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'''Problem structuring methods''' ('''PSMs''') are a group of techniques used to [[Conceptual model|model]] or to [[Diagram|map]] the nature or structure of a situation or [[Social:State of affairs (sociology)|state of affairs]] that some people want to change.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1162">{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|p=1162}}</ref> PSMs are usually used by a group of people in [[Social:Collaboration|collaboration]] (rather than by a solitary individual) to create a [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] about, or at least to facilitate [[Social:Negotiation|negotiation]]s about, what needs to change.<ref name="Rosenhead-1996-117">{{harvnb|Rosenhead|1996|p=117}}</ref> Some widely adopted PSMs<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1162"/> include
* [[Soft systems methodology|soft systems methodology]]<ref>{{harvnb|Checkland|Poulter|2006}}</ref>
* the strategic choice approach<ref>{{harvnb|Friend|Hickling|2005}}</ref>
* strategic options development and analysis (SODA)<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Holwell|2010|pp=135–190}}</ref>

Unlike some [[Problem solving|problem solving]] methods that assume that all the relevant issues and constraints and goals that constitute the problem are defined in advance or are uncontroversial, PSMs assume that there is no single uncontested representation of what constitutes the problem.<ref>{{harvnb|Rosenhead|1996|p=118}}</ref>

PSMs are mostly used with groups of people, but PSMs have also influenced the [[Social:Coaching|coaching]] and counseling of individuals.<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Chatjoulis|Humphreys|2007}}</ref>

==History==
The term "problem structuring methods" as a label for these techniques began to be used in the 1980s in the field of [[Operations research|operations research]],<ref>For examples, see: {{harvnb|Norris|1985|p=871}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|1988|p=720}}; {{harvnb|Landis|1988|pp=117–119}}. William N. Dunn wrote in 1988: "In the absence of appropriate problem-structuring methods, how can we expect to formulate problems that encompass the proper elements, for example, the proper policy objectives, alternatives, and expected outcomes? Given a particular problem formulation, how do we know whether all important elements have been included in the set? In short, how do we know when we have formulated an approximate solution to the right problem, as distinguished from an exact solution to the wrong problem?" ({{harvnb|Dunn|1988|p=720}})</ref> especially after the publication of the book ''Rational Analysis for a Problematic World: Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict''.<ref>{{harvnb|Rosenhead|1989}}</ref> Some of the methods that came to be called PSMs had been in use since the 1960s.<ref name="Rosenhead-1996-117"/>

Thinkers who later came to be recognized as significant early contributors to the theory and practice of PSMs include:<ref>{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|p=1164}}</ref>
*Horst Rittel and Melvin M. Webber<ref>{{harvnb|Rittel|Webber|1973}}</ref>
*Russell L. Ackoff<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Ackoff|1974}}, {{harvnb|Ackoff|1979}}</ref>
*Peter Checkland<ref>{{harvnb|Checkland|1975}}, {{harvnb|Checkland|1981}}</ref>
*Colin Eden and Fran Ackermann<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Eden|Sims|1979}}, {{harvnb|Eden|1982}}, {{harvnb|Eden|Ackermann|2006}}</ref>
*Robert L. Flood and Michael C. Jackson<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Jackson|Keys|1984}}, {{harvnb|Flood|Jackson|1991}}</ref>
*Jonathan Rosenhead and John Mingers<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Rosenhead|1989}}, {{harvnb|Mingers|Rosenhead|2001}}</ref>

