View source for Plan Calcul

'''Plan Calcul''' was a French governmental program to promote a national or European [[Computer|computer]] industry and associated research and education activities.

The plan was approved in July 1966 by President Charles de Gaulle, in the aftermath of two key events that made his government worry about French dependence on the US computer industry.<ref name=bi89/> In the mid-1960s, the United States denied export licenses for American-made [[Company:IBM|IBM]] and [[Company:Control Data Corporation|CDC]] computers to the French Commissariat à l'énergie atomique in order to prevent it from perfecting its H bomb.<ref name=bi89/><ref name=ws/><ref name=bg07/>{{rp|21}}{{r|forest19711215}} Meanwhile, in 1964, [[Company:General Electric|General Electric]] had acquired a majority of [[Company:Groupe Bull|Compagnie des Machines Bull]], the largest French computer manufacturer, which had the second highest market share in France, after IBM, and was a leading IT equipment maker in Europe. Following this partial takeover,<ref name=fc/> known as "Affaire Bull",<ref name=c04/>{{r|forest19711215}} GE-Bull dropped two Bull computers from its product line.<ref name=ws/><ref>Pierre Mounier-Kuhn, “From General Electric to Bull: A case of managerial knowledge transfer (1956-1970)”, ''Entreprises et Histoire'', June 2014, n° 75, p. 42-56 (http://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2014-2-page-42.htm)</ref>

Responsibility for administering the plan was given to a newly created government agency, {{Interlanguage link multi|Délégation générale à l'informatique|fr}} (Information Bureau), answering directly to the prime minister.<ref name=ws/>

{{anchor|CIICompany}}
As part of the program, in December 1966, the '''Compagnie internationale pour l'informatique''' ('''CII''') was established as a manufacturer of commercial and scientific computers, initially under licence from [[Company:Scientific Data Systems|Scientific Data Systems]]. The new company was intended to compete not only in the process control and military market, where its staff was already seasoned, but also in the office computing sector of the French market, where IBM and Bull were dominant at the time.<ref name=bi89/> The plan enacted government subsidies for CII between 1967 and 1971, and was reconducted for another four years.<ref name=f88/> A minor side of the plan was devoted to peripherals, while CII's main parent company, Thomson-CSF, received government support to develop its semiconductor plants and R & D. Overall, while CII mainframes benefitted from preferential procurement by the French government, the Plan Calcul left peripherals, components and small computers makers compete on the free market. The same went for software companies, which were already thriving in France.

On the research side, the program also led to the creation of ''L'Institut de recherche en informatique et en automatique'' (IRIA) in 1967, which later became INRIA.<ref name=fc/> It was accompanied with a vast educational effort in programming and computer science.<ref name=mk/>

In the late 1960s, CII announced its new, internally designed mainframes Iris 50<ref>{{cite journal |title=IRIS 50 - FIRST OF SERIES OF NEW FRENCH COMPUTERS |journal=Computers and Automation |date=Nov 1968 |pages=48-49 |url=https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_computersA_9501077/page/n47?q=%22IRIS+50+-+FIRST+OF+SERIES+OF+NEW+FRENCH+COMPUTERS%22#search/%22IRIS%2050%20-%20FIRST%20OF%20SERIES%20OF%20NEW%20FRENCH%20COMPUTERS%22}}</ref> [1970] and Iris 80<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.feb-patrimoine.com/english/siris_8_family.htm |title=Siris 8 family |access-date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> [1971], and developed a mini-computer, Mitra 15 (1971),<ref>{{cite web |title=Bull computer History |url=http://www.feb-patrimoine.com/english/bull_computer_index.htm |website=www.feb-patrimoine.com |at=CII systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CII History |url=http://www.feb-patrimoine.com/projet/histoire_informatique/cii_history.htm |website=www.feb-patrimoine.com}}</ref> which became a commercial success in the following decade. The company also was a minority participant in the production of magnetic periphals thru part ownership of [[Company:Magnetic Peripherals|Magnetic Peripherals]] Inc.

