View source for Religion:Abrahamic religions

{{Short description |Group of religions}}
[[File:Three Main Abrahamic Religions.svg |thumb |upright |From top to bottom: the [[Star and crescent|star and crescent]] (Islam), the cross (Christianity), and the [[Star of David|Star of David]] (Judaism) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions.]]
The '''Abrahamic religions''' are a group of religions, most notably [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]], [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] and [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], centered on the worship of the [[Religion:God in Abrahamic religions|God of Abraham]]. [[Biography:Abraham|Abraham]], a Hebrew [[Religion:Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarch]], is extensively mentioned in the religious scriptures of the [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew]] and [[Religion:Bible|Christian Bible]]s, and also the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]].

Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in [[Place:Canaan|Canaan]]; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the [[Place:Ishmaelites|Ishmaelites]] are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref>{{harvp|Hatcher|Martin|1998|pp=130–31}}; {{harvp|Bremer|2015|p=19–20}}; {{harvp|Able|2011|p=219}}; {{harvp|Dever|2001|pp=97–102}}</ref>

In its early stages, the Israelite religion was derived from the Canaanite religions of the [[History:Bronze Age|Bronze Age]]; by the [[History:Iron Age|Iron Age]], it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for [[Philosophy:Monolatry|monolatry]], being influenced by the unique features of [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]], such as its monotheism, messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven, hell, angels, and demons, among other concepts.<ref name="TJE1906">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15283-zoroastrianism|title=Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")|date=1906|author1=[[Religion:Kaufmann Kohler|Kaufmann Kohler]]|author2=A. V. Williams Jackson|encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopaedia|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="SecondPersian">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |date=2006 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cPeBAAAQBAJ |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |pages=361–364 |isbn=9780567216175}}</ref><ref name="BlackRowley_1982_607b">{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1982|p=607b}}"there is general agreement that Persian religion and tradition had its influence on Judaism over the centuries" and the "question is where this influence was and which of the developments in Judaism can be ascribed to the Iranian side as opposed to the effect of the Greek or other cultures".</ref> The monolatrist nature of [[Philosophy:Yahwism|Yahwism]] was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.<ref>{{harvp|Edelman|1995|p=19}}; {{harvp|Gnuse|2016|p=5}}; {{harvp|Carraway|2013|p=66|ps=: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."}}; {{harvp|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=234|ps=: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."}}</ref><ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |title=BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife? |publisher=BBC |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115173447/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |url-status=live}} Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."</ref><ref name="Center for Online Judaic Studies 2008">{{cite web |first=Christine |last=Hayes |title=Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006. |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |date=3 July 2008 |url=http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |access-date=17 August 2022 |quote="Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors." |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817010524/http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1st century AD, Christianity emerged out of [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] in the [[Place:Land of Israel|Land of Israel]], developed under the [[Religion:Apostles|Apostles]] of [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]];{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}} it spread widely after it was adopted by the Roman Empire as a state religion in the 4th century AD. In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]] in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}}

Alongside the Indian religions, the Iranian religions, and the East Asian religions, the Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in comparative religion.{{sfn|Adams|2007}} By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively.{{sfn|Wormald|2015}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} Abrahamic religions with fewer adherents include Judaism, the [[Social:Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí Faith]], [[Philosophy:Druze|Druzism]], [[Religion:Samaritanism|Samaritanism]], and [[Unsolved:Rastafari|Rastafari]].<ref name="British Library">{{cite web |last=Abulafia |first=Anna Sapir |date=23 September 2019 |url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |title=The Abrahamic religions |publisher=British Library |location=[[Place:London|London]] |access-date=9 March 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712150432/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |archive-date=12 July 2020}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.{{sfn |Massignon |1949 |pp=20–23}} The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to ''[[Religion:Millat Ibrahim|dīn Ibrāhīm]]'', 'religion of Ibrahim', Arabic form of Abraham's name.{{sfn |Stroumsa |2017 |p=7}}

God's promise at [[Social:Genesis creation narrative|Genesis]] 15:4–8 regarding Abraham's heirs became paradigmatic for Jews, who speak of him as "our father Abraham" (''Avraham Avinu''). With the emergence of Christianity, [[Biography:Paul the Apostle|Paul the Apostle]], in Romans 4:11–12, likewise referred to him as "father of all" those who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised. Islam likewise conceived itself as the religion of Abraham.{{sfn |Levenson |2012 |pp=178–179}} All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham:
* Abraham is recorded in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarah through a promise made in [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Genesis]].<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |17:16}}</ref>{{sfn |Scherman |2001 |pp=34–35}}
* Christians affirm the ancestral origin of the Jews in Abraham.{{sfn |Levenson |2012 |pp=178–179}} Christianity also claims that Jesus was descended from Abraham.<ref>{{bibleverse |Matthew |1:1–17}}</ref>
* [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]], as an Arab, is believed by Muslims to be descended from Abraham's son Ishmael, through Hagar. Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael, [[Place:Ishmaelites|Ishmaelites]], with Arabs, while the descendants of Isaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites.<ref name="Saheeh al-Bukharee">Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710</ref>
* The Bahá'í Faith states in its scripture that Bahá'ullah descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}}{{sfn |Able |2011 |p=219}}{{sfn |Hatcher |Martin |1998 |pp=130–31}}

=== Debates regarding the term ===
The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by the terms "Abrahamic religions" or "Abrahamic traditions" has, at times, been challenged.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=Samuel L. |title=Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison |journal=Religion Compass |date=October 2019 |volume=13 |issue=10 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12339 |s2cid=203090839 |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12339}}</ref> The common Christian beliefs of [[Religion:Incarnation|Incarnation]], [[Religion:Trinity|Trinity]], and the [[Religion:Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection of Jesus]], for example, are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as abstinence from pork), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the [[Religion:Prophet|prophet]]ic and [[Religion:Messiah|Messianic]] position of Jesus, respectively).{{sfn|Greenstreet|2006|p=95}}

Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and [[Religion:Theology|theological]] commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} [[Biography:Alan L. Berger|Alan L. Berger]], professor of Judaic Studies at [[Organization:Florida Atlantic University|Florida Atlantic University]], wrote that although "Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam", the three faiths "understand the role of Abraham" in different ways.<ref name="Berger">{{cite web |url=http://home.fau.edu/aberger/web/bio.htm |title=Dr. Alan L. Berger |publisher=[[Organization:Florida Atlantic University|Florida Atlantic University]] |access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003410/http://home.fau.edu/aberger/web/bio.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2023}} Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism".{{sfn |Hughes |2012 |pp=3–4, 7–8, 17, 32}}

An alternative designation for the "Abrahamic religions", "'''desert monotheism'''", may also have unsatisfactory connotations.{{sfn |Benjamin |1983 |p=47 |loc="Nineteenth century scholars were convinced that the uniform vastness of the desert was the incentive for Israel's belief in one god. Baly, however, points out that most desert dwellers are polytheists.&nbsp;... Monotheism, according to Baly, have{{sic}} never developed in desert cultures; monotheism always develops in cities!"}}

== Religions ==
=== Judaism ===
[[File:Skverer Rebbe With Torah.jpg |thumb |A Jewish Rebbe holds a Torah scroll.]]
One of [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]]'s primary texts is the Tanakh, an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple ({{circa |535 BC}}). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the [[Religion:Jews|Jewish people]]. One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately gets its name. The Israelites were initially a number of tribes who lived in the Kingdom of Israel and [[History:Kingdom of Judah|Kingdom of Judah]].

After being conquered and exiled, some members of the [[History:Kingdom of Judah|Kingdom of Judah]] eventually returned to Israel. They later formed an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, which also conquered the state and dispersed its inhabitants. From the 2nd to the 6th centuries, Rabbinical Jews (believed to be descended from the historical Pharisees) wrote the Talmud, a lengthy work of legal rulings and Biblical [[Religion:Exegesis|exegesis]] which, along with the Tanakh, is a key text of Rabbinical Judaism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strack |first1=Hermann Leberecht |last2=Stemberger |first2=Gunter |title=Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash |date=1996 |publisher=Fortress Press}}</ref> Karaite Jews (believed to be descended from the Sadducees) and the Beta Israel reject the Talmud and the idea of an Oral Torah, following the Tanakh only.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lichaa |first1=Shawn |title=Routledge Handbook of Jewish Ritual and Practice |date=2022 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=9781003032823 |pages=179–192 |edition=1 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003032823-15/karaite-judaism-shawn-lichaa |chapter=Karaite Judaism: An Introduction to its Theology and Practices |doi=10.4324/9781003032823-15}}</ref>

=== Christianity ===
[[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg |thumb |Christianity is based on the teachings of the Bible]]

[[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]]. His followers viewed him as the [[Religion:Messiah|Messiah]], as in the [[Religion:Confession of Peter|Confession of Peter]]; after his [[Religion:Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]] and death they came to view him as [[Religion:Incarnation|God incarnate]],<ref>Pavlac, Brian A (2010). ''A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities''. Chapter 6.</ref> who was [[Religion:Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] and will [[Religion:Second Coming|return]] at the end of time to [[Religion:Last Judgment|judge the living and the dead]] and create an eternal Kingdom of God. Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism. Christian teaching is based on the [[Religion:Old Testament|Old]] and [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]]s of the Bible.

