View source for Religion:Bethlehem

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{{Infobox Palestinian Authority municipality
|name        = Bethlehem
|image       = Bethlehem skyline, West Bank.jpg
|caption     = Bethlehem skyline from [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]]
|emblem      =
|emblem_type = Municipal Seal
|hebname     = {{Hebrew|בֵּית לֶחֶם}}
|arname      = {{lang|ar|بيت لحم}}
|meaning     = ''House of Meat'' (Arabic); ''House of Bread'' (Hebrew & Aramaic)
|location    = West Bank
|coordinates = {{coord|31|42|11|N|35|11|44|E|region:PS|display=inline,title}}
|founded     = 1400 BCE (est.)
|type        = muna
|typefrom    = 1995
|altOffSp    = Beit Lahm
|altUnoSp    = Bayt Lahm
|governorate = bl
|population  = 25,266
|popyear     = 2007<ref name="PCBS07"/>
|area        = 10,611
|areakm      =
|mayor       = Anton Salman<ref>{{cite web |title=Members of the Municipal Council |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/members-of-the-municipal-council |website=Bethlehem municipality |accessdate=2 August 2018}}</ref>
|website     = [http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en www.bethlehem-city.org]
}}

'''Bethlehem''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛ|θ|l|ɪ|h|ɛ|m}}; {{lang-ar|بيت لحم}} {{Audio|ArBethlehem.ogg|''{{transl|ar|DIN|Bayt Lahm}}''|help=no}} {{IPA-ar|beːt.laħm}}, "House of Meat"; {{lang-he-n|בֵּית לֶחֶם}} ''{{transl|he|Bet Lehem}}'', {{IPA-he|bet ˈleχem}}, "House of Bread"; {{Lang-grc|Βηθλεέμ}} {{IPA-grc|bɛːtʰle.ém}}; {{lang-la|Bethleem}}; initially named after Canaanite fertility god Lehem<ref name="Loschp51"/>) is a [[Place:State of Palestine|Palestinian]] city located in the central West Bank, [[Place:State of Palestine|Palestine]], about {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=in}} south of [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. Its population is approximately 25,000 people.<ref name="Amarap18">Amara, 1999, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LG5seycNTAcC&pg=PA18 p. 18].</ref><ref name="Brynenp202">Brynen, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AQhxlSjmDcQC&pg=PA202 p. 202].</ref> It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. The economy is primarily tourist-driven.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/travel/16westbank.html
|title=In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably – New York Times
|accessdate=2008-01-22
|work=The New York Times
|first1=David
|last1=Kaufman
|first2=Marisa S.
|last2=Katz
|date=2006-04-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615222743/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/travel/16westbank.html
|archivedate=2013-06-15
}}</ref><ref name="BH">{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehemhotel.com/to-visit-bethlehem |title=Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem |publisher=Bethlehem Hotel|accessdate=29 November 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004839/http://www.bethlehemhotel.com/to-visit-bethlehem|archivedate=2013-12-03}}</ref>

The earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350–1330 BCE during its habitation by the [[Place:Canaan|Canaan]]ites. The [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Bible]], which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam,<ref>'''2 Chronicles 11:5–6''' (Note: Though v. 6 is frequently translated to say simply that Rehoboam ''built'' the city, the Hebrew phrase in v. 5, just prior, וַיִּ֧בֶן עָרִ֛ים לְמָצ֖וֹר ''wayyiḇen ‘ārîm l<sup>e</sup>māṣôr'' means "(and) he built cities into fortresses". Verse 5 is cited by at least one prominent Hebrew lexicon in illustration of this fact. See Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J., ''The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament'' (electronic edition; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994–2000), entry for the pertinent root בנה ''bnh'', p. 139. Def. 3 reads as follows: "—3. with לְ to develop buildings: עָרִים לְמָצוֹר cities into fortresses 2C[hronicles] 11:5".)</ref> identifies it as the city David was from and where he was crowned as the [[Place:Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|king of Israel]]. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke identify Bethlehem as the birthplace of [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]]. Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second-century Bar Kokhba revolt; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who commissioned the building of its great [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]] in 327 CE. The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans, who sacked it during a revolt in 529, but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.

Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the [[History:Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]] in 637. Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a [[Religion:Crusades|crusading army]], who replaced the town's [[Religion:Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] clergy with a [[Organization:Catholic Church|Latin]] one. In the mid-13th century, the [[Place:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]] demolished the city's walls, which were subsequently rebuilt under the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in the early 16th century.<ref name="BMH">{{cite web
|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/index.php
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113150138/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/index.php
|archivedate=2008-01-13
|title=History and Mithology of Bethlehem
|publisher=Bethlehem Municipality
|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref> Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of [[Social:World War I|World War I]]. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was later captured by [[Place:Israel|Israel]] in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority.<ref name="BMH"/>

Bethlehem now has a [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]] majority, but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community. Bethlehem's chief economic sector is tourism, which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]], as they have done for almost 2,000 years. Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops.<ref name="Patience">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm |first=Martin |last=Patience |work=BBC News |title=Better times return to Bethlehem |publisher=BBC |date=2007-12-22 |accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106191329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm
|archivedate=2014-01-06}}</ref> Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem.

== History ==

=== Canaanite period ===
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence (c. 1400&nbsp;BCE). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba, Egypt's governor for Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking ''Bit-Laḫmi'' in the wake of disturbances by [[History:Habiru|Apiru]] mercenaries:<ref>"''Oxford Archeological Guides: The Holy Land''", Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, pp. 198–199, Oxford University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-19-288013-0}}</ref> "Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy ... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!"

It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.<ref name="IDHP4">"''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Vol 4, Middle East and Africa''", Trudy Ring, K.A Berney, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger, p. 133, Taylor & Francis, 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-884964-03-9}}.</ref> ''[[Religion:Lahmu|Laḫmu]]'' was the Akkadian god of fertility,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible |publisher=Wm. A. Eerdmans |author=Losch, Richard R. |year=2005 |page=51}}</ref> worshipped by the [[Place:Canaan#Canaan in the Bible|Canaanites]] as ''Leḥem''. Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated to Lehem. The temple, and subsequently the town that formed around it, would then have been known as ''Beyt Leḥem'', "House (Temple) of Lehem". The Philistines later established a garrison there.<ref name="Loschp51">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51|title=The uttermost part of the earth: a guide to places in the Bible|author=Richard R. Losch|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2805-7|page=51}}</ref>

Biblical scholar William F. Albright noted that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, but has meant different things: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic, 'House of Meat' in Arabic."{{Full citation needed|date=April 2014}}

A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian-Palestinian team  found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 B.C. and 650 B.C. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/53939-ancient-burial-ground-found-near-bethlehem.html|title=Ancient Burial Ground with 100 Tombs Found Near Biblical Bethlehem|website=LiveScience.com}}</ref>

=== Israelite and Judean period ===
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a ''bulla'' (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King," indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as|title=Israel Antiquities Authority|website=antiquities.org.il}}</ref>

Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of [[History:Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath,<ref>{{bibleverse||Gen.|35:16}}, {{bibleverse||Gen.|48:7}}, {{bibleverse||Ruth|4:11}}</ref> which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah.<ref>{{bibleverse||Micah|5:2}}</ref> The Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah,<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Sam|17:12}}</ref> and the New Testament describes it as the "City of David".<ref name="qjukjz">{{bibleverse||Luke|2:4|KJV}}</ref> It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" (Gen. 48:7). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of [[Place:Moab|Moab]] gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. It was the home of Jesse,<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:1}}</ref> father of King David of [[Place:Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]], and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel.<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:4–13}}</ref> It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.<ref>{{bibleverse||2Sam|23:13–17}}</ref>

Writing in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel, Asaph, Job, Jesse, and [[Biography:Solomon|Solomon]] were located near Bethlehem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |title=The Bordeaux Pilgrim @ |publisher=Centuryone.com|accessdate=2012-08-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224014259/http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |archivedate=2012-02-24}}</ref> There has been no corroboration of this.

