View source for Religion:Herculaneum

{{short description|Roman town destroyed by eruption of Mount Vesuvius}}
{{for multi|the modern Italian commune|Ercolano|other uses|Herculaneum (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name           = Herculaneum
| native_name    =
| alternate_name = Ercolano
| image          = [[File:Cardo V de Herculano.jpg|260px]]
| alt   =
| caption        = The excavations of Herculaneum
| map_type       = Italy
| map_alt        =
| map_size       =
| relief         =
| coordinates    = {{coord|40.8060|N|14.3482|E|display=inline,title}}
| location       = Ercolano, Campania, Italy
| region         =
| type           = Settlement
| part_of        =
| length         =
| width          =
| area           =
| height         =
| builder        =
| material       =
| built          = 6th–7th century BC
| abandoned      = 79 AD
| epochs         =
| cultures       =
| dependency_of  =
| occupants      =
| event          =
| excavations    =
| archaeologists =
| condition      =
| ownership      =
| management     =
| public_access  =
| website        = [http://ercolano.beniculturali.it/ Herculaneum – Official website]
| notes          =
| designation1            = WHS
| designation1_offname    = Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata
| designation1_type       = Cultural
| designation1_criteria   = iii, iv, v
| designation1_date       = 1997 (21st [[Organization:World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_number     = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/829 829]
| designation1_free1name  = Region
| designation1_free1value = Europe and North America
}}

'''Herculaneum''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɜːr|k|j|ʊ|ˈ|l|eɪ|n|i|ə|m}}; Neapolitan and {{lang-it|Ercolano}}) was an [[History:Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] town, located in the modern-day ''comune'' of Ercolano, Campania, Italy. Herculaneum was buried under volcanic ash and pumice in the [[Earth:Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD]].

Like the nearby city of Pompeii, Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities to be preserved nearly intact, as the ash that blanketed the town protected it against looting and the elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first and, for a long time, the only discovered Vesuvian city (in 1709). Pompeii was revealed in 1748 and identified in 1763.<ref>Ozgenel, Lalo (15 April 2008). "A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum". ''Journal of the Faculty of Archaeology''. 2008, Ankara: Middle East Technical University. 25 (1): 1–25. http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2008/cilt25/sayi_1/1-25.pdf</ref> Unlike Pompeii, the mainly [[Earth:Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic material]] that covered Herculaneum [[Chemistry:Carbonization|carbonized]] and preserved more wooden objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as food and [[Engineering:Papyrus|papyrus]].

According to the traditional tale, the city was rediscovered by chance in 1709, during the drilling of a well. Remnants of the city, however, were already found during earlier earthworks.<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (2011). ''Herculaneum: Past and Future''. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-3142-9}}. p47</ref> In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and took [[Social:Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]]. Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly since. Today, only a fraction of the ancient site has been excavated. The focus has shifted to preserving the already-excavated portions of the city rather than exposing more.

Although smaller than Pompeii with a population of circa 5,000,<ref>De Ligt et al. (2012). "The Album of Herculaneum and a model of the town’s demography." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'', 25, 69–94. doi:10.1017/S1047759400001148</ref> Herculaneum was a wealthier town.<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (2011). ''Herculaneum: Past and Future''. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-3142-9}}. p55</ref> It was a seaside retreat for the Roman elite, as reflected by the extraordinary density of luxurious houses featuring lavish use of coloured [[Chemistry:Marble|marble]] cladding. Buildings of the ancient city include the Villa of the Papyri and the so-called "boat houses", where the skeletal remains of at least 300 people were found.

==History of Herculaneum==
[[File:Herculaneum, past, present and future (1908) (14596114730).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Herculaneum plan showing the ancient site below the modern (1908) town and the 1631 "lava" flow]]

Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that the Greek hero [[Religion:Heracles|Heracles]] (''[[Religion:Hercules|Hercules]]'' in [[Social:Latin|Latin]]) founded the city.<ref>''Antiquitates Romanae'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0572%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D44%3Asection%3D1 1.44]</ref> However, according to Strabo, the Oscans founded the first settlement.<ref>Strabo, Geography V, 4, 8</ref> The Etruscans took control of the area, and were later overthrown by the Greeks. The Greeks named the town ''Heraklion'' and used it as a trading post because of its proximity to the Gulf of Naples. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under the domination of the Samnites.