==Types of situations that call for PSMs<!--Section linked from [[Social:Cynefin framework#Domains|Cynefin framework]]: do not rename without fixing incoming link (see MOS:HEAD)-->==
In discussions of problem structuring methods, it is common to distinguish between two different types of situations that could be considered to be problems.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1163-64">{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|pp=1163–1164}}</ref> Rittel and Webber's distinction between tame problems and [[Wicked problem|wicked problem]]s ({{harvnb|Rittel|Webber|1973}}) is a well known example of such types.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1163-64"/> The following table lists similar (but not exactly equivalent) distinctions made by a number of thinkers between two types of "problem" situations, which can be seen as a continuum between a left and right extreme:<ref name="Culmsee-Awati-2013">This table is adapted from: {{harvnb|Culmsee|Awati|2013|p=108}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Different types of situations, and thinkers who named them<ref name="Culmsee-Awati-2013"/>
|-
! Thinker
! Left extreme
! Right extreme
|-
| Rittel & Webber
| Tame problem
| ''Wicked problem''
|-
| [[Biography:Herbert A. Simon|Herbert A. Simon]]
| Programmed decision
| ''Non-programmed decision''
|-
| Russell L. Ackoff
| Puzzle / Problem
| ''Mess''
|-
| [[Biography:Jerome Ravetz|Jerome Ravetz]]
| Technical problem
| ''Practical problem''
|-
| Ronald Heifetz
| Technical challenge
| ''Adaptive challenge''
|-
| Peter Checkland
| Hard systems
| ''Soft systems''
|-
| Donald Schön
| The high ground
| ''The swamp''
|-
| Barry Johnson
| Problems to solve
| ''Polarities to manage''
|-
|}

''Tame problems'' (or puzzles or technical challenges) have relatively precise, straightforward formulations that are often amenable to solution with some predetermined technical fix or algorithm. It is clear when these situations have changed in such a way that the problem can be called solved.

''Wicked problems'' (or messes or adaptive challenges) have multiple interacting issues with multiple [[Social:Project stakeholder|stakeholders]] and uncertainties and no definitive formulation. These situations are complex and have no stopping rule and no ultimate test of a solution.

PSMs were developed for situations that tend toward the wicked or "soft" side, when methods are needed that assist argumentation about, or that generate mutual understanding of multiple perspectives on, a complex situation.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1163-64"/> Other problem solving methods are better suited to situations toward the tame or "hard" side where a reliable and optimal solution is needed to a problem that can be clearly and uncontroversially defined.

==Characteristics==
Problem structuring methods constitute a family of approaches that have differing purposes and techniques, and many of them had been developed independently before people began to notice their family resemblance.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1163-64"/> Several scholars have noted the common and divergent characteristics among PSMs.

Eden and Ackermann identified four characteristics that problem structuring methods have in common:<ref>{{harvnb|Eden|Ackermann|2006}}</ref>
#The methods focus on creating "a model that is populated with data that is specific to the problem situation". These cause–effect models can be analyzed (albeit in different ways by different methods), and the models are intended to facilitate conversation and negotiation between the participants.
#The methods seek to increase the overall productivity of group processes. Productivity includes creating better agreements that are more likely to be implemented, and realizing (to the extent possible in the given situation) ideals such as [[Philosophy:Communicative rationality|communicative rationality]] and [[Social:Procedural justice|procedural justice]].
#The methods emphasize that the [[Finance:Facilitation (business)|facilitation]] of effective group processes requires some attention to, and open conversation about, power and politics within and between organizations. Power and politics can become especially important when major change is being proposed.
#The methods provide techniques and skills for facilitation of group processes, and they appreciate that such techniques and skills are essential for effective [[Sensemaking|sensemaking]], [[Systems modeling|systems modeling]], and [[Participative decision-making|participative decision-making]].  People who use PSMs must pay attention to what group facilitators call ''process skills'' (guiding interactions between people through nonlinear applications of the methods) and ''content skills'' (helping people build sufficiently comprehensive models of the given situation).

Rosenhead provided another list of common characteristics of PSMs, formulated in a more prescriptive style:<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1164-65">{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|pp=1164–1165}}</ref>
*Seek solutions which satisfice on separate dimensions rather than seeking an [[Optimal decision|optimal decision]] on a single dimension.
*Integrate hard and soft (quantitative and qualitative) data with social judgments.
*Produce models that are as [[Social:Transparency (behavior)|transparent]] as possible to and that clarify conflicts of interpretation, rather than hiding conflicts behind neutral technical language.
*Consider people to be agents actively involved in the [[Decision-making|decision-making]] process, rather than as passive objects to be modeled or ignored.
*Facilitate the problem structuring process from the bottom-up as much as possible, not only top-down from formal organizational leadership.
*Aim to preserve options in the face of unavoidable uncertainty, rather than to base decisions on a prediction of the future.