After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace ''vis-à-vis'' the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity|split into various churches from its beginning]]. An attempt was made by the [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] to unify [[Religion:Christendom|Christendom]], but this formally failed with the [[Religion:East–West Schism|East–West Schism]] of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestantism]] during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations.

=== Islam ===
{{Main |Religion:History of Islam}}
[[File:Abraham tomb.JPG |thumb |upright |A cenotaph above the Cave of the Patriarchs traditionally considered to be the burial place of Abraham.]]

[[Religion:Islam|Islam]] is based on the teachings of the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]]. Although it considers [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]] to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word ''Islam'' literally means submission, the main concept preached by all Abrahamic prophets. Although the Quran is the central [[Religion:Religious text|religious text]] of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], which [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s believe to be a [[Unsolved:Revelation|revelation]] from God,<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=Qurʼān |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |archive-date=16 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016200056/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |url-status=live}}</ref> other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the [[Religion:Zabur|Zabur]] (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the [[Religion:Gospel|Gospel]]) revealed to [[Biography:Jesus in Islam|Isa]] ([[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]]). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the [[Religion:Scrolls of Abraham|Scrolls of Abraham]] and the [[Religion:Scrolls of Moses|Scrolls of Moses]].

The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a [[Religion:Religion#Morphological classification|universal religion]] (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called ''[[Religion:Tawhid|tawhid]]'', or "strict" monotheism.<ref name="BBC Islam">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521230250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml |date=21 May 2009}}, BBC, 5 August 2009.</ref>

=== Other Abrahamic religions ===
Historically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to be Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.<ref name="British Library" /> Some of this is due to the age and larger size of these three.<ref name="British Library" /> The other, similar religions were seen as either too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small to be of significance to the category.

However, some of the restrictions of Abrahamic to these three is due only to tradition in historical classification. Therefore, restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.<ref name="Trialogue Intl">
*{{cite web |last=Micksch |first=Jürgen |title=Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz |publisher=Herbert Quandt Stiftung |year=2009 |url=http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523192258/http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |archive-date=23 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn |Collins |2004 |pp=157, 160}} The religions listed below here claim Abrahamic classification, either by the religions themselves, or by scholars who study them.

==== Baháʼí Faith ====
{{Main |Social:Baháʼí Faith}}
[[File:Picture of Abdul-Baha.jpg |thumb |upright |ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1844–1921), the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, and leader of the Baháʼí Faith]]

The Baháʼí Faith, which was developed in the late 19th century, is a world religion that has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields.{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}}{{sfn |Beit-Hallahmi |1992 |pp=48–49}} Monotheistic, it recognizes Abraham as one of a number of Manifestations of God{{sfn |Smith |2008 |p=106}} including [[Biography:Adam|Adam]], [[Biography:Moses|Moses]], [[Biography:Zoroaster|Zoroaster]], [[Religion:Krishna|Krishna]], [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]], [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]], [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]], the [[Biography:Báb|Báb]], and ultimately [[Biography:Baháʼu'lláh|Baháʼu'lláh]].{{sfn |Cole |2012 |pp=438–446}} God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through these intermediaries, in a process known as progressive revelation.{{sfn |Smith |2008 |pp=107–108}}{{sfn |Cole |2012 |pp=438–446}}

==== Druzism ====
{{Main |Philosophy:Druze}}
[[Image:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Nebi Shueib Festival.jpg |thumb |Druze dignitaries celebrating the Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb festival]]

The Druze faith or Druzism is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of high Islamic figures like [[Biography:Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad|Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad]] and [[Biography:Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], and Greek [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Biography:Plato|Plato]] and [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]].<ref>{{harvp|Dana|2010|p=314}}; {{harvp|Morrison|2006|p=259}} {{harvp|Morrison|2006|p=259}}; {{harvp|Lev|2010}}; {{harvp|Blumberg|1985|p=[https://archive.org/details/zionbeforezionis0000blum/page/201 201]}}; {{harvp|Rosenfeld|1952|p=290}}</ref>{{efn |[[Biography:Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad|Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad]] is considered the founder of the [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts.{{sfn |Hendrix |Okeja |2018 |p=11}} Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of Druze, who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.{{sfn |Corduan |2013 |p=107}}{{sfn |Mackey |2009 |p=28}}}}

The [[Religion:Epistles of Wisdom|Epistles of Wisdom]] is the foundational text of the Druze faith.{{sfn |Izzeddin |1993 |pp=108}} The Druze faith incorporates elements of Islam's Ismailism,{{sfn |Daftary |2013}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} [[Philosophy:Gnosticism|Gnosticism]],{{sfn |Quilliam |1999 |p=42}}{{sfn |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992 |p=237}} [[Philosophy:Neoplatonism|Neoplatonism]],{{sfn |Quilliam |1999 |p=42}}{{sfn |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992 |p=237}} [[Philosophy:Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanism]],{{sfn |Rosenthal |2003 |p=296}}{{sfn |Kapur |2010 |p=}} [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]],{{sfn |Quilliam |1999 |p=42}}{{sfn |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992 |p=237}} [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]]{{sfn|Rosenthal|2003|p=296}}{{sfn |Kapur |2010 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} and other philosophies and beliefs, creating a distinct and secretive theology known to interpret esoterically religious scriptures, and to highlight the role of the mind and truthfulness.{{sfn |Kapur |2010 |p=}} The Druze follow [[Unsolved:Theophany|theophany]],<ref name="Swayd">{{Citation |url=http://www.eial.org/mesp/Swayd.rtf.rtf |title=Druze Spirituality and Asceticism |first=Dr. Samy |last=Swayd, SDSU |format=an abridged rough draft; [[Rich Text Format|RTF]] |publisher=Eial |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005012522/http://www.eial.org/mesp/Swayd.rtf.rtf |archive-date=5 October 2006}}</ref> and believe in [[Philosophy:Reincarnation|reincarnation]] or the transmigration of the soul.{{Sfn |Nisan |2002 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&pg=PA98 95]}} At the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind (''Al Aaqal Al Kulli'').<ref name="Druze2">{{cite web |title=Druze |url=http://www.druze.org.au/religion/ |date=2015 |publisher=druze.org.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214100847/http://www.druze.org.au/religion/ |archive-date=14 February 2016 }}</ref> In the [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] faith, [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]] is considered one of God's important prophets.{{sfn |Hitti |1928 |p=37}}{{sfn |Dana |2003 |p=17}}

==== Rastafari ====
{{Main |Unsolved:Rastafari}}
[[File:The-crowning-of-Haile-Selassie-as-Negus-of-Abessinia-352035546610.jpg |thumb |left |upright |Coronation of Haile Selassie of Abyssinia in 1928.]]

The heterogeneous Rastafari movement, sometimes termed Rastafarianism, which originated in Jamaica is classified by some scholars as an international socio-religious movement, and by others as a separate Abrahamic religion.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Classified as both a [[Religion:New religious movement|new religious movement]] and [[Social:Social movement|social movement]], it developed in Jamaica during the 1930s.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}}

Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the [[Religion:Bible|Bible]], as "Rastalogy". Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as [[Religion:Jah|Jah]]—who partially resides within each individual.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} The former Emperor of Ethiopia, [[Biography:Haile Selassie|Haile Selassie]], is given central importance; many Rastas regard him as the returned [[Religion:Messiah|Messiah]], the incarnation of Jah on Earth, and as the Second Coming of Christ.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual. Rastafari is [[Social:Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] and focuses its attention on the African diaspora, which it believes is oppressed within Western society, or "Babylon".{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Many Rastas call for the resettlement of the African diaspora 
in either Ethiopia or [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] more widely, referring to this continent as the [[Unsolved:Promised Land|Promised Land]] of "Zion".{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Other interpretations shift focus on to the adoption of an Afrocentric attitude while living outside of Africa. Rastas refer to their practices as "livity".{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Communal meetings are known as "groundations", and are typified by music, chanting, discussions, and the [[Chemistry:Entheogenic use of cannabis|smoking of cannabis]], the latter being regarded as a [[Religion:Sacrament|sacrament]] with beneficial properties.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}} Rastas place emphasis on what they regard as living 'naturally', adhering to ital dietary requirements, allowing their hair to form into dreadlocks, and following [[Biology:Patriarchy|patriarchal]] gender roles.{{sfn |Chryssides |2001 |pp=269–277}}

==== Samaritanism ====
{{Main |Religion:Samaritanism}}
[[File:The High Priest of the Samaritans with the Codex Nablus c. 192.jpg |thumb |upright |[[Religion:Samaritan High Priest|Samaritan High Priest]] with the ''Samaritan Torah'', Nablus, c. 1920]]

The Samaritans adhere to the [[Religion:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Torah]], which they believe is the original, unchanged Torah,{{sfn |Tsedaka |2013 |p=}} as opposed to the Torah used by [[Religion:Jews|Jews]]. In addition to the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans also revere their version of the Book of Joshua and recognize some later Biblical figures such as Eli.