=== Classical period ===
[[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' (1622) by the Dutch painter Gerard van Honthorst. According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem.<ref name="Brownrigg2002">{{cite book|last=Brownrigg|first=Ronald|date=2002|orig-year=1971|chapter=Jesus: The Birth Stories|title=Who's Who in the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&q=Empress%20Helena%20Bethlehem%20Church%20of%20the%20Nativity|location=New York City, New York and London, England|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-01712-8|pages=121–123|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Sanders1993">{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E. P.|date=1993|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|location=London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014499-4|pages=85–88|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Casey2010">{{cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|authorlink=Maurice Casey|date=2010|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|url=https://books.google.com/?id=lXK0auknD0YC&pg=PA194&q=Christian%20tradition%2C%20based%20on%20the%20birth%20narratives%20in%20the|location=New York City, New York and London, England|publisher=T & T Clark|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|pages=145–158|ref=harv}}</ref>]]

The Gospel of Matthew {{bibleverse-nb|Matthew|1:18–2:23|9}} and the Gospel of Luke {{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:1–39|9}} represent [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]] as having been born in Bethlehem.<ref name="Brownrigg2002"/><ref name="Sanders1993"/><ref name="Casey2010"/> Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory<ref name="Sanders1993"/><ref name="Casey2010"/> and the Gospel of Mark, the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from [[Place:Nazareth|Nazareth]].<ref name="Casey2010"/> Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church.<ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> In around 155, the apologist [[Biography:Justin Martyr|Justin Martyr]] recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born.<ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal [[Religion:Gospel of James|Gospel of James]] and the fourth-century church historian [[Biography:Eusebius|Eusebius]].<ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> After the Bar Kokhba revolt ({{circa}} 132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperor Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the {{wipe|Ancient Greece}} god [[Religion:Adonis|Adonis]], to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous.<ref name="Giuseppe Ricciotti 1948 p. 276">Giuseppe Ricciotti, ''Vita di Gesù Cristo,'' Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana (1948) p. 276 n.</ref><ref>Maier, Paul L., "The First Christmas:  The True and Unfamiliar Story." 2001</ref>

In around 395 CE, the [[Religion:Church Fathers|Church Father]] [[Biography:Jerome|Jerome]] wrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of [[Social:Dumuzid|Tammuz]], that is to say, [[Religion:Adonis|Adonis]], and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus was lamented."<ref name="Taylor1993">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Joan E.|date=1993|title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KWAXbCNxH6YC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&q=Church%20of%20the%20nativity%20Tammuz|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-814785-5|pages=96–97|ref=harv}}</ref> Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which the [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]] was later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993"/><ref>Marcello Craveri, ''The Life of Jesus'', Grove Press (1967) pp. 35–36</ref> Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993"/> and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in Bethlehem.<ref name="Taylor1993"/> Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993"/> and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death.<ref name="Taylor1993"/> Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993"/>

In 326–328, the empress Helena, consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, and mother of the emperor Constantine the Great, made a pilgrimage to Syra-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem.<ref name="BMH"/><ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> The [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]] was built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born.<ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I.<ref name="BMH"/><ref name="Brownrigg2002"/> In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire, supported by Jewish rebels, invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the [[Unsolved:Magi|magi]] depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.<ref name="BMH"/>

=== Middle Ages ===
[[File:1698 de Bruijin View of Bethlehem, Palestine (Israel, Holy Land) - Geographicus - Bethlehem-bruijn-1698.jpg|thumb|right|1698 sketch by Cornelis de Bruijn]]

In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second [[Religion:Caliphate|Caliph]], promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.<ref name="BMH"/> A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.<ref name="ATT">{{cite web
|url=http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|title=Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem
|publisher=Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency
|accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729223029/http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|archivedate=2013-07-29
}}</ref> Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] in the 8th century, then the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round."<ref>le Strange, 1890, pp.  [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/298/mode/1up 298]–300.</ref> In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, [[Biography:Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity
|title=Church of the Nativity – Bethlehem
|location=Bethlehem, West Bank, Israel
|publisher=Sacred-destinations.com
|accessdate=2009-10-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140216143054/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity|archivedate=2014-02-16}}</ref>

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The [[Religion:Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] clergy were removed from their [[Religion:Episcopal see|sees]] and replaced with [[Organization:Catholic Church|Latin]] clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I, first king of the Frankish [[History:Kingdom of Jerusalem|Kingdom of Jerusalem]], was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.<ref name="BMH"/>

In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Place:Syria|Syria]] who led the [[Place:Ayyubid dynasty|Muslim Ayyubids]], captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.<ref name="BMH"/> William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the {{wipe|French Revolution}} in 1789.<ref>de Sivry, L: "Dictionnaire de Geographie Ecclesiastique", p. 375., 1852 ed, from ecclesiastical record of letters between the Bishops of Bethlehem 'in partibus' to the bishops of Auxerre.</ref>

Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem, [[Place:Nazareth|Nazareth]], and [[Place:Sidon|Sidon]], was briefly ceded to the Crusader [[History:Kingdom of Jerusalem|Kingdom of Jerusalem]] by a treaty between [[Religion:Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Biography:Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.<ref>Paul Reed, 2000, p. 206.</ref> In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars, tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians.<ref name="BMH"/>

=== Ottoman era ===
[[File:Bethlehem Polenov.jpg|thumb|right|A painting of Bethlehem by Vasily Polenov, 1882]]

[[File:Bethlehem 1898.jpg|thumb|right|View of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898]]

From 1517, during the years of [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]].<ref name="BMH"/> By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.<ref name="Singer"/> The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA33 33]</ref> The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce.<ref name="Petersen141">Petersen, 2005, p. 141.</ref>

Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA84 84]</ref>

From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]. During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha.<ref>Thomson, 1860, p. 647.</ref> In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, [[Social:Conscription|compulsory military service]], and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to [[Earth:South America|South America]].<ref name="BMH"/> An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town's growth.<ref>W. M. Thomson, p. 647.</ref>