An early literature review of problem structuring proposed grouping the texts reviewed into "four streams of thought" that describe some major differences between methods:<ref>{{harvnb|Woolley|Pidd|1981|pp=203–204}}</ref>
*''the checklist stream'', which is step-by-step technical problem solving (''not'' problem structuring as it came to be defined in PSMs, so this stream does not apply to PSMs),
*''the definition stream'', which is primarily modeling of relationships between variables, as described by Ackoff and others,
*''the science research stream'' which emphasizes doing field research and gathering quantitative data, and
*''the people stream'', which "regards the definition of problems as a function of people's perceptions" as described by Checkland, Eden, and others.

===Compared to large group methods===
Mingers and Rosenhead have noted that there are similarities and differences between PSMs and ''large group methods'' such as Future Search, Open Space Technology, and others.<ref name="Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548">{{harvnb|Mingers|Rosenhead|2004|p=548}}; examples of large group methods can be found in {{harvnb|Bunker|Alban|2006}}</ref> PSMs and large group methods both bring people together to talk about, and to share different perspectives on, a situation or state of affairs that some people want to change. However, PSMs always focus on creating a sufficiently rigorous [[Conceptual model|conceptual model]] or [[Cognitive map|cognitive map]] of the situation, whereas large group methods do not necessarily emphasize modeling, and PSMs are not necessarily used with large groups of people.<ref name="Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548"/>

===Compared to participatory rural appraisal===
There is significant overlap or shared characteristics between PSMs and some of the techniques used in participatory rural appraisal (PRA). Mingers and Rosenhead pointed out that in situations where people have low literacy, the nonliterate (oral and visual) techniques developed in PRA would be a necessary complement to PSMs, and the approaches to modeling in PSMs could be (and have been) used by practitioners of PRA.<ref>{{harvnb|Mingers|Rosenhead|2004|pp=548–549}}</ref>

==Applications==
In 2004, Mingers and Rosenhead published a literature review of papers that had been published in scholarly journals and that reported practical applications of PSMs.<ref name="M&R 541–542">{{harvnb|Mingers|Rosenhead|2004|pp=541–542}}</ref> Their literature survey covered the period up to 1998, which was "relatively early in the development of interest in PSMs",<ref>{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|p=1167}}</ref> and categorized 51 reported applications under the following application areas: general organizational applications; information systems; technology, resources, planning; health services; and general research. Examples of applications reported included: designing a parliamentary briefing system, modeling the San Francisco Zoo, developing a business strategy and [[Information system|information system]] strategy, planning livestock management in Nepal, regional planning in South Africa, modeling hospital outpatient services, and eliciting knowledge about pesticides.<ref name="M&R 541–542"/>

==Technology and software==
PSMs are a general [[Methodology|methodology]] and are not necessarily dependent on electronic [[Engineering:Information technology|information technology]],<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1170"/> but PSMs do rely on some kind of shared display of the models that participants are developing. The shared display could be [[Engineering:Flip chart|flip chart]]s, a large [[Engineering:Whiteboard|whiteboard]], [[Engineering:Post-it note|Post-it note]]s on the meeting room walls, and/or a [[Engineering:Personal computer|personal computer]] connected to a [[Engineering:Video projector|video projector]].<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1170">{{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|p=1170}}</ref> After PSMs have been used in a group work session, it is normal for a record of the session's display to be shared with participants and with other relevant people.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1170"/>