Samaritanism is internally described as the religion that began with [[Biography:Moses|Moses]], unchanged over the millennia that have since passed. Samaritans believe [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] and the Jewish Torah have been corrupted by time and no longer serve the duties God mandated on Mount Sinai. While Jews view the Temple Mount in Jerusalem as the most sacred location in their faith, Samaritans regard Mount Gerizim, near Nablus, as the holiest spot on Earth.

Other Samaritan religious works include the Memar Markah, the Samaritan liturgy, and Samaritan law codes and biblical commentaries; scholars have various theories concerning the actual relationships between these three texts. The [[Religion:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]] first became known to the Western world in 1631, proving the first example of the Samaritan alphabet and sparking an intense theological debate regarding its relative age versus the Masoretic Text.{{sfn |Florentin |2005 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}}

==== Mandaeism ====
{{Main |Unsolved:Mandaeism}}
[[File:كنزا ربا .jpg|thumb|upright|A copy of the ''Ginza Rabba'' in Arabic translation]]
Mandaeism ([[Social:Mandaic language|Classical Mandaic]]: {{lang|myz|ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ|italic=no}} {{transliteration|myz|mandaiia}}; [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]]: المندائيّة {{transliteration|ar|al-Mandāʾiyya}}), sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism,{{efn|name=fn1|The term 'Nasoraean' ({{lit|from [[Place:Nazareth|Nazareth]]}}) is used for the initiated among the Mandaeans. For other religious groups sharing a similar name, see Nazarene (sect). The term 'Sabianism' is derived from the mysterious [[Religion:Sabians|Sabians]] mentioned in the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], a name historically claimed by several religious groups. For other religions sometimes called 'Sabianism', see {{section link|Sabians#Pagan Sabians}}.}} is a [[Philosophy:Gnosticism|Gnostic]], [[Philosophy:Monotheism|monotheistic]] and [[Religion:Ethnic religion|ethnic religion]].<ref name="Buckley 2002">{{harvnb|Buckley|2002}}.</ref>{{rp|4}}<ref name="Ginza Rabba">{{cite book |title=[[Religion:Ginza Rabba|Ginza Rabba]] |last1=Al-Saadi |first1=Qais |last2=Al-Saadi |first2=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere [[Biography:Adam#In Mandaeism|Adam]], Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially [[Biography:John the Baptist#Mandaeism|John the Baptist]]. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.<ref name="Brikhah S. Nasoraia">{{cite web|author=Brikhah S. Nasoraia|title=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|year=2012|url=http://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|45}}<ref name="Mandaean YouTube">{{cite AV media |author=mandaean الصابئة المندايين |title=تعرف على دين المندايي في ثلاث دقائق |date=21 November 2019 |access-date=2 February 2022 |via=[[Company:YouTube|YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0EhfZUtq_U}}</ref>

The Mandaeans speak an Eastern Aramaic language known as [[Social:Mandaic language|Mandaic]]. The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic ''[[Philosophy:Manda (Mandaeism)|manda]]'', meaning knowledge.{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=15}}<ref>{{cite book |series=The Light and the Dark |title=Dualism in ancient Iran, India and China |url=https://brill.com/view/title/13642 |first=Petrus Franciscus Maria |last=Fontaine |date=January 1990 |publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill]] |volume=5 |isbn=9789050630511}}</ref> Within the Middle East, but outside their community, the Mandaeans are more commonly known as the {{lang|ar|صُبَّة }} {{transliteration|ar|Ṣubba}} (singular: {{transliteration|ar|Ṣubbī}}), or as Sabians ({{lang|ar|الصابئة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|al-Ṣābiʾa}}). The term {{transliteration|ar|Ṣubba}} is derived from an Aramaic root related to [[Religion:Baptism|baptism]].<ref name="Häberl p1">{{Harvnb|Häberl|2009|p=1}}</ref> The term [[Religion:Sabians|Sabians]] derives from the mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]]. The name of this unidentified group, which is implied in the Quran to belong to the '[[Religion:People of the Book|People of the Book]]' ({{transliteration|ar|ahl al-kitāb}}), was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain legal protection ({{transliteration|ar|[[Religion:Dhimmi|dhimma]]}}) as offered by [[Religion:Sharia|Islamic law]].<ref>{{harvnb|De Blois|1960–2007}}; {{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=5}}.</ref> Occasionally, Mandaeans are also called "Christians of Saint John".<ref name="Edmondo 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Edmondo |first1=Lupieri |title=Friar of Ignatius of Jesus (Carlo Leonelli) and the First 'Scholarly' Book on Mandaeaism (1652) |journal=ARAM Periodical |date=2004 |volume=16 (Mandaeans and Manichaeans) |pages=25–46 |issn=0959-4213}}</ref>

== Origins and history ==
{{main |Religion:Origins of Judaism |Religion:Early Christianity |Religion:History of Islam}}
The [[Social:Cradle of civilization|civilizations that developed]] in [[Place:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] influenced some religious texts, particularly the [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Book of Genesis]]. Abraham is said to have originated in Mesopotamia.{{sfn |Bertman |2005 |p=312}}

Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob,{{efn |Jacob is also called Israel, a name the [[Religion:Bible|Bible]] states he was given by God.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} a grandson of Abraham. It has a [[Religion:God in Judaism|strictly unitary]] view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated in the Oral Torah. In the 19th century and 20th centuries Judaism developed a small number of branches, of which the most significant are [[Religion:Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], Conservative, and Reform.

[[Religion:Early Christianity|Christianity began]] as a sect of Judaism{{efn |cf. [[Religion:Christianity in the 1st century|Christianity in the 1st century]], [[Religion:History of early Christianity|History of early Christianity]], [[Religion:Judaizers|Judaizers]], [[Religion:Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity|Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity]], and Split of early Christianity and Judaism.}} in the [[Place:Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Basin]]{{efn |With several centers, such as [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]], [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Greece|Thessaloniki and Corinth]], [[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]], and later spread outwards, eventually having two main centers in the empire, one for the Western Church and one for the Eastern Church in Rome and Constantinople respectively by the 5th century CE}} of the first century [[Common Era|CE]] and evolved into a separate religion—Christianity—with distinctive beliefs and practices. [[Religion:Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be [[Religion:God the Son|God the Son]], one [[Religion:Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|person]] of the [[Religion:Trinity|Trinity]]. (''See [[Religion:God in Christianity|God in Christianity]].{{efn |[[Religion:Trinity|Triune God]] is also called the "Holy Trinity"}}''{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}) The Christian biblical canons are usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside [[Religion:Sacred tradition|sacred tradition]] in some denominations (such as the [[Organization:Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and the [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Church]]). Over many centuries, Christianity divided into three main branches (Catholic, Orthodox, and [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestant]]), dozens of significant denominations, and hundreds of smaller ones.

Islam arose in the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]] in the 7th century CE with a [[Religion:God in Islam|strictly unitary view of God]].{{efn |The monotheistic view of God in Islam is called ''[[Religion:Tawhid|tawhid]]'' which is essentially the same as the conception of God in Judaism.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s hold the Quran to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the [[Religion:Sunnah|teachings and practices]]{{efn |Teachings and practices of Muhammad are collectively known as the ''[[Religion:Sunnah|sunnah]]'', similar to the [[Religion:Halakha|Judaic concepts of oral law]] and [[Religion:Exegesis|exegesis]], or ''talmud'' and ''[[Religion:Midrash|midrash]]''.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} of a central, but not divine, prophet, Muhammad. The Islamic faith considers all prophets and messengers from [[Biography:Adam|Adam]] through the final messenger (Muhammad) to carry the same Islamic monotheistic principles. Soon after its founding, Islam split into two main branches (Sunni and Shia Islam), each of which now has a number of denominations.