In the 2nd century BC the city walls were built (between 2 and 3 metres thick), constructed primarily of large pebbles, with the exception of the coastal section made of ''opus reticulatum''. It participated in the Social War (91–88 BC) on the side of the "Allies" against Rome and was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Sulla. Following the war the walls lost their protective purpose and were integrated into houses and adjacent structures, such as the ''House of the Inn''.

It became a Roman ''municipium'' in 89 BC.{{cn|date=April 2023}}

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried Herculaneum under approximately {{convert|20|metres|ft|abbr=on}} of ash. It lay hidden and largely intact until discoveries from wells and tunnels became gradually more widely known, notably following the Prince d'Elbeuf's explorations in the early 18th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wallace-Hadrill|first=Andrew|title=Herculaneum: Past and Future|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7112-3142-9}}</ref> Excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie above Herculaneum. Ercolano was called Resina until 1969 when the modern name was adopted in honour of the old city.

===Eruption of 79 AD===
[[File:Mt Vesuvius 79 AD eruption 3.svg|upright=1.4|right|thumb|Herculaneum and other cities affected by the eruption of [[Earth:Mount Vesuvius|Mount Vesuvius]]. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.]]
{{main|Earth:Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD}}

The course and timeline of the eruption can be reconstructed based on archaeological excavations and two letters from [[Biography:Pliny the Younger|Pliny the Younger]] to the Roman historian Tacitus.<ref>Available at the University of Arizona: [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~afutrell/404b/web%20rdgs/pliny%20on%20vesuvius.htm Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16 and 6.20 to Cornelius Tacitus] and in [[Project Gutenberg]]: [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2811/2811-h/2811-h.htm#link2H_4_0065 Letter LXV — To Tacitus], [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2811/2811-h/2811-h.htm#link2H_4_0066 Letter LXVI — To Cornelius Tacitus]</ref>

At around 1 pm on the first day of eruption, Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material thousands of metres into the sky. After the plume had reached a height of {{convert|27-33|km|mi|abbr=on}},<ref>{{Citation|last=Sigurdsson|first=Haraldur|editor-last=Meyers|editor-first=Robert A.|title=Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third ed.)|chapter=Volcanology|pages=579–605|publisher=Elsevier|date=2001|contribution-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/plinian-eruption}}</ref> the top of the column flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as a [[Biology:Stone pine|stone pine]] tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage; nevertheless, the ash prompted most inhabitants to flee.

The volcano continued spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. At 1 am the next day the eruptive column collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first [[Earth:Pyroclastic surge|pyroclastic surge]], formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, flowed down the mountain and through the mostly-evacuated town of Herculaneum at {{convert|160|km/h|abbr=on|-1}}. A succession of six flows and surges buried the city's buildings to approximately 20 m depth, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. However, other areas were damaged significantly, knocking down walls, tearing away columns and other large objects;<ref>[http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk/files/newsletters/harchissue2.pdf The Herculaneum Society]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222035732/http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk/files/newsletters/harchissue2.pdf |date=22 February 2012 }}. p. 3.</ref> a marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus near the baths was blown 15m away and a carbonised skeleton was found lifted 2.5m above ground level in the garden of the House of the Relief of Telephus.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hooper|first=John|date=23 July 2012|title=House of the Telephus Relief: raising the roof on Roman real estate|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/jul/23/house-telephus-relief-roman|access-date=23 March 2023|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/insula-oi/house-of-the-relief-of-telephus|title=House of the Relief of Telephus – AD79eruption|website=sites.google.com}}</ref>

The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after 17 October.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-45874858|title=Pompeii's destruction date could be wrong|date=16 October 2018|newspaper=BBC News}}</ref> Support for an October/November eruption has long been known in several respects: buried people in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles and could not have been minted before the second week of September.<ref>Stefani, Grete (October 2006). La vera data dell'eruzione. Archeo</ref>

Multidisciplinary research on the lethal effects of the [[Earth:Pyroclastic surge|pyroclastic surge]]s in the Vesuvius area has shown that, in the vicinity of Pompeii and Herculaneum, intense heat was the main cause of the death of people who had previously been thought to have died by ash suffocation. Exposure to ≥250&nbsp;°C (480&nbsp;°F) had likely killed residents within 10&nbsp;km, including those sheltering in buildings.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mastrolorenzo|first=G|author2=Petrone, P|author3=Pappalardo, L|author4=Guarino, FM|title=Lethal thermal impact at periphery of pyroclastic surges: evidences at Pompeii.|journal=PLOS ONE|date=15 June 2010|volume=5|issue=6|page=e11127|pmid=20559555|pmc=2886100|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0011127|bibcode = 2010PLoSO...511127M|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Archaeology===
{{wide image|Herculaneum Pano.jpg|900px}}
[[File:Pergamon Museum Pompeii exhibit.jpg|thumb|Small Herculaneum Woman (Dresden)]]