{{asof|1971}} IBM had more than 50% market share in almost every European country. Information Bureau head {{Interlanguage link multi|Maurice Allègre|fr}} warned that international cooperation was necessary, however, as "something must happen or there won't be a European computer industry". The French government had spent more than $100 million on Plan Calcul in the first five years, and planned to spend more than that amount in the next five. France expected CII to reach $200 million in revenue before 1975.<ref name="forest19711215">{{Cite magazine |last=Forest |first=Robert B. |date=1971-12-15 |title=Close Cooperation: Europe's Best Hope |url=https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_datamation_14170580/page/n27 |magazine=Datamation |pages=26-33 |access-date=2019-12-03}}</ref> That year, CII began negotiations with [[Company:Siemens|Siemens]] and [[Company:Philips|Philips]] to form a joint European company, Unidata, which shipped its first computers in 1974. Yet a new President of the Republic was elected then, former Finance minister Giscard d'Estaing, who was a strong opponent of the Plan Calcul; meanwhile, CII's sleeping partner, CGE-Alcatel, woke up to oppose the domination of its archrival Siemens over the European computer industry. Unidata was terminated and CII was absorbed into [[Company:Groupe Bull|Honeywell-Bull]] in 1976.

This government initiative was ultimately deemed a failure.<ref>"CII failed because “offensive protectionism” was impossible, because computers are commercial products and the state is a buyer, it is not an infrastructure project. CII failed because although the State financed the whole project, private owners of CII had a different agenda." https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10842-007-0024-8</ref>

== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Software:Quaero|Quaero]]
* Cloudwatt
}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
<ref name=ws>Wayne Sandholtz, ''High-Tech Europe: the politics of international cooperation'', University of California Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-520-07313-4}}, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zzt7Tm6_OVYC&pg=PA76&dq=%22Plan+Calcul%22&cd=2#v=onepage&q=%22Plan%20Calcul%22&f=false 76]</ref>
<ref name=bi89>Robert W. Crandall, Kenneth Flamm, ''Changing the rules: technological change, international competition, and regulation in communications'', Brookings Institution Press, 1989, {{ISBN|0-8157-1596-X}}, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iO69kPzo_ZUC&pg=PT1&dq=Changing+the+rules:+technological+change,+international+competition,+and+regulation+in+communications,+Brookings+Institution+Press&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22plan%20calcul%22&f=false 285]</ref>
<ref name=fc>{{in lang|fr}} Emmanuel Laurentin interview with  Pierre Mounier-Kuhn (26 Sep 2006) ''[<!---deadlink Sep 2014---http://sites.radiofrance.fr/chaines/france-culture2/emissions/fabriquenew/fiche.php?diffusion_id=45580--->http://www.franceculture.fr/emission-histoire-de-l-innovation-24-2006-09-26.html 1966 : La France lance le plan Calcul]'', France Culture, La fabrique de l'histoire (series)</ref>
<ref name=f88>Kenneth Flamm, ''Creating the computer: government, industry, and high technology'', Brookings Institution Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0-8157-2849-2}}, p. 156</ref>
<!-- <ref name=mk14>Pierre Mounier-Kuhn, “From General Electric to Bull: A case of managerial knowledge transfer (1956-1970)”, ''Entreprises et Histoire'', June 2014, n° 75, p. 42-56 (http://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2014-2-page-42.htm)</ref> -->
<ref name=bg07>{{in lang|fr}} Alain Beltran, Pascal Griset, ''Histoire d'un pionnier de l'informatique: 40 ans de recherche à l'Inria'', EDP Sciences, 2007, {{ISBN|2-86883-806-5}}</ref>
<ref name=mk>{{in lang|fr}} Pierre Mounier-Kuhn, ''L’Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L’émergence d’une science'', Paris, PUPS, 2010, {{ISBN|978-2-84050-654-6}}.</ref>
<ref name=c04>Richard Coopey, ''Information technology policy: an international history'', Oxford University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-19-924105-8}}, p. 9</ref>
}}

[[Category:History of computing]]

{{Sourceattribution|Plan Calcul|1}}