The Baháʼí Faith began within the context of Shia Islam in 19th-century Persia, after a merchant named [[Biography:Báb|Siyyid 'Alí Muḥammad Shírází]] claimed divine revelation and took on the title of the Báb, or "the Gate". The Báb's ministry proclaimed the imminent advent of "He whom God shall make manifest", who Baháʼís accept as [[Biography:Bahá'u'lláh|Bahá'u'lláh]]. Baháʼís revere the Torah, Gospels and the Quran, and the writings of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, and Abdu'l-Bahá are considered the central texts of the faith. A vast majority of adherents are unified under a single denomination.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Baháʼí Faith – The website of the worldwide Baháʼí community |url=http://www.bahai.org |website=Bahai.org |access-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904043121/http://www.bahai.org/ |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=live |quote=The religions of the world come from the same Source and are in essence successive chapters of one religion from God.}}</ref>

== Common aspects ==
All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that [[Religion:God in Abrahamic religions|God]] revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} All of them are [[Philosophy:Monotheism|monotheistic]], and all of them conceive God to be a [[Religion:Transcendence|transcendent]] [[Religion:Creator deity|creator]] and the source of [[Philosophy:Morality|moral law]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Religion: Three Religions – One God |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |work=Global Connections of the Middle East |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation |access-date=20 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917070320/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |archive-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |2014 |pp=1–14}} Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |Sam |2014 |pp=337–348}}

In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks [[Religion:Salvation|salvation]] or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom.

=== Monotheism ===
{{Main |Religion:God in Abrahamic religions}}

All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one [[Philosophy:Ousia|essence]]—the [[Religion:Trinity|Trinitarian doctrine]], a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |title=The Trinity |date=July 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920170829/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |archive-date=20 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |title=What Is the Doctrine of the Trinity? |last=Perman |first=Matt |date=January 2006 |website=desiring God |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035506/https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |archive-date=30 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to ''[[Religion:Tawhid|tawhid]]'', the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |title=Islamic Monotheism and the Trinity |last=Hoover |first=Jon |publisher=University of Waterloo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105155238/https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus ([[Social:Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Biography:Jesus in Islam|Isa]]'' or ''Yasu'' among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:
* Christians view Jesus as the [[Religion:Redeemer (Christianity)|saviour]] and regard him as [[Religion:Incarnation|God incarnate]].
* Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam{{sfn|Rubin|2001}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} and Messiah.

However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as ''[[Religion:Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'' in Islam and as ''[[Religion:Shituf|shituf]]'' in Judaism), is typically viewed as the [[Religion:Heresy|heresy]] of idolatry by Islam and Judaism.{{citation needed |date=January 2021}}

=== Theological continuity ===
All the Abrahamic religions affirm one eternal God who created the universe, who rules history, who sends [[Unsolved:Prophecy|prophetic]] and angelic messengers and who reveals the [[Philosophy:Divine law|divine will]] through inspired [[Unsolved:Revelation|revelation]]. They also affirm that obedience to this [[Religion:Creator deity|creator deity]] is to be lived out historically and that one day God will unilaterally intervene in human history at the [[Religion:Last Judgment|Last Judgment]].{{citation needed |date=February 2016}} Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have a [[Philosophy:Teleology|teleological]] view on history, unlike the static or [[Social:Social cycle theory|cyclic]] view on it found in other cultures{{sfn|Huntington |2007 |p=337}} (the latter being common in Indian religions).

=== Scriptures ===
All Abrahamic religions believe that God guides humanity through [[Unsolved:Revelation|revelation]] to prophets, and each religion believes that God revealed teachings to prophets, including those prophets whose lives are documented in its own scripture.

=== Ethical orientation ===
An [[Philosophy:Ethics|ethical]] orientation: all these religions speak of a choice between good and evil, which is associated with obedience or disobedience to a single God and to Divine Law.

=== Eschatological world view ===
An [[Unsolved:Eschatology|eschatological]] world view of history and destiny, beginning with the [[Astronomy:Creation myth|creation]] of the world and the concept that God works through history, and ending with a [[Unsolved:Resurrection of the dead|resurrection of the dead]] and [[Religion:Last Judgment|final judgment]] and [[Religion:World to come|world to come]].<ref>Wiener, Philip P. [http://etext.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas.''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721163511/http://etext.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html |date=21 July 2009 }} Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973–74. The Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia Library. Retrieved 4 August 2009.</ref><!-- Is this really a major view within contemporary Judaism? Anyway, the citation should give a page number or a specific entry in the dictionary. -->

=== Importance of Jerusalem ===
Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,{{sfn |Tucker |Roberts |2008 |p=541}} when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son [[Biography:Solomon|Solomon]] built the First Temple on Mount Moriah.{{sfn |pp=302–303 |Fine |2011}} Since the [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Bible]] relates that [[Religion:Binding of Isaac|Isaac's sacrifice]] took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the [[History:Kingdom of Judah|Kingdom of Judah]], Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.{{sfn |Morgenstern |2006 |p=201 }}{{sfn |Lapidoth |Hirsch |1994 |p=384}}

[[Religion:Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity]]. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the [[Organization:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]], Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the [[Place:Syria Palaestina|Roman province of Palestine]] was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} According to the [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]], Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple<ref>{{bibleverse |Luke |2:22}}</ref> and for the feast of the Passover.<ref>{{bibleverse |Luke |2:41}}</ref> He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the [[Religion:Last Supper|Last Supper]] in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and [[Religion:Second Coming|prophecy to return]] all are said to have occurred or will occur there.

Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]] and [[Place:Medina|Medina]]. The Al-Aqsa, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward [[Religion:Kaaba|Kaaba]], but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the [[Religion:Isra and Mi'raj|Miʿrāj]],<ref name="Miraj">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |title=Mi'raj – Islam |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629074204/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> where, according to traditional Muslim, Muhammad ascended through the [[Religion:Seven heavens|Seven heavens]] on a winged mule named [[Religion:Buraq|Buraq]], guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the [[Organization:Foundation Stone|Foundation Stone]] on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perowne |first1=Stewart Henry |last2=Gordon |first2=Buzzy |last3=Prawer |first3=Joshua |last4=Dumper |first4=Michael |last5=Wasserstein |first5=Bernard |title=Jerusalem |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=14 September 2022 |date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509065546/https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Britannica Al Aqsa">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |title=Al-Aqsa Mosque – mosque, Jerusalem |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118012709/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |archive-date=18 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Significance of Abraham ===
[[File:Greater Israel map.jpg |thumb |upright=1.1 |An interpretation of the borders (in red) of the Promised Land, based on God's promise to Abraham (Genesis 15:18)<ref>{{bibleverse |Genesis |15 |HE}}</ref>]]

Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}}

For [[Religion:Jews|Jews]], Abraham is the founding [[Religion:Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarch]] of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |12:2}}</ref> With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |17:7}}</ref> It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.<ref>{{cite book |last= Kolatch|first= Alfred J.|date= 1985|title= The second Jewish book of why |url= https://archive.org/details/secondjewishbook00kola|location= Middle Village, N.Y|publisher= J. David Publishers|page= 127|isbn=0824603052}}</ref>

Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or [[Religion:Patriarch|patriarch]] (referred to as ''Avraham Avinu'' (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "[[Unsolved:Promised Land|Promised Land]]"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-[[Religion:Genesis flood narrative|Flood]] prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.{{sfn |Schultz |1975 |pp=51–52}}{{sfn |Kaplan |1973 |p=161}}

[[Biography:Abraham#Christianity|Christians view Abraham]] as an important exemplar of [[Philosophy:Faith in Christianity|faith]], and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the [[Religion:Paul the Apostle and Judaism|individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle]],<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:9–12}}</ref> with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply<ref>Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p.&nbsp;592.</ref> (see also [[Religion:New Covenant|New Covenant]] and [[Religion:Supersessionism|supersessionism]]). In Christian belief, Abraham is a [[Social:Role model|role model]] of faith,<ref>{{bibleverse |Heb. |11:8–10}}</ref>{{primary source inline |date=August 2017}} and his obedience to God by [[Religion:Binding of Isaac|offering Isaac]] is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus.<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |8:32}}</ref>{{sfn |MacArthur |1996 |}}

Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents [[Religion:Rejection of Jesus|rejected Jesus]].{{POV statement |date=August 2022}} They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was [[Religion:Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcised]]) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |15:6}}</ref> (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gal. |3:7}}</ref> (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in [[Religion:Pauline Christianity|Paul's theology]] where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:20}}, {{bibleverse |Gal. |4:9}}</ref>{{efn |"So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."{{citation needed |date=August 2022}} "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."{{bibleverse | |Romans |9:8 |HE}}}} However, with regards to Rom. 4:20<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|4:20|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref> and Gal. 4:9,<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|4:9|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref> in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "[[Religion:Sons of God|sons of God]]"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gal. |4:26}}</ref> rather than "children of Abraham".<ref>Bickerman, p.&nbsp;188cf.</ref>

For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,{{cite quran |4 |163}}, who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the [[Religion:Kaaba|Kaaba]]){{cite quran |2 |127}} with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.{{sfn |Leeming |2005 |p=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem/page/209 209]}} Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a [[Social:Genealogy|genealogy]] for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,{{sfn |Fischer |Abedi |1990 |pp=[https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc/page/163 163]–166}} thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as ''Ibrahim [[Religion:Hanif|al-Hanif]]'' or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual [[Religion:Hajj|Hajj]] pilgrimage.{{sfn |Hawting |2006 |pp=xviii, xix, xx, xxiii}}

== Differences ==
=== God ===
{{Main |Religion:God in Abrahamic religions |Religion:God in Judaism |Religion:God in Christianity |Religion:God in Islam |Religion:God in the Baháʼí Faith}}
The Abrahamic God is the conception of God that remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} The Abrahamic God is conceived of as [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal]], omnipotent, omniscient and as the [[Religion:Creator deity|creator of the universe]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, [[Philosophy:Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolence]], and [[Philosophy:Omnipresence|omnipresence]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also [[Religion:Transcendence|transcendent]], but at the same time personal and involved, listening to [[Unsolved:Prayer|prayer]] and reacting to the actions of his creatures. God in Abrahamic religions is always referred to as masculine only.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}}

[[File:JudaismSymbol.PNG |thumb |right |The [[Star of David|Star of David]] (or ''Magen David'') is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.]]
Jewish theology is strictly monotheistic. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable [[Philosophy:Being|being]] who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah.

The national god of the Israelites has a [[Unsolved:Theonym|proper name]], written ''Y-H-W-H'' ({{lang-he|יהוה|}}) in the Hebrew Bible. The etymology of the name is unknown.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=NYU Press |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-0-8147-3706-4 |page=236 |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051853/https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |url-status=live}}</ref> An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "[[Unsolved:I Am that I Am|I Am that I Am]]", ({{lang-he |אהיה אשר אהיה}} ''’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye''), seemingly connecting it to the verb ''hayah'' (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including [[Religion:Elohim|Elohim]], [[Religion:El Shaddai|Shaddai]], and Sabaoth.

[[File:Christianity Symbol.png |thumb |right |The [[Religion:Christian cross|Christian cross]] (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.]]
In [[Religion:Christian theology|Christian theology]], God is the [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal being]] who [[Social:Genesis creation narrative|created]] and [[Philosophy:Divine providence|preserves]] the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world).{{sfn |Leith |1993 |pp=55–56}}{{sfn |Erickson |2001 |pp=87–88}} [[Religion:Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early{{efn |Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} [[Religion:Creed|creed]]s, which proclaimed one God and the [[Religion:Son of God|divinity of Jesus]].

Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the [[Religion:Trinity|Trinity]] which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the [[Religion:First Council of Constantinople|Ecumenical Council of 381]].{{sfn|Prestige|1963|p=29}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=119}} Trinitarians, who form the large majority of [[Religion:Christians|Christians]], hold it as a core tenet of their faith.{{sfn |Mills |Bullard |2001 |p=935}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=23}} [[Religion:Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian]] denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.{{sfn |McGrath |2012 |pp=117–120}}

The theology of the [[Religion:Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes and nature of God]] has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."{{sfn |Osborn |2001 |pp=27–29}} In the 8th century, [[Biography:John of Damascus|John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.{{sfn |Dyrness |Kärkkäinen |Martinez |Chan |2008 |pp=352–353}} As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the [[Religion:God the Father|Father]] is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.{{sfn |Guthrie |1994 |pp=100, 111}}<ref name="Hirschberger">Hirschberger, Johannes. ''Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona'': Herder 1977, p.&nbsp;403</ref>

[[File:IslamSymbolAllahComp.PNG |thumb |right |The word [[Religion:God|God]] written in Arabic]]

In Islamic theology, God ({{lang-ar |{{large |الله}}}} ''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |Allāh}}'') is the [[Philosophy:Omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[Philosophy:Omniscience|all-knowing]] creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |title=God and his Attributes |website=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_eqcom_00075}}</ref> In contrast to the Judeo-Christian tradition, which depicts God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.<ref name="ReferenceB">David Leeming ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}} page 209</ref> Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular (''[[Religion:Tawhid|{{transliteration |ar |ALA |tawḥīd}}]]''){{sfn |Esposito |1999 |p=88}} unique (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |wāḥid}}'') and inherently One (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |aḥad}}''), all-merciful and omnipotent.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Allah |volume=01 |pages=686–687}}</ref> According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Islam |volume=14 |page=873}}</ref> and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."<ref>{{cite quran |6 |103 |style=ns}}</ref> God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.<ref>{{cite quran |29 |46 |style=ns}}</ref>{{sfn |Peters |2003 |p=4}} Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."{{cite quran |112 |1 |4}}

=== Scriptures ===
{{verification|section|date=September 2023}}
{{Main |Religion:Hebrew Religion:Bible |Religion:Bible |Religion:Old Testament |Religion:New Testament |Religion:Quran |Religion:Hadith}}
All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hence sacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.


The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the 300,000+ stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence the skills of a Torah scribe are specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.

[[File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg |thumb |250px |A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the [[Religion:Old Testament|Old Testament]] and the [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]]. Latin Bibles originally contained 73 books; however, 7 books, collectively called the [[Religion:Apocrypha|Apocrypha]] or Deuterocanon depending on one's opinion of them, were removed by [[Biography:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]] due to a lack of original Hebrew sources, and now vary on their inclusion between denominations. Greek Bibles contain additional materials.

The New Testament comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four Gospels), as well as several other writings (the epistles) and the [[Religion:Book of Revelation|Book of Revelation]]. They are usually considered to be [[Religion:Biblical inspiration|divinely inspired]], and together comprise the [[Religion:Bible|Christian Bible]].

The vast majority of Christian faiths (including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism) recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper until decades after the resurrection of Jesus and that the extant versions are copies of those originals. The version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac [[Religion:Peshitta|Peshitta]], the [[Social:Latin|Latin]] [[Religion:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the English King James Version and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times.

The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual Christians and councils of Christian leaders (see [[Religion:Canon law|canon law]]). Some Christian churches and denominations consider certain [[Religion:Religious text#Additional and alternate scriptures|additional writings]] to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding ([[Religion:Sola scriptura|sola scriptura]]).

[[File:Quran rzabasi1.JPG |thumb |9th-century Quran in Reza Abbasi Museum]]
Islam's holiest book is the Quran, comprising 114 Suras ("chapters of the Qur'an"). However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions. According to the Quran (and mainstream Muslim belief), the verses of the Quran were revealed by God through the Archangel Jibrail to Muhammad on separate occasions. These revelations were written down and also memorized by hundreds of companions of Muhammad. These multiple sources were collected into one official copy. After the death of Muhammad, Quran was copied on several copies and Caliph Uthman provided these copies to different cities of Islamic Empire.

The Quran mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and [[Biography:Jesus#Islam|Jesus]], among others (see also: Prophets of Islam). The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible. However, the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and the [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]] are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new commandments accepted as revealed directly by God (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Quran.

Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original [[Social:Arabic language|Arabic]] text of the Quran as uncorrupted and holy to the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Quran, as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.{{sfn |Baker |Saldanha |2008 |p=227}}

Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Quran is complemented by the ''[[Religion:Hadith|Hadith]]'', a set of books by later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts. Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad: genuine (''sahih''), fair (''hasan'') or weak (''da'if'').{{sfn |Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ |2006 |p=5}}

=== Circumcision ===
[[File:Brit mila.jpg |thumb |Preparing for a Jewish ritual circumcision.]]
Judaism and [[Religion:Samaritanism|Samaritanism]] commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old,{{sfn |Mark |2003 |pp=94–95}} as does the [[Religion:Sunnah|Sunnah]] in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be ''[[Religion:Sunnah|sunnah]]'' (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Šakūrzāda |author1-first=Ebrāhīm |author2-last=Omidsalar |author2-first=Mahmoud |date=October 2011 |title=Circumcision |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |url-status=live |volume=V/6 |pages=596–600 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Organization:Columbia University|Columbia University]] |location={{wipe|New York City}} |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119024047/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |archive-date=19 January 2020 |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called ''khitan'') is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394}} [[Religion:Western Christianity|Western Christianity]] replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of [[Religion:Baptism|baptism]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kohler |first1=Kaufmann |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |title=Baptism |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=31 August 2022 |quote="According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a [[Social:Proselyte|proselyte]] to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p.&nbsp;70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120817/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |url-status=live }}</ref> a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, [[Religion:Aspersion|aspersion]], or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the [[Religion:Council of Jerusalem|Council of Jerusalem]]) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century<ref>[http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816052624/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ |date=16 August 2006 }}. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref><ref>Dietzen, John. [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ "The Morality of Circumcision"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810070559/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ |date=10 August 2006 }}, The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision. |website=catholicdoors.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers |website=Catholic.com |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Michelle |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-allowed |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> The [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]] chapter [[Religion:Council of Jerusalem|Acts 15]] records that Christianity did not require circumcision. The [[Organization:Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision,{{sfn |Slosar |O'Brien |2003 |pp=62–64}} and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence.{{sfn|Eugenius IV|1990}} Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage.<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051012/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Adams |Adams |2012 |pp=291–298}}
[[Image:Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes.jpg |thumb |right |[[Religion:Copts|Coptic]] Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes]]
Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in [[Earth:Europe|Europe]] and Latin America have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among [[Religion:Christians|Christian communities]] in the [[Place:Anglosphere|Anglosphere countries]], [[Earth:Oceania|Oceania]], {{wipe|South Korea}}, the {{wipe|Philippines}}, the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] and [[Earth:Africa|Africa]].<ref>{{harvp|Gruenbaum|2015|p=61|ps=: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."}}; {{harvp|Peteet|2017|pp=97–101|ps=: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."}}; {{harvp|Ellwood|2008|p=95|ps=: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |title=Circumcision protest brought to Florence |publisher=Associated Press |date=30 March 2008 |quote="However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage." |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928020456/https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |url-status=live}}</ref> Countries such as the United States,<ref>Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.today/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.</ref> the {{wipe|Philippines}}, {{wipe|Australia}} (albeit primarily in the older generations),<ref name="Richters 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 |s2cid=24396989 }}</ref> {{wipe|Canada}}, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLOS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185 |display-authors=0 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archive-date=9 March 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |title=Circumcision amongst the Dogon |access-date=3 September 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |archive-date=16 January 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of [[Earth:Oceania|Oceania]].<ref name="Associated Press" /> In some African and [[Religion:Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian denominations]] male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394 |loc="For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty."}} Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a [[Religion:Rite of passage|rite of passage]].<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120244/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> Male circumcision is also widely practiced among [[Religion:Christians|Christians]] from {{wipe|South Korea}}, [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]], [[Place:Syria|Syria]], [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanon]], Jordan, [[Place:Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Place:Israel|Israel]], and [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]]. (See also [[Medicine:Aposthia|aposthia]].)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the ''fitrah'', or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |title=Male Circumcision in Islam |first=Muslim Information Service of |last=Australia |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129055454/http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Circumcision is widely practiced by the [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]], the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,{{sfn|Ubayd |2006 |p=150}} and has no religious significance in the [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] faith.{{sfn|Jacobs |1998 |p=147 }}{{sfn|Silver |2022 |p=97 }} Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".{{sfn|Betts |2013 |p=56 }}

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.{{sfn|Hassall |2022 |pp=591–602 }}

=== Dietary restrictions ===
Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and [[Religion:Halal|halal]] in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of [[Chemistry:Alcoholic drink|alcoholic beverages]] of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam.<ref>[http://www.soundvision.com/info/halalhealthy/halal.kosher.asp "Halal & Healthy: Is Kosher Halal"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823055532/http://www.soundvision.com/info/halalhealthy/halal.kosher.asp |date=23 August 2009 }}, SoundVision.com—Islamic information & products. 5 August 2009.</ref>

With rare exceptions, Christians do not consider the Old Testament's strict food laws as relevant for today's church; see also Biblical law in Christianity. Most Protestants have no set food laws, but there are minority exceptions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schuchmann |first1=Jennifer |title=Does God Care What We Eat? |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/tc/todaysculture/healthhealing/3.40.html?start=1 |website=Today's Christian |access-date=6 August 2009 |date=January–February 2006 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://www.todayschristianwoman.com/articles/2006/january/does-god-care-what-we-eat.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Catholic Church believes in observing abstinence and penance. For example, all Fridays through the year and the time of Lent are penitential days.<ref>Canon 1250, 1983. The 1983 Code of Canon Law specifies the obligations of Latin Church Catholic.</ref> The law of abstinence requires a Catholic from 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in the U.S. to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing.<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/clife/lent/abfast.php "Fasting and Abstinence"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301194748/http://www.catholic.org/clife/lent/abfast.php |date=1 March 2009 }}, Catholic Online. 6 August 2009.</ref> Eastern Catholic Churches have their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}

The [[Religion:Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist Church]] (SDA) embraces numerous Old Testament rules and regulations such as tithing, Sabbath observance, and Jewish food laws. Therefore, they do not eat pork, shellfish, or other foods considered unclean under the Old Covenant. The "Fundamental Beliefs" of the SDA state that their members "are to adopt the most healthful diet possible and abstain from the unclean foods identified in the Scriptures".<ref>{{bibleverse |Leviticus |11:1–47}}</ref> <sup>among others</sup><ref>[http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html "Fundamental Beliefs"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060310104717/http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html |date=10 March 2006 }}, No. 22. Christian Behavior. Seventh-Day Adventist Church website. 6 August 2009.</ref>

In the Christian Bible, the consumption of strangled animals and of blood was forbidden by Apostolic Decree<ref>{{bibleverse |Acts |15:19–21}}</ref> and are still forbidden in the Greek Orthodox Church, according to German theologian Karl Josef von Hefele, who, in his Commentary on Canon II of the Second Ecumenical Council held in the 4th century at Gangra, notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod [the [[Religion:Council of Jerusalem|Council of Jerusalem]] of Acts 15] with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show." He also writes that "as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third, in 731, forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days."<ref>Schaff, Philip. "Canon II of The Council of Gangra". ''The Seven Ecumenical Councils''. 6 August 2009. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html Commentary on Canon II of Gangra] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220220146/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html |date=20 December 2016 }}.</ref>

Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions based on {{bibleref2 |Acts |15:19–21}}.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints prohibits the consumption of alcohol, coffee, and non-herbal tea. While there is not a set of prohibited food, the church encourages members to refrain from eating excessive amounts of red meat.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89 |title=Doctrine and Covenants 89 |website=Church of Jesus Christ |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89?lang=eng |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sabbath observance ===
Sabbath in the Bible is a weekly day of rest and time of worship. It is observed differently in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam and informs a similar occasion in several other Abrahamic faiths. Though many viewpoints and definitions have arisen over the millennia, most originate in the same textual tradition.

=== Proselytism ===
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit [[Religion:Missionary|missionaries]] since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God{{efn |According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry ''Ben Noah'', page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to [[Biography:Adam|Adam]], although [[Biography:Maimonides|Maimonides]] (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.}} as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.<ref>Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry ''Ben Noah'', introduction) states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.</ref>{{efn |Compare {{bibleverse | |Genesis |9:4–6 |HE}}.}} It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.<ref name="Times Atlas">{{cite book |trans-title=The Times Atlas of World History |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103 |language=nl}}</ref>

Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.{{sfn|Kornbluth|2003|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} ''See also Conversion to Judaism.''

[[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg |thumb |''The Sermon on the Mount'' by Carl Heinrich Bloch (1877)]]
Christianity encourages [[Religion:Evangelism|evangelism]]. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send [[Religion:Missionary|missionaries]] to non-Christian communities throughout the world. ''See also [[Religion:Great Commission|Great Commission]]''. [[Religion:Forced conversion|Forced conversion]]s to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the [[Religion:Crusades|Crusades]]; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the [[Religion:Spanish Inquisition|Spanish Inquisition]], where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."<ref>Pope Paul VI. [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html "Declaration on Religious Freedom"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965.</ref> The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.<ref name="Pullella 2015-12-10">{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |access-date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112060659/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Religion:Dawah|Dawah]] is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim [[Religion:Ummah|Ummah]], or community of Muslims.