Software programs for supporting problem structuring include Banxia Decision Explorer and Group Explorer,<ref name="Explorer">{{harvnb|Ackermann|Eden|2011}}; {{harvnb|Rosenhead|2013|p=1169}}</ref> which implement [[Cognitive map|cognitive map]]ping for strategic options development and analysis (SODA), and [[Software:Compendium|Compendium]], which implements [[Issue-based information system|IBIS]] for dialogue mapping and related methods;<ref name="Compendium">{{harvnb|Conklin|2006}}; {{harvnb|Culmsee|Awati|2013}}; {{harvnb|Culmsee|Awati|2014}}</ref> a similar program is called Wisdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackenzie|Pidd|Rooksby|Sommerville|2006}}</ref> Such software can serve a variety of functions, such as simple technical assistance to the group facilitator during a single event, or more long-term online group [[Decision support system|decision support system]]s.

Some practitioners prefer not to use computers during group work sessions because of the effect they have on group dynamics, but such use of computers is standard in some PSMs such as SODA<ref name="Explorer"/> and dialogue mapping,<ref name="Compendium"/> in which computer display of models or maps is intended to guide conversation in the most efficient way.<ref name="Rosenhead-2013-1170"/>

In some situations additional software that is not used only for PSMs may be incorporated into the problem structuring process; examples include [[Engineering:Spreadsheet|spreadsheet]] modeling, [[Comparison of system dynamics software|system dynamics software]]<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Rodriguez-Ulloa|Paucar-Caceres|2005}}; {{harvnb|Hovmand|2014|p=83}}</ref> or [[Geographic information system|geographic information system]]s.<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Pfeiffer|Glaser|Vencatesan|Schliermann-Kraus|2008}}; {{harvnb|Ferretti|2016}}</ref> Some practitioners, who have focused on building [[System dynamics|system dynamics]] simulation models with groups of people, have called their work ''group model building'' (GMB) and have concluded "that GMB is another PSM".<ref>{{harvnb|Andersen|Vennix|Richardson|Rouwette|2007|p=691}}</ref> GMB has also been used in combination with SODA.<ref>{{harvnb|Herrera|McCardle-Keurentjes|Videira||2016}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Causal model]]
* [[Boundary critique]]
* [[Decision conferencing]]
* [[Delphi method]]
* [[Group concept mapping]]
* {{section link|Inquiry|Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm}}
* [[Method engineering]]
* [[Participatory modeling]]
* {{section link|Policy|Policy cycle}}
* [[Problem finding]]
* Problem formulation
* [[Problem shaping]]
* [[Research question]]
* {{section link|Richards Heuer|Structured analytic techniques}}
* [[Stakeholder analysis]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}<!-- Please keep in alphabetical order -->

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|editor1-first=Martin
|editor2-last=Holwell
|editor2-first=Sue
|date=2010
|title=Systems approaches to managing change: a practical guide
|location=London; New York
|publisher=Springer Verlag
|isbn=9781848828087
|oclc=428028266
|doi=10.1007/978-1-84882-809-4
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRjA1alwF3IC
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Rittel
|first1=Horst W. J.
|last2=Webber
|first2=Melvin M.
|date=June 1973
|title=Dilemmas in a general theory of planning
|journal=Policy Sciences
|volume=4
|issue=2
|pages=155–169
|doi=10.1007/BF01405730
|jstor=4531523
|s2cid=18634229
|url=http://hci.stanford.edu/dschool/resources/readings/Rittel+Webber+Dilemmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Rodriguez-Ulloa
|first1=Ricardo
|last2=Paucar-Caceres
|first2=Alberto
|date=June 2005
|title=Soft system dynamics methodology (SSDM): combining soft systems methodology (SSM) and system dynamics (SD)
|journal=Systemic Practice and Action Research
|volume=18
|issue=3
|pages=303–334
|doi=10.1007/s11213-005-4816-7
|s2cid=54555503
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27400256
}}

* {{cite book
|author-last=Rosenhead
|author-first=Jonathan
|date=1989
|title=Rational analysis for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty, and conflict
|location=Chichester, UK; New York
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=978-0471922858
|oclc=19847533
}}