Prince d'Elbeuf began constructing a villa in neighbouring Granatello, and to furnish it, he grew intrigued in local tales of wells containing antique sculptures and artworks.<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (2011). ''Herculaneum: Past and Future''. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-3142-9}}. p 47</ref> In 1709, he acquired the site of a recently-dug well and tunnelled out from its bottom in search of sculptures. The tunnel reached what would be later identified as a theatre, where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Among the earliest sculptures discovered were two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women,<ref>THE LARGE AND THE SMALL HERCULANEUM WOMAN, Universita Ca' Foscari, Venezia, Doctoral Thesis 2014–2015, Angeliki Ntontou</ref> currently housed in the Skulpturensammlung in [[Place:Dresden|Dresden]].<ref>The Herculaneum Women: And the Origins of Archaeology (J. Paul Getty Museum) – 7 Feb 2008, Daehner</ref> The excavation ceased in 1711 out of concern about the stability of the structures above.

Major excavations resumed in 1738 under the patronage of Charles III of Spain, who had recently begun building his nearby palace in Portici. He appointed the Italian military engineer Giovanni Antonio Medrano and Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre to supervise the extensive new project. The publication of "Le Antichità di Ercolano" ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") had a striking influence on nascent European [[History:Neoclassicism|Neoclassicism]]; by the end of the 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on fashionable furnishings, including decorative wall-paintings, tripod tables, perfume burners, and teacups. Nonetheless, excavation ceased once again in 1762 as a result of [[Biography:Johann Joachim Winckelmann|Winckelmann]]'s harsh criticism of the treasure-hunting techniques. The discovery of neighbouring Pompeii, substantially simpler to excavate due to a smaller layer of material covering the site (4m as compared to 20m at Herculaneum), diverted attention and effort.

King Francis I ordered land acquisitions and promoted renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the newly formed [[History:Kingdom of Italy|Kingdom of Italy]], extending excavations eastwards till 1875.<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (2011). ''Herculaneum: Past and Future''. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-3142-9}}. p62</ref>

From 1927 until 1942, Amedeo Maiuri conducted a new campaign, sponsored by Mussolini's regime, which unearthed approximately four hectares which today are part of the archaeological park.

Hundreds of skeletons were found in the so-called "boat houses", by the ancient shoreline, between 1980 and 1981.

The Villa of the Papyri, the northwest baths,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/northwest-insula/northwest-baths|title=Northwest Baths – AD79eruption|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2 April 2017|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029190056/https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/northwest-insula/northwest-baths|url-status=dead}}</ref> the House of the Dionysian Reliefs<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/northwest-insula/house-of-the-dionysian-reliefs|title=House of the Dionysian Reliefs – AD79eruption|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2 April 2017|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029190056/https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/northwest-insula/house-of-the-dionysian-reliefs|url-status=dead}}</ref> and a large collapsed monument were brought to light between 1996 and 1999. However, the area was left in a chaotic state until major conservation interventions from 2000 through 2007.

Many public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are yet to be excavated.


==Site==
[[File:Herculanum plan fouilles.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Insulae numbers of main excavated area]]

The classical street layout separates the city into blocks (''insulae''), defined by the intersection of the east–west (''cardi'') and north–south (''decumani'') streets. Hence Insula II to Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as the "Suburban District" (SD). Individual buildings have their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3).

The Forum, temples, theatre, numerous houses and necropoles are still buried.

Due to [[Earth:Bradyseism|bradyseism]], which affects the entire Vesuvius region, portions of the historic city of Herculaneum today lie as much as 4 metres below sea level.<ref>Cinque, A. and Irollo, G. (2008) "Lapaleogeografia dell’antica Herculaneum e lefluttuazioni, di origine bradisismica, dellasua linea di costa". In P. G. Guzzo andM. P. Guidobaldi, eds., Nuove ricerche archeologiche nell’area Vesuviana (scavi 2003–2006): 425–38</ref>

A single main drain collected water from the Forum and from house ''[[Engineering:Impluvium|impluvium]]s'', [[Engineering:Latrine|latrine]]s and kitchens along Cardo III.{{cn|date=March 2023}} Other drains emptied directly into the street, except latrines equipped with a cesspit. For water supply, the city was directly connected to the Serino aqueduct, built in the Augustan age, which brought water to buildings through a series of lead pipes under the roads, regulated by valves; wells had been used previously.