== Demographics ==
{{Pie chart
 |thumb=right
 |caption=Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, {{as of |2015 |lc=y}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Mcclendon |first2=David |publisher=Pew Research Center |year=2015 |title=Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011315/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
 |label1=[[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] |color1=Purple 
 |value1=31.2
 |label2=[[Religion:Islam|Islam]] |color2=Green
 |value2=24.1
 |label3=[[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] |color3=Blue 
 |value3=0.18
 |label4=[[Social:Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí Faith]] |color4=Gold
 |value4=0.07
 |label5=Other (non-Abrahamic) |color5=White
 |value5=45.45
}}Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.3 billion adherents, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.<ref name="Pew Relig by country">{{cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404142344/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /><ref name="PewIslam2011">[http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx "The Future of Global Muslim Population: Projections from 2010 to 2013"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |date=9 February 2011 }} Accessed July 2013.</ref> It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, which constitute about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /> The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais">{{cite web |title=Baha'is by Country |website=World Religion Database |publisher=Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs |date=2020 |url=https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209190545/https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref> and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century usually at least twice the rate of population growth.{{sfn |Johnson |Grim |2013 |pp=59–62}} The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents.{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Adherents of Abrahamic faiths [excl. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam]
!Religion
!Adherents
|-
|[[Social:Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]
|~8 million{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais" />
|-
|[[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]]
|1–2 million{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}}
|-
|[[Unsolved:Rastafari|Rastafari]]
|700,000-1 million<ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife" />
|-
|[[Unsolved:Mandaeism|Mandaeism]]
|60,000–100,000<ref name="Saheeh al-Bukharee" /><ref name="WMP">{{Cite web |title=The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans? |url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |access-date=5 November 2021 |website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests |archive-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202154541/http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|Azali Bábism
|~1,000–2,000<ref name="Berger" />{{sfn |Lev |2010}}
|-
|[[Religion:Samaritanism|Samaritanism]]
|~840<ref name="The Samaritan Update">[http://www.thesamaritanupdate.com/ The Samaritan Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914114057/http://thesamaritanupdate.com/ |date=14 September 2017 }} Retrieved 28 October 2021

"Total [sic] in 2021 – 840 souls

Total in 2018 – 810 souls

Total number on 1.1.2017 – 796 persons, 381 souls on Mount Gerizim and 415 in the State of Israel, of the 414 males and 382 females."</ref>
|}