* {{cite journal
|last=Rosenhead
|first=Jonathan
|date=November 1996
|title=What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods
|journal=Interfaces
|volume=26
|issue=6
|pages=117–131
|doi=10.1287/inte.26.6.117
|jstor=25062196
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Rosenhead
|first=Jonathan
|date=2013
|chapter=Problem Structuring Methods
|editor1-last=Gass
|editor1-first=Saul I.
|editor2-last=Fu
|editor2-first=Michael C.
|title=Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science
|edition=3rd
|location=New York; London
|publisher=Springer Verlag
|pages=1162–1172
|isbn=9781441911377
|oclc=751832290
|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Woolley
|first1=Robert N.
|last2=Pidd
|first2=Michael
|date=March 1981
|title=Problem structuring—a literature review
|journal=Journal of the Operational Research Society
|volume=32
|issue=3
|pages=197–206
|doi=10.1057/jors.1981.42
|jstor=2581061
|s2cid=62223595
}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}<!-- Please keep in reverse chronological order -->

* {{cite journal
|last1=Veldhuis
|first1=Guido Arjan
|last2=Scheepstal
|first2=Peter van
|last3=Rouwette
|first3=Etiënne
|last4=Logtens
|first4=Tom
|date=June 2015
|title=Collaborative problem structuring using MARVEL
|journal=EURO Journal on Decision Processes
|volume=3
|issue=3–4
|pages=249–273
|doi=10.1007/s40070-015-0045-1
|s2cid=108617231
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Bryson
|first1=John M.
|last2=Eden
|first2=Colin
|last3=Ackermann
|first3=Fran
|date=2014
|title=Visual strategy: a workbook for strategy mapping for public and nonprofit organizations
|location=San Francisco
|publisher=Jossey-Bass
|isbn=9781118605929
|oclc=883462253
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1vOAwAAQBAJ
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Cronin
|first1=Karen
|last2=Midgley
|first2=Gerald
|last3=Jackson
|first3=Laurie Skuba
|date=February 2014
|title=Issues mapping: a problem structuring method for addressing science and technology conflicts
|journal=[[European Journal of Operational Research]]
|volume=233
|issue=1
|pages=145–158
|doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2013.08.012
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277450288
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Groetker
|first=Ralf
|date=2014
|chapter=Visualized problem structuring for stakeholder consultations: enabling informed decision-making with argument maps and the argument browser
|editor1-last=Okada
|editor1-first=Alexandra
|editor2-last=Buckingham Shum
|editor2-first=Simon J.
|editor3-last=Sherborne
|editor3-first=Tony
|title=Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques
|edition=2nd
|series=Advanced information and knowledge processing
|location=New York
|publisher=Springer Verlag
|pages=309–332
|isbn=9781447164692
|oclc=890438015
|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_14
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA309
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Hogan
|first1=Michael J.
|last2=Harney
|first2=Owen M.
|last3=Broome
|first3=Benjamin J.
|date=2014
|chapter=Integrating Argument Mapping with Systems Thinking Tools: Advancing Applied Systems Science
|editor1-last=Okada
|editor1-first=Alexandra
|editor2-last=Buckingham Shum
|editor2-first=Simon J.
|editor3-last=Sherborne
|editor3-first=Tony
|title=Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques
|edition=2nd
|series=Advanced information and knowledge processing
|location=New York
|publisher=Springer
|pages=401–421
|isbn=9781447164692
|oclc=890438015
|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_18
|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271326448
}}

* {{cite journal
|last=Jordan
|first=Thomas
|date=2014
|title=Deliberative methods for complex issues: a typology of functions that may need scaffolding
|journal=Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal
|issue=13
|pages=50–71
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267642714
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Yearworth
|first1=Mike
|last2=White
|first2=Leroy
|date=September 2014
|title=The non-codified use of problem structuring methods and the need for a generic constitutive definition
|journal=[[European Journal of Operational Research]]
|volume=237
|issue=3
|pages=932–945
|doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2014.02.015
|s2cid=30180206
|url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/26098/1/EJOR-S-13-03166-RevisedManuscript-300114.pdf
|hdl=10871/26098
|hdl-access=free
}}