Socin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870  that  Bethlehem  had  a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 "Latins" in 256 houses, 824 "Greeks" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count included men, only.<ref>Socin, 1879, p. [https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/146/mode/1up 146]</ref> Hartmann  found that  Bethlehem had 520  houses.<ref>Hartmann, 1883, p. [https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n932/mode/1up   124]</ref>

=== Modern era ===
Bethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem Bethlehem]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172813/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem |date=October 14, 2013 }}</ref> In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the {{wipe|United Nations}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml
|title=IMEU: Maps: 2.7 – Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947
|accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729204009/http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml|archivedate=2013-07-29}}</ref>
Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.<ref>[http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html A Jerusalem Timeline, 3,000 Years of The City's History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109171903/http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html |date=2009-01-09 }} (2001–02) National Public Radio and BBC News.</ref> Many refugees from areas captured by [[Place:Israel|Israel]]i forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113114509/http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-date=November 13, 2007 |title=About Bethlehem |dead-url=yes |accessdate=June 1, 2016}} The Centre for [[Social:Cultural heritage|Cultural Heritage]] Preservation via Bethlehem.ps.</ref> The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.<ref>[http://www.bethlehem.ps/facts/population.php Population in the Bethlehem District]{{dead link|date=March 2016}} Bethlehem.ps. {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref>

Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city. In 1995, Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord.

[[File:Bethlehem1978.jpg|right|thumb|Israeli soldiers in Bethlehem, 1978]]

Today, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for settlers, leaving the inhabitants squeezed between 37 Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live, and the gap between the two roads closed by the 8-metre high Israeli West Bank barrier, which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.<ref>Nicholas Blincoe, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/2014/08/14/nicholas-blincoe/phantom-bids 'Phantom Bids,'] London Review of Books 14 August 2014</ref>

==== Palestinian control ====
On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm
|title=Palestine Facts Timeline: 1994–1995
|publisher=Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs
|accessdate=2008-03-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729174648/http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm
|archivedate=2013-07-29
}}</ref> and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/
|title=Muslims, Christians celebrate in Bethlehem
|first=Jerrold
|last=Kessel
|work=CNN News
|publisher=Cable News Network
|date=1995-12-24
|accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731210658/http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/
|archivedate=2013-07-31
}}</ref>
During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged.<ref name="OCHA">{{cite web
|title=Costs of Conflict: The Changing Face of Bethlehem
|publisher=United Nations
|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) & Office of the Special Coordinator for the Peace Process in the Middle East
|date=December 2004
|format=PDF
|url=http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf
|accessdate=2009-07-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729131103/http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf
|archivedate=2013-07-29
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm
|title=Better times return to Bethlehem
|work=BBC News
|date=2007-12-22
|accessdate=2008-01-22
|first=Martin
|last=Patience|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106191329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm
|archivedate=2014-01-06
}}</ref> In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield, a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF).<ref name="BBC">{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm
|title=Vatican outrage over church siege
|publisher=BBC
|work=BBC News
|date=2002-04-08
|accessdate=2008-03-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109192256/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm
|archivedate=2014-01-09
}}</ref> During the counteroffensive, the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity, where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted for 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries.<ref name="siege timeline">{{cite news|title=Chronology of the Siege |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html |publisher=PBS|accessdate= 26 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227111530/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html|archivedate=2013-12-27}}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:Bethléem résidence.JPG|thumb|Residence of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram, 2008]]

Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about {{convert|775|m|ft|sp=us}} [[Metres above sea level|above sea level]], {{convert|30|m|ft|sp=us}} higher than nearby [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.pnic.gov.ps/english/tourism/tour7.html#file2
|title=Tourism In Bethlehem Governorate
|website=Palestinian National Information Center|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230045307/http://www.pnic.gov.ps/english/tourism/tour7.html |archivedate=2007-12-30}}</ref> Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion{{clarify|of what?|date=December 2015}} in the Judean Mountains.

The city is located {{convert|73|km|mi|sp=us}} northeast of Gaza City and the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Sea]], {{convert|75|km|mi|sp=us}} west of [[Place:Amman|Amman]], Jordan, {{convert|59|km|mi|sp=us}} southeast of [[Place:Tel Aviv|Tel Aviv]], [[Place:Israel|Israel]] and {{convert|10|km|mi|sp=us}} south of Jerusalem.<ref>[http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=676 Distance from Bethlehem to Tel Aviv], [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=702 Distance from Bethlehem to Gaza] Time and Date AS / Steffen Thorsen.</ref> Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem. The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits.<ref>[[:File:Thameenmap3.jpg|Detailed map of the West Bank]].</ref>

In the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter.<ref name="BPS">[http://www.bethlehem.ps/cultural_sites/towns_in_bethlehem/7.php Bethlehem's Quarters]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there.<ref>[http://www.med-voices.org/pages/showresource.aspx?id=1206&lang=0 Clans −2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019123102/http://www.med-voices.org/pages/showresource.aspx?id=1206&lang=0 |date=2013-10-19 }} Mediterranean Voices: [[History:Oral history|Oral History]] and Cultural Practice in Mediterranean Cities</ref> Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century.<ref name="Zeiter">[http://www.bethlehem.ps/cultural_sites/natural_heritage/tqoa.php Tqoa' area]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} Zeiter, Leila. Centre for Preservation of Culture and History. {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city,<ref name="BPS"/> whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma'asarte in [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]].<ref>[http://www.stern-von-bethlehem.de/english/bato_eng.html Short Overview of the Bato Family] BatoFamily.com {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The total population of the old city is about 5,000.<ref name="BPS"/>

== Climate ==
Bethlehem has a [[Earth:Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean climate]], with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1&nbsp;to&nbsp;13&nbsp;degree Celsius (33–55&nbsp;°F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86&nbsp;°F). Bethlehem receives an average of {{convert|700|mm|in|sp=us}} of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.<ref name="BMC">{{cite web
|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/index.php
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128015913/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/index.php
|archivedate=2007-11-28
|title=Bethlehem City: Climate
|website=Bethlehem Municipality}}</ref>

Bethlehem's average annual relative [[Physics:Humidity|humidity]] is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust ''Khamaseen'' winds from the Arabian Desert, during April, May and mid-June.<ref name="BMC"/>