== See also ==
* [[Social:Abraham's family tree|Abraham's family tree]]
* [[Religion:Abrahamic Family House|Abrahamic Family House]], a complex in [[Place:Abu Dhabi|Abu Dhabi]] built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity
* [[Religion:Abrahamites|Abrahamites]]
* [[Philosophy:Yahwism|Yahwism]]
* [[Religion:Noahidism|Noahidism]]
* Ancient Semitic religion
* [[Religion:Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement|Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement]]
* Christianity and Islam
* Christianity and Judaism
* Christianity and other religions
* [[Philosophy:Gnosticism|Gnosticism]]
* Interfaith dialogue
* Islamic–Jewish relations
* Islam and other religions
* Jewish views on religious pluralism
* Judeo-Christian ethics
* List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
* [[Unsolved:Mandaeism|Mandaeism]]
* [[Religion:Messianism|Messianism]]
* [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaeism]]
* Yazidism
* [[Religion:Milah Abraham|Milah Abraham]]
* [[Religion:Nigerian Chrislam|Nigerian Chrislam]]
* [[Religion:People of the Book|People of the Book]]
* [[Religion:Sabians|Sabians]]
* [[Religion:Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions|Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions]]
* [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Chryssides |first=George D. |year=2001 |origyear=1999 |title=Exploring New Religions |chapter=Independent New Religions: Rastafarianism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4_rodMYMygC&pg=PA269 |location=[[Place:London|London]] and {{wipe|New York City}} |publisher=Continuum International |series=Issues in Contemporary Religion |doi=10.2307/3712544 |jstor=3712544 |isbn=9780826459596 |oclc=436090427 |s2cid=143265918 |access-date=15 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=S4_rodMYMygC&pg=PA269 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cole |first=Juan |title=BAHAISM i. The Faith |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-i |volume=III/4 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Organization:Columbia University|Columbia University]] |location={{wipe|New York City}} |date=30 December 2012 |orig-year=15 December 1988 |issn=2330-4804 |access-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123112620/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-i |archive-date=23 January 2013 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Collins |first=William P. |title=Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism, Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. – New ed. – Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004 |journal=Library Journal |volume=129 |issue=14 |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927174736/http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archive-date=27 September 2013 |access-date=13 September 2013}}
* {{cite book |last1=Corduan |first1=Winfried |title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions |date=4 February 2013 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-7197-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loxLBAAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=loxLBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- DDD -->
* {{cite book |last=Daftary |first=Farhad |title=A History of Shi'i Islam |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-85773-524-9 |date=2 December 2013}}
* {{cite book |last=Dana |first=Léo-Paul |title=Entrepreneurship and Religion |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-84980-632-9}} <!-- |access-date=6 January 2015-->
* {{cite book |last1=Dana |first1=Nissim |title=The Druze in the Middle East: their faith, leadership, identity and status |date=2003 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |location=Brighton [England] |isbn=9781903900369}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=De Blois |first1=F.C. |year=1960–2007 |title=Ṣābiʾ |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}}
* {{cite book |last=Derrida |first=Jacques |editor-first=Gil |editor-last=Anidjar |title=Acts of Religion |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |year=2002 |location=New York & London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C |isbn=978-0-415-92401-6 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051912/https://books.google.com/books?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |year=2001 |chapter=Getting at the "History behind the History" |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&pg=PA97 |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan and Cambridge, U.K. |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3 |oclc=46394298 |access-date=7 August 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051857/https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&pg=PA97 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dodds |first=Adam |date=July 2009 |title=The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian and Islamic Doctrine |journal=Evangelical Quarterly |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=230–253 |doi=10.1163/27725472-08103003}}
* {{cite book |last=Drower |first=Ethel Stefana |title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1937 |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41560ucmf_1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dyrness |first1=William A. |last2=Kärkkäinen |first2=Veli-Matti |last3=Martinez |first3=Juan F. |last4=Chan |first4=Simon |title=Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church |date=2008 |publisher=Inter-Varsity Press |isbn=978-1-84474-350-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esr3ngEACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=esr3ngEACAAJ |url-status=live}}
<!-- EEE -->
* {{Cite book |last=Ellwood |first=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=9781438110387}}
* {{cite book |last=Edelman |first=Diana V. |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=Kok Pharos |series=Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology |year=1995 |isbn=978-90-390-0124-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA19 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052431/https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |title=Introducing Christian doctrine |date=2001 |publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn=0801022509 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L |title=The Oxford history of Islam |date=1999 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=9780195107999}}
* {{cite book |last=Eugenius IV |editor=Norman P. Tanner |title=Decrees of the ecumenical councils |orig-year=1442 |access-date=25 April 2007 |series=2 volumes |year=1990 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |location=[[Place:Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C.]] |isbn=978-0-87840-490-2 |language=el, la |chapter=Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445): Session 11—4 February 1442; Bull of union with the Copts |chapter-url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5 |quote="It denounces all who after that time observe circumcision." |lccn=90003209 |archive-date=25 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425150516/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5 |url-status=dead}}
<!-- FFF -->
* {{cite book |last1=Fine |first1=Steven |title=The Temple of Jerusalem: From Moses to the Messiah: In Honor of Professor Louis H. Feldman |date=17 January 2011 |publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-21471-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |title=The Bible Unearthed. Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. |edition=First Touchstone Edition 2002 |year=2002 |origyear=2001 |publisher=Touchstone |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-86913-1 |chapter=9. The Transformation of Judah (c. 930-705 BCE) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism for Muslims |year=2001 |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofabraha00fire |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-88125-720-5 |location=Hoboken, NJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Michael M. J. |first2=Mehdi |last2=Abedi |title=Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-299-12434-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Florentin |first=Moshe |year=2005 |title=Late Samaritan Hebrew: A Linguistic Analysis Of Its Different Types |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dNk_b1uDzUC |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics |volume=43 |isbn=978-90-04-13841-4 |issn=0081-8461}}
<!-- GGG -->
* {{cite book |last=Greenstreet |first=Wendy |location=Oxford; Seattle, WA |title=Integrating spirituality in health and social care |publisher=Radcliffe |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |isbn=978-1-85775-646-3 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Gnuse |first=Robert Karl |title=Trajectories of Justice: What the Bible Says about Slaves, Women, and Homosexuality |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7188-4456-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052451/https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Gruenbaum |first=Ellen |title=The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective |year=2015 |isbn=9780812292510 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Guthrie |first1=Shirley C. |title=Christian doctrine |date=1994 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ken. |isbn=0664253687 |edition=Rev.}}
<!-- HHH -->
* {{citation |last=Häberl |first=Charles G. |title=The neo-Mandaic dialect of Khorramshahr |year=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05874-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBjwrJY6-sYC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hatcher |first1=W.S. |last2=Martin |first2=J.D. |year=1998 |title=The Baháʼí Faith: The Emerging Global Religion |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06-065441-4 |url=https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331090255/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hassall |first=Graham |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 48: Oceania |pages=591–602 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-55 |s2cid=244697166}}
* {{cite book |last=Hawting |first=Gerald R. |title=The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world |publisher=[[Company:Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing]], Ltd. |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |isbn=978-0-86078-712-9 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052421/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Held |first=Colbert C. |title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics |year=2008 |isbn=9780429962004 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heft |first1=James L. |last2=Firestone |first2=Reuven |last3=Safi |first3=Omid |title=Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], USA |isbn=978-0-19-976930-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Hendrix |editor1-first=Scott |editor2-last=Okeja |editor2-first=Uchenna |title=The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes] |date=2018 |publisher=[[Company:ABC-CLIO|ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1440841385}}
* {{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip K. |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings |year=1928 |isbn=9781465546623 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}
* {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Aaron W. |year=2012 |title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |location={{wipe|New York City}} |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-993464-5 |s2cid=157815976 |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051900/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel |translator-last=Müller |translator-first=Francis |title=Kampf der Kulturen |date=2007 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3-638-66418-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |language=de |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164804/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=Amir |editor1-last=Safi |editor1-first=Omid |title=Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue |journal=Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism |date=1 April 2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781780740454 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
<!-- III -->
* {{cite book |last=Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ |translator-first=Eerik |translator-last=Dickinson |title=An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith |publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |isbn=978-1-85964-158-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052417/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Izzeddin |first=Nejla M. Abu |title=The Druzes: a new study of their history, faith, and society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |year=1993 |publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-09705-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707072331/http://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=live}}
<!-- JJJ -->
* {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Daniel |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide |year=1998 |isbn=9781858282480 |publisher=Rough Guides}}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |date=26 March 2013 |title=The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography |chapter=Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010 |publisher={{wipe|John Wiley & Sons}} |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |doi=10.1002/9781118555767.ch1 |isbn=9781118555767 |quote="The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi (sic) was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region." |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051912/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |url-status=live}}
<!-- KKK -->
* {{cite book |last1=Kaplan |first1=Aryeh |chapter=The Jew |title=The Aryeh Kaplan Reader the Gift He Left Behind: Collected Essays on Jewish Themes from the Noted Writer and Thinker |date=1973 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9780899061733 |edition=1st}}
* {{cite book |last=Kapur |first=Kamlesh |title=History of Ancient India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-4910-8 |year=2010}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=J. N. D. |title=Early Christian Creeds |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-138-15710-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Köchler |editor-first=Hans |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |title=Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity |publisher=International Progress Organization |isbn=3-7003-0339-4 |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kornbluth |first1=Doron |title=Why Marry Jewish?: Surprising Reasons for Jews to Marry Jews |date=2003 |publisher=Targum Press |isbn=978-1-56871-250-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |title=Yezidism—its background, observances, and textual tradition |date=1995 |location=Lewiston, New York |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |isbn=9780773490048 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. R. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |year=2014 |title=Prodigal sons: Dual Abrahamic categorization mediates the detrimental effects of religious fundamentalism on Christian-Muslim relations |journal=The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=293–306 |doi=10.1080/10508619.2014.937965 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |hdl=10852/43723 |s2cid=53625066 |hdl-access=free |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223064744/https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |last3=Sam |first3=D. |year=2014 |title=Late Abrahamic reunion? Religious fundamentalism negatively predicts dual Abrahamic group categorization among Muslims and Christians |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=337–348 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2014 |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223030705/https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |url-status=live}}
<!-- LLL -->
* {{cite book |last1=Lapidoth |first1=Ruth |first2=Moshe |last2=Hirsch |title=The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents |publisher=[[Company:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |isbn=978-0-7923-2893-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Todd |editor-last=Cusack |editor-first=Carole M. |editor2-last=Hartney |editor2-first=Christopher |title=Baha'i (sic) Religious History |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=13 December 2012 |url=http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |issn=1467-9809 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x |access-date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190116/http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live |via=Baháʼí Library Online}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Leith |first1=John H. |title=Basic Christian Doctrine |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25192-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite web |author=Lubar Institute |year=2016 |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher=Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison |url=https://lubar.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |access-date=5 April 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220853/http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Obeid |first=Anis |title=The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FejqBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1 |year=2006 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-5257-1}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Prestige |first1=G. L. |title=Fathers and Heretics. Six Studies in Dogmatic Faith, with Prologue and Epilogue. |date=1963 |publisher=SPCK |location=London |isbn=978-0281004539}}
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* {{cite book |last=Quilliam |first=Neil |title=Syria and the New World Order |year=1999 |isbn=9780863722493 |publisher=Michigan University Press}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Judy Shepard |title=Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide |date=1952 |publisher=Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404105109/https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubin |first=Uri |chapter=Prophets and Prophethood |editor-last1=McAuliffe |editor-first1=Jane Dammen |title=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān: A-D |date=2001 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11465-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |first=Samy |last=Swayd |title=Historical Dictionary of the Druzes |date=10 March 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-4617-1 |edition=2}}
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* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith |location=Cambridge |publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 50: Southeast Asia |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |ref={{sfnRef |Smith |2022b}} |access-date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213122623/https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Tsedaka |first=Benyamim |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |title=The Israelite Samaritan Version of the Torah |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=9780802865199 |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051914/https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Wilken |first1=Robert L. |title=From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land |journal=Christian Century |date=30 July – 6 August 1986 |url=https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908133734/https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Wormald |first=Benjamin |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405110137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The New Encyclopaedia Britannica |year=1992 |isbn=9780852295533 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |quote="Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism." |ref={{harvid |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992}}}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Religion: Year In Review 2010 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion-Year-In-Review-2010/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions |ref={{sfnRef |Britannica |2010}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Assmann |first=Jan |title=Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-674-58739-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJv0oyQ-9_AC}}
* {{cite book |last=Bakhos |first=Carol |year=2014 |title=The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05083-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnett |first=Paul |publisher=InterVarsity Press |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5}}
* Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. {{ISBN |0-900689-38-2}}.
* Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., ''Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology'', (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
* {{cite book |last=Johansson |first=Warren |year=1990 |contribution=Abrahamic Religions |url=http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |editor-last=Dynes |editor-first=Wayne R. |title=Encyclopedia of Homosexuality |location=New York |publisher=Garland |isbn=978-0-8240-6544-7 |access-date=26 July 2006 |archive-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528085741/http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last=Kritzeck |first=James |title=Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems |publisher=Helicon |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Longton |first=Joseph |title=Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes |trans-title=Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities |language=fr |editor-last=Longton |editor-first=Joseph |encyclopedia=Fils d'Abraham |publisher=S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous |date=1987–2009 |isbn=978-2-503-82344-7 |url=http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm}}
* {{cite book |title=Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions |last=Masumian |first=Farnaz |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85168-074-0}}
* {{cite book |last=de Perceval |first=Armand-Pierre Caussin |title=Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane |trans-title=Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule |publisher=Didot |location=Paris |year=1847 |language=fr |oclc=431247004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1}}
* {{cite book |last=Reid |first=Barbara E. |title=Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1996}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Silverstein |editor1-first=Adam J. |editor2-last=Stroumsa |editor2-first=Guy G. |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=New York |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Peters |first1=F. E. |title=Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians |date=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=9780691122335}}
* {{cite book |first=Jonathan Z. |last=Smith |year=1998 |chapter=Religion, Religions, Religious |editor-first=Mark C. |editor-last=Taylor |title=Critical Terms for Religious Studies |publisher=[[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-79156-2 |pages=269–284}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lupieri |first1=Edmundo |title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Abraham |isbn=978-0802833501 |pages=65–66, 116, 164}}

== External links ==


[[Category:Abrahamic religions| ]]

{{Sourceattribution|Abrahamic religions}}