* {{cite journal
|last=Ferreira
|first=J. Soeiro
|date=June 2013
|title=Multimethodology in metaheuristics
|journal=Journal of the Operational Research Society
|volume=64
|issue=6
|pages=873–883
|doi=10.1057/jors.2012.88
|s2cid=1170426
|url=http://repositorio.inesctec.pt/handle/123456789/5876
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Metcalfe
|first1=Mike
|last2=Sastrowardoyo
|first2=Saras
|date=November 2013
|title=Complex project conceptualisation and argument mapping
|journal=International Journal of Project Management
|volume=31
|issue=8
|pages=1129–1138
|doi=10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.01.004
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Midgley
|first1=Gerald
|last2=Cavana
|first2=Robert Y.
|last3=Brocklesby
|first3=John
|last4=Foote
|first4=Jeff L.
|last5=Wood
|first5=David R. R.
|last6=Ahuriri-Driscoll
|first6=Annabel
|date=August 2013
|title=Towards a new framework for evaluating systemic problem structuring methods
|journal=[[European Journal of Operational Research]]
|volume=229
|issue=1
|pages=143–154
|doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2013.01.047
|doi-access=free
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Golnam
|first1=Arash
|last2=Tapandjieva
|first2=Gorica
|last3=Viana
|first3=Sérgio
|last4=Wegmann
|first4=Alain
|date=2011
|chapter=Problem structuring methods in system dynamics modeling: a cognitive fit perspective
|editor1-last=Lyneis
|editor1-first=James M.
|editor2-last=Richardson
|editor2-first=George P.
|title=29th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2011: Washington, DC, USA, 24–28 July 2011: proceedings
|location=Albany
|publisher=System Dynamics Society
|isbn=9781618392299
|oclc=772917674
|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266877552
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Roam
|first=Dan
|date=2011
|title=Blah blah blah: what to do when words don't work
|location=New York
|publisher=[[Company:Penguin Group|Portfolio/Penguin]]
|isbn=9781591844594
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Belton
|first1=Valerie
|last2=Stewart
|first2=Theodor
|date=2010
|chapter=Problem Structuring and Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis
|editor1-last=Ehrgott
|editor1-first=Matthias
|editor2-last=Figueira
|editor2-first=José
|editor3-last=Greco
|editor3-first=Salvatore
|title=Trends in Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis
|series=International series in operations research & management science
|volume=142
|location=New York
|publisher=Springer Verlag
|pages=209–239
|isbn=9781441959034
|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-5904-1_8
}}

* {{cite book
|editor1-last=Kilgour
|editor1-first=D. Marc
|editor2-last=Eden
|editor2-first=Colin
|date=2010
|title=Handbook of group decision and negotiation
|series=Advances in group decision and negotiation
|volume=4
|location=New York
|publisher=Springer Verlag
|isbn=9789048190966
|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9097-3
|s2cid=109009575
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGsQl-wxbKAC
}}

* {{cite thesis
|type=Ph.D. thesis
|last=Cuppen
|first=E. H. W. J. (Eefje)
|date=2009
|title=Putting perspectives into participation: constructive conflict methodology for problem structuring in stakeholder dialogues
|location=Amsterdam
|hdl=1871/15611
|isbn=9789088911354
|oclc=890620243
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Hürlimann
|first=Mark
|date=2009
|title=Dealing with real-world complexity: limits, enhancements and new approaches for policy makers
|series=Gabler Edition Wissenschaft
|location=Wiesbaden
|publisher=Betriebswirtschaftlicher Verlag Gabler
|isbn=9783834980748
|oclc=405547025
|doi=10.1007/978-3-8349-8074-8
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igr9qNtw3doC
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Kopainsky
|first1=Birgit
|last2=Luna-Reyes
|first2=Luis F.
|date=July 2008
|title=Closing the loop: promoting synergies with other theory building approaches to improve system dynamics practice
|journal=Systems Research and Behavioral Science
|volume=25
|issue=4
|pages=471–486
|doi=10.1002/sres.913
}}