{{Weather box
|location = Bethlehem
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 12
|Feb high C = 13
|Mar high C = 16
|Apr high C = 22
|May high C = 26
|Jun high C = 28
|Jul high C = 30
|Aug high C = 30
|Sep high C = 28
|Oct high C = 26
|Nov high C = 20
|Dec high C = 14
|Year high C =
|Jan low C = 5
|Feb low C = 5
|Mar low C = 7
|Apr low C = 10
|May low C = 14
|Jun low C = 17
|Jul low C = 19
|Aug low C = 19
|Sep low C = 17
|Oct low C = 15
|Nov low C = 11
|Dec low C = 7
|Year low C =
|Jan rain days = 12
|Feb rain days = 11
|Mar rain days = 9
|Apr rain days = 4
|May rain days = 2
|Jun rain days = 0
|Jul rain days = 0
|Aug rain days = 0
|Sep rain days = 0
|Oct rain days = 3
|Nov rain days = 7
|Dec rain days = 11
|Jan snow days = 1
|Feb snow days = 1
|Mar snow days = 0
|Apr snow days = 0
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 0
|Dec snow days = 1
|source 1 = myweather2.com<ref name="weather2">{{cite web|url=http://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Israel/Bethlehem/climate-profile.aspx?month=1 |title=January Climate History for Bethlehem &#124; Local &#124; Israel |publisher=Myweather2.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-18|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205154501/http://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Israel/Bethlehem/climate-profile.aspx?month=1|archivedate=2013-12-05}}</ref>
|date=February 2012
}}

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;"
|-
! Year
! Population
|-
|1867 ||style="text-align:center;"|3,000–4,000<ref name="Miller"/>
|-
|1945 ||style="text-align:center;"|8,820<ref>{{cite web
 |first=Sami
 |last=Hadawi
 |publisher=Palestine Liberation Organization – Research Center
 |title=Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine
 |url=http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Jerusalem/Page-056.jpg
 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20080805000658/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Jerusalem/Page-056.jpg
 |dead-url=yes
 |archive-date=2008-08-05
 |accessdate=2011-06-16
}}</ref><ref name=1945p24>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p24.jpg  24]</ref>
|-
|1961 ||style="text-align:center;"|22,453<ref>Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1964, p. [http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p07.pdf 7]</ref>
|-
|1983 ||style="text-align:center;"|16,300<ref>Census by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2012}}
|-
|1997 ||style="text-align:center;"|21,930<ref name="PCBSCensus">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120111192435/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t1.aspx Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years: Bethlehem Governorate] (1997) Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2007-12-23.  {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|2007 ||style="text-align:center;"|25,266<ref name="PCBSCensus"/>
|}

[[File:Bethlehem-Manger-Square.jpg|thumb|upright|The Mosque of Omar (Umar), built in 1860 to commemorate the Caliph Umar's visit to Bethlehem]]

According to Ottoman tax records, Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]] population became equal by the mid-16th century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax-payers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the [[Religion:Jizya|jizya]] tax.<ref name="Singer">Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA80 80]</ref> In 1867, an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000; of whom about 100 were [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestants]], 300 were Muslims and "the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians."<ref name="Miller">Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 148.</ref> Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims.<ref name="Malet1868">{{cite book|author=William Wyndham Malet|title=The olive leaf: a pilgrimage to Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, in 1867, for the reunion of the faithful|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3IBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA116|accessdate=9 November 2010|year=1868|publisher=T. Bosworth|page=116|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104164636/https://books.google.com/books?id=h3IBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA116|archivedate=2013-11-04}}</ref> An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of "principally Christians, Latins and Greeks" with no Jewish inhabitants.<ref name="JewishIntelligenceVol1">'{{cite journal |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Bethlehem |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdid=book-uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdot=1 |journal=The Jewish Intelligence |date=January 1885 |page=5|accessdate=22 October 2014}}</ref>

In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim.<ref name="AP">{{cite book|author=Andrea Pacini|title=Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories|pages=&nbsp;282|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0}}</ref> In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02860.html Bethlehem] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729042326/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02860.html |date=July 29, 2013 }}</ref>

In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees, accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.<ref name="PCBSCensus"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/bet_t6.aspx |title=Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status |accessdate=2008-01-22 |publisher=Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516122047/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/bet_t6.aspx |archivedate=2012-05-16}}</ref> In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20–29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45–64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.<ref name="PCBSCensus"/> In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.<ref name="PCBS07">{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |title=2007 PCBS Census |accessdate=2009-04-16 |publisher=Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics |page=117 |format=PDF|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210081942/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |archivedate=2010-12-10}}</ref>

=== Christian population ===
[[File:Bethlehem4.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Four Bethlehem Christian women, 1911]]

After the [[History:Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest of the Levant]] in the 630s, the local Christians were [[Social:Arabization|Arabized]] even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans.<ref name="beth">[http://www.bethlehem-holyland.net/Adnan/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm Bethlehem, The Holy Land's Collective Cultural National Identity: A Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective] Musallam, Adnan. Bethlehem University. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019141809/http://www.bethlehem-holyland.net/Adnan/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm |date=October 19, 2013 }}</ref> Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh.<ref name="beth"/> The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from [[Place:Najran|Najran]].<ref name="beth"/> Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.<ref name="beth"/>

The percentage of Christians in the town has been in a steady decline since the mid-twentieth century.<ref name="AP"/><ref name="Malek2017"/><ref name="Lidman2016"/><ref name="O'Connor2013">{{cite news |last1=O'Connor |first1=Anne-Marie |title=Little Palestinian town of Bethlehem wants its tourists, Christian residents to come back |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/little-palestinian-town-of-bethlehem-wants-its-tourists-christian-residents-to-come-back/2013/12/21/dac0d310-65b3-11e3-997b-9213b17dac97_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.53f289dffb4c |work=The Washington Post |agency=The Washington Post |publisher=The Washington Post Company LLC |date=21 December 2013 |ref=harv}}</ref> In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40%.<ref name="AP"/><ref name="Malek2017">{{cite news |last1=Malek |first1=Cate |title=Bethlehem is Struggling to Protect the Church of the Nativity |url=https://www.newsweek.com/bethlehem-easter-church-nativity-jesus-israel-palestinians-war-christians-584908 |work=Newsweek |publisher=The Newsweek Daily Beast Company |date=4 April 2017 |ref=harv}}</ref> In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh explained that "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority."<ref name="VOA">{{cite news|title=Christians Disappearing in the Birthplace of Jesus|author=Jim Teeple|publisher=Voice of America|date=24 December 2005|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-12/2005-12-24-voa17.cfm?CFID=43253380&CFTOKEN=44091067|archive-url=https://archive.is/20080505012318/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-12/2005-12-24-voa17.cfm?CFID=43253380&CFTOKEN=44091067|dead-url=yes|archive-date=5 May 2008|accessdate=2009-07-22}}</ref> The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp490.htm|publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|title=The Beleaguered Christians of the Palestinian-Controlled Areas: Official PA Domination of Christians|author=David Raab|date=5 January 2003|accessdate=2009-07-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818233943/http://jcpa.org/jl/vp490.htm|archivedate=2013-08-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shragai|first1=Nadav|title=Why are Christians leaving Bethlehem?|journal=Yisrael HaYom|date=December 26, 2012|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=6865}}</ref> In 2006, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade.<ref>{{cite web|title=Americans not sure where Bethlehem is, survey shows|publisher=Ekklesia|date=2006-12-20|accessdate=2007-05-07|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/content/news_syndication/article_061220bethlehem.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015857/http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/content/news_syndication/article_061220bethlehem.shtml|archivedate=2013-12-03}}</ref> The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar, located in the Manger Square.<ref name="ATT"/> By 2016, the Christian population of Bethlehem had declined to only 16%.<ref name="Lidman2016"/>