===The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)===
[[File:Herculaneum - Lyre and Cupids.jpg|thumb|Cupids playing with a lyre; Roman fresco from Herculaneum]]
The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage.

===The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)===
The second house in insula II takes its name from a lost fresco of Argus and [[Biology:Io (mythology)|Io]] that once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle. This structure was likely one of Herculaneum's finest villas. It was the first time that a second story had been unearthed in such detail when the house was discovered in the late 1820s. The excavation uncovered a balcony on the second level overlooking Cardo III, as well as wooden shelving and cupboards now lost.

===The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)===
North of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius. Although it has only been partially uncovered, it appears to have been a vast structure. Its name derives from a statue of a [[Religion:Cupid|Cupid]], once part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin.

===The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)===
The house consists of two adjoined structures with a mix of plain, simple spaces and finely-decorated rooms.

The ''[[Engineering:Atrium (architecture)|atrium]]'' is covered and lacks the usual ''[[Engineering:Impluvium|impluvium]]''. It retains its original flooring of ''opus tesselatum'' and ''opus sectile''. A highly adorned ''biclinium'' (a dining-couch for two persons<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, biclīnĭum |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=biclinium&highlight=biclinium |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>'')'' with frescoes in the ''fourth style'' and a spacious ''triclinium'' originally marble-floored are found off the ''atrium''. Several further rooms, including the apsed [[Engineering:Alcove (architecture)|alcove]] after which the house is named, are accessible via a corridor receiving daylight from a small courtyard.

===College of the Augustales===
[[File:Giocatrici-di-astragali.JPG|thumb|A marble tablet from Herculaneum showing women playing knucklebones, depicting Phoebe, Leto, Niobe, Hilearia, and Agle, painted and signed by an artist named "Alexander of Athens", now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale (Naples)]]
Temple of the Augustales or priests of the Imperial cult.

===Central Thermae===
The Central Thermae (bathhouses) were built around the 1st century AD. Bathhouses were popular at the time, especially in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Per common practice, there were separate bathing areas for men and women. The ''Thermae'' also served as a prominent cultural hub home to works of art.

===Villa of the Papyri===
[[File:Affreschi romani - Ercolano - Teseo liberatore1.JPG|thumb|A fresco depicting Theseus]]
The most famous among Herculaneum's luxurious villas, '''Villa of the Papyri''', was built on the seashore on four terraces. It is thought to have belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's father-in-law, who was a patron of poets and philosophers and built there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact.

Between 1752 and 1754, a number of blackened, unreadable [[Engineering:Papyrus|papyrus]] scrolls were recovered from the Villa of the Papyri by workmen. These scrolls became known as the Herculaneum papyri or scrolls, the majority of which are today stored at the National Library, Naples. Although badly carbonized, a number of scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened rolls using [[Physics:X-ray|X-ray]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.research.uky.edu/odyssey/fall04/seales.html|title=Digital Exploration: Unwrapping the Secrets of Damaged Manuscripts|website=www.research.uky.edu|access-date=2016-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201062426/http://www.research.uky.edu/odyssey/fall04/seales.html|archive-date=1 February 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> The same techniques could be applied to the rolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, eliminating the risk of potential damage from unrolling. Later [[CT scan]] revealed the scrolls' fibres structure, sand, and other debris trapped in the scrolls. These findings help a safer unrolling. However, the text remains illegible.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25106956|title=Unlocking the scrolls of Herculaneum|last=Banerji|first=Robin|date=2013-12-20|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-12-27|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Two of the rolls stored at the French National Academy in Paris have been extensively examined by [[Physics:X-ray|X-ray]] in summer 2009. However, the text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks, essentially invisible to the X-ray scans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kentucky.com/news/local/education/article44033310.html|title=UK scientists stymied in effort to read ancient scrolls|website=kentucky|access-date=2016-12-16}}</ref> Similar later attempts all failed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.kentucky.com/news/local/education/article44033310.html|title=UK scientists stymied in effort to read ancient scrolls|newspaper=kentucky|access-date=2016-12-16}}</ref>