* {{cite book
|editor1-last=Waltner-Toews
|editor1-first=David
|editor2-last=Kay
|editor2-first=James
|editor3-last=Lister
|editor3-first=Nina-Marie E.
|date=2008
|title=The ecosystem approach: complexity, uncertainty, and managing for sustainability
|series=Complexity in ecological systems series
|location=New York
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|isbn=9780231132503
|oclc=221664360
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Lengler
|first1=Ralph
|last2=Eppler
|first2=Martin J.
|date=2007
|chapter=Towards a periodic table of visualization methods for management
|title=IASTED Proceedings of the Conference on Graphics and Visualization in Engineering (GVE 2007), Clearwater, Florida, USA
|location=Calgary
|pages=1–6
|oclc=244786254
|chapter-url=http://www.visual-literacy.org/periodic_table/periodic_table.html
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Morton
|first1=Alec
|last2=Ackermann
|first2=Fran
|last3=Belton
|first3=Valerie
|date=May 2007
|title=Problem structuring without workshops?: experiences with distributed interaction within a PSM process
|journal=Journal of the Operational Research Society
|volume=58
|issue=5
|pages=547–556
|doi=10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602210
|s2cid=5165781
|url=http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/93149.pdf
}}

* {{cite book
|editor1-last=O'Brien
|editor1-first=Frances A.
|editor2-last=Dyson
|editor2-first=Robert G.
|date=2007
|title=Supporting strategy: frameworks, methods and models
|location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=9780470057186
|oclc=76073738
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Mendoza
|first1=Guillermo A.
|last2=Martins
|first2=H.
|date=July 2006
|title=Multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management: a critical review of methods and new modelling paradigms
|journal=Forest Ecology and Management
|volume=230
|issue=1–3
|pages=1–22
|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2006.03.023
|citeseerx=10.1.1.470.5541
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Montibeller
|first1=Gilberto
|last2=Belton
|first2=Valerie
|date=July 2006
|title=Causal maps and the evaluation of decision options—a review
|journal=Journal of the Operational Research Society
|volume=57
|issue=7
|pages=779–791
|doi=10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602214
|s2cid=6587566
|url=http://bayanbox.ir/view/926013465007710647/1-Causal-Maps-and-the-Evaluation-of-Decision-Options-A-Review.pdf
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Ackermann
|first1=Fran
|last2=Eden
|first2=Colin
|last3=Brown
|first3=Ian
|date=2005
|title=The practice of making strategy: a step-by-step guide
|location=London; Thousand Oaks, CA
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|isbn=978-0761944935
|oclc=56464669
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RmMPzli5BMC
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Bryson
|first=John M.
|date=2004
|title=Visible thinking: unlocking causal mapping for practical business results
|location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=978-0470869154
|oclc=54805947
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLjEuBlSUoMC
}}