A study by Pew Research Center concluded that the decline in the Arab Christian population of the area was partially a result of a lower [[Birth rate|birth rate]] among Christians than among Muslims,<ref name="Lidman2016">{{cite news |last1=Lidman |first1=Melanie |title=Christians Worry 'Silent Night' May Soon Refer to their own Community in Bethlehem |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/christians-worry-silent-night-may-soon-refer-to-their-community-in-bethlehem/ |work=The Times of Israel |agency=The Times of Israel |publisher=The Times of Israel |date=24 December 2016 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Connor">{{cite web |last1=Connor |first1=Phillip |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=19 May 2014|title=Middle East’s Christian population in flux as Pope Francis visits Holy Land |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/19/middle-easts-christian-population-in-flux-as-pope-francis-visits-holy-land/ |website=pewresearch.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |ref=harv}}</ref> but also partially due to the fact that Christians were more likely to emigrate from the region than any other religious group.<ref name="Lidman2016"/><ref name="Connor2014"/> Amon Ramnon, a researcher at the Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research, stated that the reason why more Christians were emigrating than Muslims is because it is easier for Arab Christians to integrate into western communities than for Arab Muslims, since many of them attend church-affiliated schools, where they are taught European languages.<ref name="Lidman2016"/> A higher percentage of Christians in the region are urban-dwellers, which also makes it easier for them to emigrate and assimilate into western populations.<ref name="Lidman2016"/> A [[Statistics|statistical analysis]] of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians' middle-class status and [[Social:Higher education|higher education]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Palestinian Christianity – A Study in Religion and Politics|journal=International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church|date=July 2005|first=Leonard|last=Marsh|volume=57|issue=7|pages=147–66|doi=10.1080/14742250500220228}}</ref> Since the Second Intifada, 10% of the Christian population have left the city.<ref name="VOA"/> However, it is likely that there are many other factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation |title=Report on Christian Emigration: Palestine |url=http://www.hcef.org/component/content/article/106-report-on-christian-emigration-palestine |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720121812/http://www.hcef.org/component/content/article/106-report-on-christian-emigration-palestine |archivedate=July 20, 2014}}</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Bethlehem-03-Church of the Nativity.jpg|thumb|right|Church of the Nativity]]

Shopping is a major attraction, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts, [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]]ern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/Shopping.php |title=Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction) |accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226054520/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/Shopping.php |archivedate=February 26, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Olive [[Engineering:Wood carving|wood carving]]s <ref name="BethTour">{{cite web|url=http://www.travelershub.com/destination_guide/middle_east/bethlehem.html|title=Bethlehem: Shopping|publisher=TouristHub|accessdate=2009-07-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730055440/http://www.travelershub.com/destination_guide/middle_east/bethlehem.html|archivedate=2013-07-30}}</ref> are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.<ref name="handicrafts">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/Heritage/HnadCraft.php|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121193814/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/Heritage/HnadCraft.php|archivedate=2007-11-21|title=Handicrafts: Olive-wood carving|publisher=Bethlehem Municipality}}</ref> Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from [[Biology:Nacre|mother-of-pearl]], as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.<ref name="BethTour"/> Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings.<ref name="ChamberInfo">{{cite web |url=http://bethlehem.ps/bethinfo.html |title=Bethlehem Information |publisher=Bethlehem Chamber of Commerce & Industry|accessdate=29 November 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322194118/http://www.bethlehem.ps/bethinfo.html |archivedate=2012-03-22}}</ref> Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, [[Chemistry:Synthetic rubber|synthetic rubber]], pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.<ref name="ChamberInfo"/>

Cremisan Wine, founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000&nbsp;liters per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.ps/shopping/wine.php |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117144242/http://www.bethlehem.ps/shopping/wine.php |archivedate=2007-11-17 |title=Wine |last=Jahsan |first=Ruby |publisher=The Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation |accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref>

In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the [[Place:Palestinian territories|Palestinian territories]]. It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7412129.stm Palestinians bidding for business] Maqbool, Aleem. ''BBC News''. BBC. 2008-05-21. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106161839/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7412129.stm |date=January 6, 2014 }}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
[[File:Pope Francis visit Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|Pope Francis in Bethlehem, 25 May 2014]]

Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry.<ref name="O'Connor2013"/><ref name=OCHA/> Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel.<ref name=OCHA/> More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry.<ref name="CityEconomy">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/index-16.php?Mid=NDg=#.UpkEweKDu3w |title=The City Economy |publisher=Bethlehem Municipality|accessdate=29 November 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023031202/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/index-16.php?Mid=NDg%3D |archivedate=23 October 2012 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2007/12/2008525184727570657.html |title=Bethlehem's struggles continue |publisher=[[Engineering:Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera English]] |date=25 December 2007 |accessdate=29 November 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129060921/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2007/12/2008525184727570657.html |archivedate=2014-01-29}}</ref> The city has more than two million visitors every year.<ref name="CityEconomy"/> Tourism in Bethlehem ground to a halt for over a decade after the Second Intifada,<ref name="O'Connor2013"/> but gradually began to pick back up in the early 2010s.<ref name="O'Connor2013"/>

The [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]] is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where [[Biography:Jerome|St. Jerome]] spent thirty years creating the [[Religion:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.<ref name="BMH"/>

There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.<ref name="Patience"/> Jacir Palace, built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem.<ref>[http://www.asiatraveltips.com/news05/129-JacirPalace.shtml Jacir Palace, InterContinental Bethlehem re-opens for business] InterContinental Hotels Group {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203051039/http://www.asiatraveltips.com/news05/129-JacirPalace.shtml |date=December 3, 2013 }}</ref>

== Religious significance and commemoration ==

=== Birthplace of Jesus ===
{{further|Religion:Church of the Nativity|Religion:Nativity of Jesus}}
[[File:Jesus birthplace in Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|right|Silver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition]]

Early Christian traditions describe [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]] as being born in Bethlehem: in one, a verse in the Book of Micah is interpreted as a prophecy that the [[Religion:Messiah|Messiah]] would be born there.<ref>Freed, 2004, p. 77. (citing {{bibleverse||Micah|5:2|KJV}})</ref> The [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]] has two different accounts of the birth. In the Gospel of Luke, [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]]' parents live in [[Place:Nazareth|Nazareth]] and travel for the [[Religion:Census of Quirinius|Census of Quirinius]] to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, after which they return home.<ref name="qjukjz"/> The Gospel of Matthew  mentions Bethlehem but not the census.<ref>[[Biography:Bart D. Ehrman|Bart D. Ehrman]], ''[[Religion:Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|Jesus]]'', Oxford University Press 1999, page 38.</ref> Told that a 'King of the Jews' has been born in the town, Herod orders the killing of all the boys aged two and under in the town and surrounding area. Joseph, warned of by an [[Religion:Angel of the Lord|angel of the Lord]], flees to Egypt with his family; the [[Religion:Holy Family|Holy Family]] later settles in Nazareth.