In 2015, a team of scientists managed to increase the contrast between the carbon ink and the carbon-based papyrus using X-ray Phase Contrast Tomography, and read Greek words along the outer papyrus, marking "a revolution for papyrologists". While researchers can identify certain words on the scrolls, the stories on the scrolls cannot yet be unlocked.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/fall-rise-fall-pompeii-180955732/|title=The Fall and Rise and Fall of Pompeii|last=Hammer|first=Joshua|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref>

===Boathouses and the Shore===

[[File:Herculaneum Bootshaeuser.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|"Boat houses" where skeletons were found]]
[[File:Ring Lady.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|right|The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum.]]
In 1980–82, excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on the ancient beach (just in front the city walls) and in the first six so-called "boat sheds".<ref>S. C. Bisel, "The skeletons of Herculaneum, Italy", in B. A. Purdy (ed.), Wet Site Archaeology, Caldwell, NJ, 1988, pp. 207–18</ref> Long before this finding, it was believed that the majority of the town's inhabitants had managed to flee, as only a few skeletons had been unearthed during the excavations. However, this discovery led to a shift in perspective. The last inhabitants waiting for rescue from the sea were probably killed instantly by the intense heat of the pyroclastic flow, despite being sheltered from direct impact. A study of victims' postures and the effects on their skeletons seemed to indicate that the first surge caused instant death as a result of fulminant shock due to a temperature of about {{convert|500|°C|°F|-1}}. Extreme heat caused hands and feet to contract and perhaps fractured bones and teeth.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mastrolorenzo | first1 = G. | last2 = Petrone | first2 = P.P. | last3 = Pagano | first3 = M. | last4 = Incoronato | first4 = A. | last5 = Baxter | first5 = P.J. | last6 = Canzanella | first6 = A. | last7 = Fattore | first7 = L.  | year = 2001 | title = Herculaneum Victims of Vesuvius in AD 79 | journal = Nature | volume = 410 | issue = 6830| pages = 769–770 |bibcode = 2001Natur.410..769M | doi=10.1038/35071167 | pmid=11298433| s2cid = 205015839 }}</ref>

After a period of finds being mismanaged and deterioration of skeletons,<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (2011). ''Herculaneum: Past and Future''. p. 126 {{ISBN|978-0-7112-3142-9}}</ref> further excavations in the 1990s uncovered 296 skeletons huddled in 9 of the 12 stone vaults facing the sea and on the beach. While the town was almost completely evacuated, these people found themselves trapped. The "Ring Lady" (see image), named for the rings on her fingers, was discovered there in 1982.

Eventually, 340 bodies were identified in this area.<ref>Martyn, R. et al. (2020). A re-evaluation of manner of death at Roman Herculaneum following the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius. Antiquity, 94(373), 76-91. doi:10.15184/aqy.2019.215</ref> Analyses of the skeletons suggest it was mainly men who died on the beach, while women and children sheltered and died in the boat houses.

Recent chemical analyses of the remains provided further insights into the health and nutrition of Herculaneum's population. Stable isotope analysis of bone samples from 17 individuals (11 men and 6 women) revealed the men ate 1.6 times more fish than the women, who consumed more meat, eggs, and dairy; this fits into the wider dietary trend from Herculaneum and Roman Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soncin |first1=Silvia |last2=Talbot |first2=Helen M. |last3=Fernandes |first3=Ricardo |last4=Harris |first4=Alison |last5=von Tersch |first5=Matthew |last6=Robson |first6=Harry K. |last7=Bakker |first7=Jan K. |last8=Richter |first8=Kristine K. |last9=Alexander |first9=Michelle |last10=Ellis |first10=Steven |last11=Thompson |first11=Gill |last12=Amoretti |first12=Valeria |last13=Osanna |first13=Massimo |last14=Caso |first14=Marina |last15=Sirano |first15=Francesco |last16=Fattore |first16=Luciano |last17=Colonese |first17=Andre C. |last18=Garnsey |first18=Peter |last19=Bondioli |first19=Luca |last20=Craig |first20=Oliver E. |title=High-resolution dietary reconstruction of victims of the 79 CE Vesuvius eruption at Herculaneum by compound-specific isotope analysis |journal=Science Advances |date=27 August 2021 |volume=7 |issue=35 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abg5791 |pmid=34433561 |pmc=8386925 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354139966 |access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref>

Casts of skeletons were also produced to replace the original bones after [[Earth:Taphonomy|taphonomic]] study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved due to the rapid vaporisation and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500&nbsp;°C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed in chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples.<ref>{{Cite book|title=I fuggiaschi di Ercolano. Paleobiologia delle vittime dell' eruzione vesuviana del 79 d.C.|last=Capasso|first=Luigi|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider|year=2001|location=Rome}}</ref>