* {{cite journal
|last=List
|first=Dennis
|date=February 2004
|title=Multiple pasts, converging presents, and alternative futures
|journal=Futures
|volume=36
|issue=1
|pages=23–43
|doi=10.1016/S0016-3287(03)00140-X
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Nadler
|first1=Gerald
|last2=Chandon
|first2=William J.
|date=2004
|title=Smart questions: learn to ask the right questions for powerful results
|location=San Francisco
|publisher=Jossey-Bass
|isbn=978-0787971373
|oclc=53846603
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4jJ40b9zFwC
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Bryant
|first=Jim
|date=2003
|title=The six dilemmas of collaboration: inter-organisational relationships as drama
|location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=978-0470843925
|oclc=59464466
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Sioukas
|first=Tasos
|date=2003
|title=The solution path: a step-by-step guide to turning your workplace problems into opportunities
|location=San Francisco
|publisher=Jossey-Bass
|isbn=978-0787962753
|oclc=52423944
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xugUSFPZOKMC
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Heijden
|first1=Kees A. van der
|last2=Bradfield
|first2=Ron
|last3=Burt
|first3=George
|last4=Cairns
|first4=George
|last5=Wright
|first5=George
|date=2002
|title=Sixth sense: accelerating organizational learning with scenarios
|location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=978-0470844915
|oclc=49834014
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXfFHv1RqsYC
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Sterman
|first=John D.
|date=2000
|title=Business dynamics: systems thinking and modeling for a complex world
|location=Boston
|publisher=Irwin/McGraw-Hill
|isbn=978-0072311358
|oclc=42771322
|url=https://archive.org/details/businessdynamics0000ster
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Flood
|first=Robert L.
|date=1999
|title=Rethinking the fifth discipline: learning within the unknowable
|location=London; New York
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0415185295
|oclc=40305701
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOKFAgAAQBAJ
}}

* {{cite book
|editor1-last=Holman
|editor1-first=Peggy
|editor2-last=Devane
|editor2-first=Tom
|editor3-last=Cady
|editor3-first=Steven
|date=2007
|orig-year=1999
|title=The change handbook: the definitive resource on today's best methods for engaging whole systems
|edition=2nd
|location=San Francisco
|publisher=Berrett-Koehler
|isbn=9781576753798
|oclc=66527256
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JA08U6ntp-IC
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Horn
|first=Robert E.
|date=1998
|title=Visual language: global communication for the 21st century
|location=Bainbridge Island, WA
|publisher=MacroVU, Inc.
|isbn=978-1892637093
|oclc=41138655
|url=https://archive.org/details/visuallanguagegl0000horn
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Mitroff
|first=Ian I.
|date=1998
|title=Smart thinking for crazy times: the art of solving the right problems
|location=San Francisco
|publisher=Berrett-Koehler
|isbn=978-1576750209
|oclc=37910423
|url=https://archive.org/details/smartthinkingfor00mitr
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Ford
|first1=Kenneth M.
|last2=Bradshaw
|first2=Jeffrey M.
|last3=Adams-Webber
|first3=Jack R.
|last4=Agnew
|first4=Neil M.
|date=January 1993
|title=Knowledge acquisition as a constructive modeling activity
|journal=International Journal of Intelligent Systems
|volume=8
|issue=1
|pages=9–32
|doi=10.1002/int.4550080103
|s2cid=5679832
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229668887
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Hicks
|first=Michael J.
|date=2004
|orig-year=1991
|title=Problem solving and decision making: hard, soft and creative approaches
|edition=2nd
|location=London; New York
|publisher=Thomson
|isbn=9781861526175
|oclc=55852024
|url=https://archive.org/details/problemsolvingde0000hick
|url-access=registration
}}

* {{cite journal
|last1=Conklin
|first1=E. Jeffrey
|last2=Yakemovic
|first2=K. C. Burgess
|date=September 1991
|title=A process-oriented approach to design rationale
|journal=Human–Computer Interaction
|volume=6
|issue=3
|pages=357–391
|doi=10.1207/s15327051hci0603&4_6
}}

* {{cite book
|editor-last=Huff
|editor-first=Anne Sigismund
|date=1990
|title=Mapping strategic thought
|location=Chichester, UK; New York
|publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}}
|isbn=978-0471926320
|oclc=20722225
}}

* {{cite book
|last1=Nadler
|first1=Gerald
|last2=Hibino
|first2=Shōzō
|last3=Farrell
|first3=John
|date=1995
|orig-year=1990
|title=Creative solution finding: the triumph of breakthrough thinking over conventional problem solving
|location=Rocklin, CA
|publisher=Prima Pub.
|isbn=978-1559585675
|oclc=30593721
}}

{{refend}}

[[Category:Problem structuring methods| ]]

{{Sourceattribution|Problem structuring methods}}