[[File:Bethlehem Christmas2.JPG|thumb|upright|Catholic procession on Christmas Eve, 2006]]
[[File:Christmas tree, Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|upright|Christmas tree in Bethlehem, behind it Church of the Nativity, 2014]]
Many modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David.<ref>Vermes, 2006, p. 22.</ref><ref>Sanders, 1993, p. 85.</ref><ref>Crossan and Watts, p.&nbsp;19.</ref><ref>Dunn, 2003, pp.&nbsp;344–345.</ref><ref>Marcus J. Borg, ''Meeting Jesus for the First Time'' (Harper San Francisco, 1995) page&nbsp;22–23.</ref> The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth.<ref>Mills and Bullard, 1990, pp.&nbsp;445–446. See [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+6:1-4 Mark 6:1–4]; and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+1:46 John 1:46].  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218100701/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206%3A1-4 |date=December 18, 2013 }}</ref> In a 2005 article in ''Archaeology'' magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee.<ref>Aviram Oshri, "Where was Jesus Born?", ''Archaeology'', Volume 58 Number 6, November/December 2005.</ref> In a 2011 article in ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' magazine, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090310091422/http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/nativity-03.asp Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, ''Bethlehem&nbsp;... Of Course''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310091422/http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/nativity-03.asp |date=March 10, 2009 }}, Biblical Archaeology Review. ; see also A. Puig i Tàrrech, ″The Birth of Jesus and History: The Interweaving of the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke″, B. Estrada, E. Manicardi, A. Puig i Tàrrech (ed.), ≤The Gospels, History and Christology. The Search of Joseph Ratzinger≥, Vatican City:LEV, 2013, 353–97.</ref>

The existence of early traditions of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the [[Religion:Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] [[Biography:Justin Martyr|Justin Martyr]], who stated in his ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (c. 155–161) that the [[Religion:Holy Family|Holy Family]] had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town.<ref>Taylor, 1993, pp.&nbsp;99–100. "Joseph&nbsp;... took up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; and while they were there Mary brought forth the Christ and placed him in a manger, and here the Magi who came from Arabia found him."(Justin Martyr, ''Dialogue with Trypho'', chapter LXXVIII).</ref> [[Biography:Origen|Origen]] of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>In Bethlehem the cave is pointed out where he was born, and the manger in the cave where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes. And the rumor is in those places, and among foreigners of the Faith, that indeed Jesus was born in this cave who is worshipped and reverenced by the Christians. (Origen, ''Contra Celsum'', book I, chapter LI).</ref> This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz.<ref>Taylor, 1993, pp. 96–104.</ref>

=== Christmas celebrations ===
[[File:Bethlehem Christmas pilgrims enter town 1890.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas pilgrims, 1890]]

Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, but Greek, Coptic and [[Organization:Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodox]] Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Basilica of the Nativity]]. Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-christmas.htm |title=Christmas in Bethlehem |publisher=Sacred Destinations |accessdate=2008-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924080353/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-christmas.htm |archivedate=2009-09-24}}</ref>

=== Other religious festivals ===
Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George ([[Biography:Khidr|al-Khadr]]) on 5–6 May. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al-Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual.<ref>[http://www.bethlehem.ps/religious_sites/feasts/st_george.php St. George's Feast]{{dead link|date=February 2016}} Bethlehem.ps.</ref> The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.

== Culture ==

=== Embroidery ===
[[File:Bethlehem woman edited.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Woman in traditional Bethlehem costume]]

The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear.<ref name="PCA2">{{cite web |title=Palestine costume before 1948: by region |publisher=Palestine Costume Archive |accessdate=2008-01-28 |url=http://www.palestinecostumearchive.org/regional.htm |archiveurl=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020913101705/http%3A//www%2Epalestinecostumearchive%2Eorg/regional%2Ehtm |archivedate= September 13, 2002}}</ref> Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its "strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance."<ref>{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Yedida Kalfon |title=Palestinian costume and jewelry |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=1979 |location=Albuquerque |pages=&nbsp;46 |isbn=978-0-8263-0490-2}}</ref> Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (''bisht'') from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short ''taqsireh'' jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth, usually with heavy embroidery.<ref name=PCA2/>

Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for "royal" wedding dresses (''thob malak''), taqsirehs and the ''shatwehs'' worn by married women. It has been traced by some to Byzantium, and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.<ref name=PCA2/>

=== Mother-of-pearl carving ===
The art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan [[Religion:Friar|friar]]s from Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=6-207&cid=498&did=2502&pageflip=1 |title=Tourist Products|publisher=Palestine-Family.net |date=2007-01-23 |accessdate=2012-02-18|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206210408/http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=6-207&cid=498&did=2502&pageflip=1|archivedate=2013-12-06}}</ref> A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women.<ref>Weir, pp. 128, 280, n.30</ref> The industry was noted by Richard Pococke, who visited Bethlehem in 1727.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wY4qAAAAMAAJ ''A Description of the East and Some other Countries''], p. 436</ref>

=== Cultural centers and museums ===
[[File:Workers in mother-of-pearl2.jpg|thumb|Craftsmen working with mother-of-pearl, early 20th century]]
Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.palestinianheritagecenter.com/objectives.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112225031/http://www.palestinianheritagecenter.com/objectives.htm|archivedate=2007-11-12|title=Palestinian Heritage Center: Objectives}}</ref> The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training.<ref name="BH"/>

The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncm.birzeit.edu/new/page.php?page=branches+ |title=The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music |accessdate=2008-01-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214165615/http://ncm.birzeit.edu/new/page.php?page=branches |archivedate=2008-02-14 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Bethlehem has four museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. The Badd Giacaman Museum, located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of [[Biology:Olive oil|olive oil]] production.<ref name="BH"/> Baituna al-Talhami Museum, established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture.<ref name="BH"/> The International Museum of Nativity was built by [[Organization:UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) to exhibit "high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere".<ref name="BH"/>

== Local government ==
[[File:Bethlehem-hamasrally.JPG|thumb|right|A Hamas rally in Bethlehem]]
Bethlehem is the ''muhfaza'' (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.

Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the ''mukhtars'' ("heads") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community.<ref name="BME"/>

Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.<ref name="BME">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080813060937/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/TempVewMenuSub.php?Mid=6 Municipal Council Elections during the British and Jordanian Periods] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813060937/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/TempVewMenuSub.php?Mid=6 |date=August 13, 2008 }} Bethlehem Municipal Council.</ref>

There are several branches of political parties on the council, including [[Social:Communism|Communist]], [[Religion:Islamism|Islamist]], and secular. The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Counil/index.php |title=Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction) |accessdate=2008-01-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118135922/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Counil/index.php |archivedate=January 18, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

=== Mayors ===
In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem.<ref name="kuttabmonitor">{{cite news|last1=Kuttab|first1=Daoud|title=Bethlehem Has New Female Mayor, Yet Same Old Problems|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2012/al-monitor/christmas-bethlehem-palestine.html#|accessdate=2016-03-17|work=Al-Monitor|date=2012-12-23}}</ref>
{|
|
* Mikhail Abu Saadeh – 1876
* Khalil Yaqub – 1880
* Suleiman Jacir – 1884
* Issa Abdullah Marcus – 1888
* Yaqub Khalil Elias – 1892
* Hanna Mansur – 1895–1915
* Salim Issa al-Batarseh – 1916–17
* Salah Giries Jaqaman – 1917–21
* Musa Qattan – 1921–25
* Hanna Ibrahim Miladah – 1926–28
* Nicoloa Attalah Shain – 1929–1933
|
* Hanna Issa al-Qawwas – 1936–46
* Issa Basil Bandak – 1946–51
* Elias Bandak – 1951–53
* Afif Salm Batarseh – 1952–53
* Elias Bandak – 1953–57
* Ayyub Musallam – 1958–62
* Elias Bandak – 1963–72
* Elias Freij – 1972–97
* Hanna Nasser – 1997–2005
* Victor Batarseh 2005–2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nablus.org/en/htm/guide/Municipalities.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221063335/http://www.nablus.org/en/htm/guide/Municipalities.htm|archivedate=2007-02-21|title=Municipalities Info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Mayor/FormerMayors.php |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227075912/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Mayor/FormerMayors.php |archivedate=2007-12-27 |title=Bethlehem Municipality |accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref>
* Vera Baboun – 2012–2017<ref name="kuttabmonitor"/>
*Anton Salman –  2017 – present
|}

== Education ==
According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t3.aspx |title=Palestinian Population (10 Years and Over) by Locality, Sex and Educational Attainment |accessdate=2008-01-22 |publisher=Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113214724/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t3.aspx |archivedate=2010-11-13}}</ref> There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority, seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and 28 were private.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mohe.gov.ps/downloads/pdffiles/statisticE.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014122612/http://www.mohe.gov.ps/downloads/pdffiles/statisticE.pdf |archivedate=2006-10-14 |title=Statistics about General Education in Palestine 2005–2006 |publisher=Education Minister of the Palestinian National Authority |accessdate=2008-01-22|format=PDF}}</ref>

Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University, a [[Organization:Catholic Church|Catholic]] Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.edu/about/mission-history |title=Mission and History |publisher=Bethlehem University|accessdate=29 November 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207235951/http://bethlehem.edu/about/mission-history|archivedate=2014-02-07}}</ref>

== Transportation ==
[[File:Bethlehem-street2.JPG|thumb|upright|A street in Bethlehem]]
Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, [[Place:Hebron|Hebron]], Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/TransSys.php |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227075741/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/TransSys.php |archivedate=2007-12-27 |title=Bethlehem Public Transport System |accessdate=2008-01-22}} Bethlehem Municipality.</ref>

The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has affected Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier is located along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within m of houses in 'Aida refugee camp on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.<ref name=OCHA/> Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subjected to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] is regulated by a permit-system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/b45e8d8caacda74785256dbb0062e7b9?OpenDocument |title=Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank communities – OCHA update report #2 |date=30 September 2003 |accessdate=4 August 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109191959/http://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/b45e8d8caacda74785256dbb0062e7b9?OpenDocument |archivedate=2014-01-09}}</ref> Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel's Tomb. Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon's Pools.<ref name=OCHA/>

== Twin towns and sister cities ==
Bethlehem is twinned with:<ref name="PalestineTwinning">{{cite web|url=http://www.twinningwithpalestine.net/groupsinternational.html|title=Twinning with Palestine|accessdate=2008-11-29|year=1998–2008
|publisher= The Britain – Palestine Twinning Network|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628210624/http://www.twinningwithpalestine.net/groupsinternational.html |archivedate=2012-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Twinning/index.php |title=The City of Bethlehem has signed a twinning agreements with the following cities |accessdate=2007-12-28 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228042036/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Twinning/index.php |archivedate=2007-12-28}} Bethlehem Municipality.</ref><ref name="BethlehemTwinning">{{cite web 
 |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/TwinMain.php 
 |title=Bethlehem Municipality 
 |publisher=www.bethlehem-city.org 
 |accessdate=2011-06-21 
 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/69g20diZC?url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/TwinMain.php 
 |archivedate=2012-08-04 
 |deadurl=yes
 }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
|- valign="top"
|
* {{flagicon|AUS}} Marrickville, Australia<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|AUT}} Steyr, Austria<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|BRA}} Natal, Brazil<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|BRA}} Valinhos, Brazil<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|BRA}} São Pedro do Butiá, Brazil<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|EST}} Haapsalu, Estonia ''(since 2010)''<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|FRA}} Chartres, France<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|FRA}} Grenoble, France<ref name="Grenoble">{{cite web|author=Jérôme Steffenino, Marguerite Masson |url=http://www.grenoble.fr/jsp/site/Portal.jsp?page_id=92 |title=Ville de Grenoble – Coopérations et villes jumelles |publisher=Grenoble.fr|accessdate=2009-10-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014074034/http://www.grenoble.fr/jsp/site/Portal.jsp?page_id=92|archivedate=October 14, 2007}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|author=Jérôme Steffenino, Marguerite Masson |url=http://www.grenoble.fr/103-jumelages-et-cooperations.htm|title=Ville de Grenoble –Coopérations et villes jumelles |publisher=Grenoble.fr|accessdate=16 May 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316230727/https://www.grenoble.fr/103-jumelages-et-cooperations.htm|archivedate=2014-03-16}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|FRA}} Montpellier, France<ref name="Flag Dispute">{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/montpellier-mayor-urged-not-to-hang-palestinian-flag/|title=Montpellier mayor urged not to hang Palestinian flag|website=The Times of Israel|accessdate=2016-03-17}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|FRA}} Paray-le-Monial, France<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|GER}} Cologne, Germany<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|GRE}} [[Place:Athens|Athens]], Greece<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|HUN}} Kalocsa, Hungary<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
||
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Assisi, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Civitavecchia, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Conversano, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Place:Florence|Florence]], Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Greccio, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Milan, Italy ''(since 2000)''<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/><ref name="Milan">{{cite web
 |url=http://www.comune.milano.it/portale/wps/portal/CDM?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/ContentLibrary/In%20Comune/In%20Comune/Citt%20Gemellate 
 |title=''Milano – Città Gemellate'' 
 |publisher=[[Copyright|©]] 2008 Municipality of Milan (Comune di Milano) 
 |accessdate=2008-12-05 
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410020744/http://www.comune.milano.it/portale/wps/portal/CDM?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=%2Fwps%2Fwcm%2Fconnect%2FContentLibrary%2FIn%20Comune%2FIn%20Comune%2FCitt%20Gemellate 
 |archivedate=2014-04-10 
 |deadurl=yes 
}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Orvieto, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Pratovecchio, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Sant'Anastasia, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|ITA}} Umbria, Italy<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|JOR}} Madaba, Jordan<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|MEX}} Monterrey, Mexico<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
||
* {{flagicon|MAR}} [[Place:Rabat|Rabat]], Morocco<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|NED}} [[Place:The Hague|The Hague]], Netherlands<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|NOR}} Sarpsborg, Norway<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|PER}} Cusco, Peru<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|POL}} Częstochowa, Poland<ref name="PalestineTwinning"/><ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|POR}} [[Place:Lisbon|Lisbon]], Portugal<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/><ref name="Lisbon twinnings">{{cite web|url=http://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M1100|title=Lisboa – Geminações de Cidades e Vilas|accessdate=2013-08-23|website=Associação Nacional de Municípios Portugueses [National Association of Portuguese Municipalities]|language=Portuguese|trans-title=Lisbon – Twinning of Cities and Towns}}</ref><ref name="Lisbon twinnings 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais|title=Acordos de Geminação, de Cooperação e/ou Amizade da Cidade de Lisboa|accessdate=2013-08-23|website=Camara Municipal de Lisboa|language=Portuguese|trans-title=Lisbon – Twinning Agreements, Cooperation and Friendship|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031202617/http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais |archivedate=2013-10-31}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|RUS}} Saint Petersburg, Russia<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|RSA}} [[Place:Pretoria|Pretoria]], South Africa<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|BEL}} Tournai, Belgium ''(since 2012)''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhnet.be/archive/tournai-jumele-avec-bethleem-51b7e24ce4b0de6db993d7c0|title=Tournai jumelé avec Bethléem|website=dhnet.be|accessdate=2016-03-17}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|ESP}} Zaragoza, Spain<ref>[http://cmisapp.zaragoza.es/ciudad/zaragozainternacional/hermanamientos.htm Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza. Hermanamientos y Protocolos de Colaboración]  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013163222/http://cmisapp.zaragoza.es/ciudad/zaragozainternacional/hermanamientos.htm |date=October 13, 2007 }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|TUR}} Yalvaç, Turkey<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|UAE}} [[Place:Abu Dhabi|Abu Dhabi]], United Arab Emirates<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|SCO}} Glasgow, Scotland<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|US}} Burlington, Vermont, USA<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|US}} Orlando, Florida, USA<ref name="BethlehemTwinning"/>
* {{flagicon|US}} Sacramento, California, USA ''(since 2009)''<ref>[http://www.sacramentobethlehem.org/ Sacramento to Bethlehem Sister City Initiative] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104023534/http://www.sacramentobethlehem.org/ |date=January 4, 2014 }}</ref>
|}