Of exceptional interest is the recent analysis of one of the skeletons (n. 26) discovered in 1982 on the beach next to a boat (on display in the boat pavilion). The remains belong to a military officer (with an elaborate dagger and belt), who was perhaps involved in a rescue mission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/cultura/arte/2021/05/09/ercolano-riscopre-lufficiale-di-plinio-il-vecchio-mori-per-aiutare_c6906a62-5972-4791-b355-bbcd0267c1f6.html|title=Ercolano riscopre l'ufficiale di Plinio il Vecchio, morì per aiutare - Arte|date=9 May 2021}}</ref>

New digs beginning in 2021 will seek to uncover the ancient beach's western side, where additional skeletons may be discovered.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wantedinrome.com/news/herculaneum-to-unearth-ancient-beach-buried-for-nearly-2000-years.html|title = Herculaneum to unearth ancient beach buried for nearly 2,000 years|date = 28 January 2021}}</ref>

==Issues of conservation==

[[File:Ercolano.JPG|thumb|Herculaneum, Ercolano, and Vesuvius]]

The volcanic ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1,600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was exacerbated by earlier excavation practices, which generally focused on valuable [[Social:Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] rather than preserving the archaeological value of the site. Preservation of the skeletal remains became a top priority only in the early 1980s, under the direction of Sara C. Bisel.

Intensive tourism, vandalism, substandard management, and political ineptitude contributed to the deterioration of numerous sites and buildings. Numerous building foundations have been weakened by water damage caused by modern Ercolano.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} Reconstruction initiatives have often proved counterproductive. However, recent conservation efforts have had greater success. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued to direct all funding to conservation programs.

A large number of [[Social:Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] from Herculaneum are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum.

=== Modern conservation ===
After years of mismanagement, Herculaneum fell into a dire state. However, in 2001, the Packard Humanities Institute began the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a private–public partnership initially set to provide financial aid to local authorities addressing critical issues. The program eventually shifted to include providing skilled expert support and formulating a long-term plan for the site. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has been involved in pilot conservation projects and has partnered with the British School at Rome for training students to maintain the site.<ref>{{Cite conference|conference=Vesuviana: archeologie a confronto|last=Wallace-Hadrill|first=Andrew|title=The Herculaneum Conservation Project: an introduction|year=2008|location=Bologna|url=https://www.academia.edu/28785496|language=en}}</ref>

One of the pilot projects started by the Conservation Project was on the ''[[Engineering:Tablinum|tablinum]]'' that had been conserved by Maiuri's team in 1938. Over time water had seeped into the wall causing the paint to attach to the previously applied wax and curl away from the wall, stripping it of its colour. However, after working in tandem with the Getty Museum, conservators have created a technique where solvents are used to remove some of the wax and lessen the buildup on the walls so that the paint no longer chips off.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/33_2/gcinews04.html|title=Herculaneum Project|website=www.getty.edu|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref>

