Oxford, OUP, 2008) (Oxford Historical Monographs).

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage}}
*Forbes, Andrew, & Henley, David: ''[http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120613150427&aiid=120613151433 Timur's Legacy: The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand]'' (CPA Media).
*[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/uz/samarkand/samarkand.html Samarkand – Silk Road Seattle Project], University of Washington
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070311131202/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/sup/Samarqand.html The history of Samarkand], according to Columbia University's Encyclopædia Iranica (archived 11 March 2007)
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603 Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures], United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
*[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/sama1.htm GCatholic – former Latin Catholic bishopric]
*[http://www.people-travels.com/uzbekistan-cities/samarkand/ Samarkand: Photos, History, Sights], Useful information for travelers
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180818044736/http://samarkand.com/samarkand/about-samarkand-uzbekistan/ About Samarkand in Uzbekistan Latest] (archived 18 August 2018)
*[https://damda.uz/en/blog/medrese-tillya-kori Tilla-Kori Madrasa was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List]

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{{s-bef|before=-}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the [[Place:Samanid Empire|Samanid Empire]]|years=819–892}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Place:Bukhara|Bukhara]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Gurganj}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of Khwarazmian Empire |years=1212–1220}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Place:Ghazni|Ghazna]]}}
{{s-bef|before=-}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the [[Place:Timurid Empire|Timurid Empire]]|years=1370–1405}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Place:Herat|Herat]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Place:Bukhara|Bukhara]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Capital of the Uzbek SSR|years=1925-1930}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]]}}
{{S-end}}

[[Category:Former national capitals]]

{{Sourceattribution|Samarkand}}