== See also ==
* Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
* Bethlehem, Wales
* Massacre of the Innocents
* [[Unsolved:Star of Bethlehem|Star of Bethlehem]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=Politics and sociolinguistic reflexes: Palestinian border villages|first1=Muhammad|last1=Amara|edition=Illustrated|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=1999|isbn=978-90-272-4128-3}}
* {{cite book|title=A very political economy: peacebuilding and foreign aid in the West Bank and Gaza|first1=Rex|last1=Brynen|edition=Illustrated|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=2000|isbn=978-1-929223-04-6}}
* {{cite journal|title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus|first1=John Dominic|last1=Crossan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Watts|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}
* {{cite book|author=Dunn, James D. G. |title=Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC&pg=PA1|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2}}
* {{cite journal|first1=Edwin D.|last1=Freed|year=2004|title=Stories of Jesus' Birth|publisher=Continuum International}}
*{{cite book | title = First Census of Population and Housing. Volume I: Final Tables; General Characteristics of the Population | author = Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics | year = 1964|url=http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensus1961bits.pdf}}
*{{cite book|title=Village Statistics, April, 1945 |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/Hebrew/library/Pages/BookReader.aspx?pid=856390|author=Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics|year=1945}} 
*{{cite journal | last = Hartmann | first =M.|  title = Die Ortschaftenliste des Liwa Jerusalem in dem türkischen Staatskalender für Syrien auf das Jahr 1288 der Flucht (1871)  | journal = Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins | volume = 6 | pages = 102–149 | url =https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ | year = 1883}}
* {{cite journal|title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible|first1=Watson E.|last1=Mills|first2=Roger Aubrey|last2=Bullard|publisher=[[Organization:Mercer University|Mercer University]] Press|year=1990|volume=5}}
* {{cite book|title=The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule|last1=Petersen|first1=Andrew|publisher=British Archaeological Reports|year=2005|isbn=978-1-84171-821-7|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n91/mode/2up|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111125306/https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600|archivedate=2012-11-11}}
* {{cite book|first=Peirs Paul |last=Read|title=The Templars|publisher=Macmillan|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-26658-5}}
* {{cite journal|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|first1=E. P.|last1=Sanders|year=1993}}
* Sawsan & Qustandi Shomali. Bethlehem 2000. A Guide to Bethlehem and it Surroundings.Waldbrol, Flamm Druck Wagener GMBH, 1997.
* {{cite book|first=Amy |last=Singer |title=Palestinian Peasants and Ottoman Officials: Rural Administration Around Sixteenth-Century Jerusalem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn= 978-0-521-47679-9}}
*{{cite journal | last = Socin | first =A.|  title = Alphabetisches Verzeichniss von Ortschaften des Paschalik Jerusalem | journal = Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins | volume = 2 | pages = 135–163 | url = https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde01deut | year = 1879}}
*{{cite book|title=Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500|url=https://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft|first1=Guy|last1=Strange, le| year=1890|publisher=Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund|accessdate=2016-03-17}}
* {{cite journal|title=Christians and the Holy Places|first1=Joan E.|last1=Taylor|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993}}
* {{cite book|first=Revered W.M.|last=Thomson|title=The Land and the Book|year=1860}}
* {{cite journal|title=The Nativity: History and Legend|last=Vermes |first=Geza|year=2006|publisher=Penguin Press}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Bethlehem}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060321000427/http://www.bethlehem2000.org/main.html Pastor's Vision to put Christ back in Bethlehem during Christmas]
* [http://www.bethlehem-city.org/ Bethlehem Municipality]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071008005239/http://www.peacenter.org/ Bethlehem Peace Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151105212027/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sites/TSbtmenu.html Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land website – pages on Bethlehem]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060321000427/http://www.bethlehem2000.org/main.html Bible Land Library]*
* [http://www.openbethlehem.org/ Open Bethlehem civil society project]
* [http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=65&hits=20&searchword=al+khader&pageflip=26-22&did=604-1&searchResult=searchResult Bethlehem: Muslim-Christian living together]
* [https://blogs.wsj.com/photojournal/2008/12/24/pictures-of-the-day-84/ Photo: Christmas in Bethlehem, 2008]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101214841/http://www.ianandwendy.com/Israel/Bethlehem/slideshow.htm Photo Gallery of Bethlehem from 2007]
* [http://www.bethlehemfairtrade.org/ Bethlehem Fair Trade Artisans]
* [http://www.bethlehem.edu/ Bethlehem University]



[[Category:Jesus]]

{{Sourceattribution|Bethlehem|1}}