==Photos==
<gallery>
File:Ercolano 2003.jpg|House Number 22 is noted for this outstanding summer ''triclinium'' with a ''[[Earth:Nymphaeum|nymphaeum]]'' decorated with coloured mosaics.
File:Neptune Amphitrite mosaic Herculaneum.jpg|Herculaneum, Neptune and Salacia, wall mosaic in House Number 22
File:Roman Road Surface at Herculaneum.jpg|Street paving stones in Herculaneum
File:Water Pipe In Herculaneum.jpg|Residential water pipe made of lead in Herculaneum
File:Herculaneum Wall 1.Style.jpg|Wall paintings in the ''first style''
File:Herculaneum Floor.jpg|Inlaid marble floor
File:Marcus-Nonius-Balbus-The-Elder-Resina-1908-Barker-Herculaneum.jpg|Marcus Nonius Balbus, found in dwellings of Resina/Herculaneum.
File:Posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from Herculaneum, Italy.jpg|Most likely a posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal diadem and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, mid-1st century AD<ref>{{citation|last1=Walker|first1=Susan|last2=Higgs|first2=Peter|editor-surname1=Walker|editor-given1=Susan|editor-surname2=Higgs|editor-given2=Peter|title=Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth|location=Princeton, N.J.|chapter=Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile|publisher=Princeton University Press (British Museum Press)|year=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/314 314–315]|isbn=9780691088358|postscript=.|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/314}}</ref><ref>Fletcher, Joann (2008). ''Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend''. New York: Harper. {{ISBN|978-0-06-058558-7}}, image plates and captions between pp. 246-247.</ref>
File:Runners MAN Napoli Inv5626-7 n02.jpg|Bronze sculptures of runners from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, now in the Naples National Archaeological Museum
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
{{cols|colwidth=26em}}
* A 1987 ''National Geographic'' special, ''In the Shadow of Vesuvius'', explored the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
* The 2002 documentary "Herculaneum. An unlucky escape" <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.doclab.it/produzioni.php|title=Pagina non trovata • DocLab|access-date=4 October 2010|archive-date=1 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301110526/http://www.doclab.it/produzioni.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> is based on research of Pier Paolo Petrone, Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and Mario Pagano. Co-production of DocLab Rome, Discovery Channel USA, France 3 – Taxi Brousse, Spiegel TV, Mediatred, 52'.
* A 2004 documentary "Pompeii and the 79 AD eruption". TBS Channel Tokyo Broadcasting System, 120'.
* An hour-long drama produced for the BBC entitled ''Pompeii: The Last Day'' portrays several characters (with historically attested names but fictional stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060603115005/http://www.five.tv/programmes/revealed/pompeii/ Pompeii Live], Channel 5, 28 June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
* Marcellino de Baggis' 2007 documentary "Herculaneum: Diaries of Darkness and Light", Onionskin productions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Herculaneum: DVD: Diaries of Light and Darkness|via=WorldCat|publisher=Online Computer Library Center, Inc.|oclc=277147385}}</ref>
* The 2007 documentary "Troja ist überall: Auferstehung am Vesuv", Spiegel TV, 43'29.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://terra-x.zdf.de/ZDFde/inhalt/3/0,1872,7122307,00.html|title = Terra X Dokumentationen und Kurzclips}}</ref>
* "Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered"<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/previous_seasons/case_herculaneum/ Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered]</ref> is a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum.
* "Out of the Ashes: Recovering the Lost Library of Herculaneum"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://creativeworks.byu.edu/catalog/ViewItem.aspx?item=UC002 |title=Out of the Ashes: Recovering the Lost Library of Herculaneum |access-date=6 October 2011 |archive-date=25 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425122337/http://creativeworks.byu.edu/catalog/ViewItem.aspx?item=UC002 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a KBYU-TV documentary that traces the history of the Herculaneum papyri from the time of the eruption to their discovery in 1752 to modern developments that impact their study.
* "The Other Pompeii: Life and Death in Herculaneum"<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01rrld8 The Other Pompeii: Life and Death in Herculaneum]</ref> is a documentary presented by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, director of Herculaneum Conservation Project.
* "Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time"<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01rn6c2 Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time]</ref> is a 2013 BBC One drama documentary presented by Margaret Mountford.
* "Pompeii: The New Revelations" was broadcast on UK TV channel 5 in 2021.
* "Unearthed: Vesuvius' Secret Victim." Documents the city of Herculaneum and the lives of its people. It revealed that over 1,000 people of Herculaneum's 5,000 citizens had survived the eruption and were resettled in Naples and Cumae.
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{cols|colwidth=26em}}
* Brennan, B.  2018.''Herculaneum A Roman Town Reborn.'' Sydney: Ancient History Seminars.
* Brennan, B.  2012. ''Herculaneum A Sourcebook.''  Sydney: Ancient History Seminars.
*Burlot, Delphine. (2011). The Disegni intagliati: A forgotten book illustrating the first discoveries at Herculaneum, ''Journal of the History of Collections''. V. 23, (May):15–28.
* Capasso, L.  2001. ''I fuggiaschi di Ercolano. Paleobiologia delle vittime dell' eruzione vesuviana del 79 d.C.'' Roma: L'Erma di Bretschneider
* Daehner, J., ed. 2007. ''The Herculaneum Women: History, Context, Identities.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
* De Carolis, E., and G. Patricelli. 2003. ''Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
* Deiss, J. J. 1995. ''The Town of Hercules: A Buried Treasure Trove.'' Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum.

* Lazer, E. 2009. ''Resurrecting Pompeii.'' London: Routledge.
* Pace, S. 2000. ''Herculaneum and European Culture Between the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.'' Naples, Italy: Electa.
* Pagano, M. 2000. ''Herculaneum: A Reasoned Archaeological Itinerary.'' Translated by A. Pesce. Naples, Italy: T&M.
* Pagano, M., and A. Balasco. 2000. ''The Ancient Theatre of Herculaneum.'' Translated by C. Fordham. Naples, Italy: Electa.
* Pirozzi, M. E. A. 2000. ''Herculaneum: The Excavations, Local History and Surroundings.'' Naples, Italy : Electa.
* Scarth, A. 2009. ''Vesuvius: A Biography.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
* Wallace-Hadrill, A. 2011. "The Monumental Centre of Herculaneum: In Search of the Identities of the Public Buildings." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 24:121–160.
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* National Geographic, Vol 162, No. 6. ''Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead,'' (December, 1982)
* National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. ''The Dead Do Tell Tales,'' (May, 1984)
* Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No. 10. ''The Bone Lady'' (October, 1984)
* The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No. 2. ''An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at Herculaneum,'' (April, 1983)
* Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No. 2. ''Bone Lady Reconstructs People at Herculaneum,'' Winter, 1985
* ''In the Shadow of Vesuvius'' National Geographic Special, (11 February 1987)
* ''30 years of National Geographic Special,'' (25 January 1995)
* Petrone P.P., Fedele F. (a cura di), 2002. ''Vesuvio 79 A.D. Vita e morte ad Ercolano,'' Fridericiana Editrice Universitaria, Napoli.
* Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Gangemi, Roma, 2008.
* National Geographic, Vol 212, No. 3. ''Vesuvius. Asleep for Now,'' (September, 2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080409084555/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/vesuvius/vesuvius-text]
{{Refend}}

==Resources==
* [[Biography:Pliny the Younger|Pliny the Younger]]'s letters on the catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. to the Roman historian Tacitus from University of Arizona: [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~afutrell/404b/web%20rdgs/pliny%20on%20vesuvius.htm Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16 and 6.20 to Cornelius Tacitus] and in [[Project Gutenberg]]: [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2811/2811-h/2811-h.htm#link2H_4_0065 Letter LXV – To Tacitus], [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2811/2811-h/2811-h.htm#link2H_4_0066 Letter LXVI – To Cornelius Tacitus]

==External links==
{{cols|colwidth=26em}}
{{Wikivoyage|Herculaneum}}
{{Commons|Ercolano}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Herculaneum
  |viaf= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* [http://ercolano.beniculturali.it/ The local archaeological authorities – Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003030810/http://ercolano.beniculturali.it/ |date=3 October 2017 }}
* [http://www.herculaneum.org/ Herculaneum Conservation Project – Official website]
* [http://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption AD 79: Year of Destruction]
* 62 Pompeii earthquake
* Herculaneum papyri
* [http://bloggingpompeii.blogspot.com/ Blogging Pompeii]
* [http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk The Friends of Herculaneum Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060830192610/http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/classics/philodemus/philhome.htm The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric.]
* [http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=43 Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls]
* [http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-011.html Herculaneum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225842/http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-011.html |date=7 June 2011 }} by Iain Dickson, 'Melvadius Macrinus Cugerni'
* [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/episodes/herculaneum-uncovered/108/ Herculaneum Uncovered]  Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead
* {{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/432873 |title=Places: 432873 (Herculaneum) |author=Purcell, N., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies |date=23 November 2020 |access-date=8 March 2012<!-- 9:30&nbsp;am -->|publisher=Pleiades}}
* [http://creadm.solent.ac.uk/custom/rwpainting/cover/index.html Romano-Campanian Wall-Painting (English, Italian, Spanish and French introduction)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307134958/http://creadm.solent.ac.uk/custom/rwpainting/cover/index.html |date=7 March 2011 }}
* [http://www.ideasroadshow.com/issues/andrew-wallace-hadrill-2013-06-07 "Herculaneum Uncovered – A conversation with Andrew Wallace-Hadrill"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325052612/http://www.ideasroadshow.com/issues/andrew-wallace-hadrill-2013-06-07 |date=25 March 2014 }}, ''Ideas Roadshow'', 2013
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
** "How was Herculaneum Destroyed?" in ''Popular Science Monthly'', Volume 2 (December 1872)
** {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Herculaneum|year=1905|short=x |noicon=x}}
** {{Cite Nuttall|title=Herculaneum|short=x |noicon=x}}
** ; contains a plan of Villa Ercolanese
}}
{{colend}}


[[Category:Heracles]]

{{Sourceattribution|Herculaneum}}