View source for Religion:Islam and democracy

{{Short description|Overview of Islamic views on democratic practices}}
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{{Democracy}}

There exist a number of perspectives on the relationship of '''Islam and democracy''' among Islamic political theorists, the general Muslim public, and Western authors. Today, a number of Muslim-majority countries are Islamic yet secular democracies. {{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Many Muslim scholars have argued that traditional Islamic notions such as ''[[Religion:Shura|shura]]'' (consultation), ''[[Religion:Maslaha|maslaha]]'' (public interest), and ''[[Religion:Adl|ʿadl]]'' (justice) justify representative government institutions which are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values. Still others have advanced liberal democratic models of Islamic politics based on pluralism and freedom of thought.<ref name=OEIW /> Some Muslim thinkers have advocated [[Religion:Islam and secularism|secularist views of Islam]].<ref name=arda>{{cite web|publisher=Association of Religion Data Archives|title=Rethinking Islam and Secularism|first=John L.|last=Esposito|url=http://www.thearda.com/rrh/papers/guidingpapers/esposito.pdf|access-date=April 20, 2019|pages=13–15|archive-date=March 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329150639/http://www.thearda.com/rrh/papers/guidingpapers/esposito.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

A number of different attitudes regarding democracy are also represented among the general Muslim public, with polls indicating that majorities in the Muslim world desire a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Islam, seeing no contradiction between the two.<ref name=polls /><ref name=pew /><ref name=gallup />

==Traditional political concepts==
{{Main|Religion:Political aspects of Islam|Religion:Shura}}

===Quran===
Muslim democrats, including Ahmad Moussalli (professor of political science at the American University of Beirut), argue that concepts in the Quran point towards some form of democracy, or at least away from [[Social:Despotism|despotism]]. These concepts include ''[[Religion:Shura|shura]]'' (consultation), ''[[Religion:Ijma|ijma]]'' (consensus), ''al-hurriyya'' (freedom), ''al-huqquq al-shar'iyya'' (legitimate rights). For example, ''shura'' ([[Religion:Al Imran|Al Imran]] – Quran 3:159, Ash-Shura – Quran 42:38) may include electing leaders to represent and govern on the community's behalf. Government by the people is not therefore necessarily incompatible with the rule of Islam, whilst it has also been argued that rule by a religious authority is not the same as rule by a representative of God. This viewpoint, however, is disputed by more traditional Muslims. Moussalli argues that despotic Islamic governments have abused the Quranic concepts for their own ends: "For instance, shura, a doctrine that demands the participation of society in running the affairs of its government, became in reality a doctrine that was manipulated by political and religious elites to secure their economic, social and political interests at the expense of other segments of society," (In ''Progressive Muslims'' 2003).

===Sunni Islam===
Deliberations of the [[Religion:Caliphate|Caliphate]]s, most notably the Rashidun Caliphate, were not democratic in the modern sense rather, decision-making power lay with a council of notable and [[Religion:Sahabah|trusted companions]] of Muhammad and representatives of different tribes (most of them selected or elected within their tribes).

In the early Islamic Caliphate, the head of state, the Caliph, had a position based on the notion of a successor to Muhammad's political authority, who, according to Sunnis, was ideally elected by the people or their representatives,<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2004), vol. 1, p. 116–123.</ref> as was the case for the election of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Al Khattab, Uthman, and Ali as Caliph. After the [[Religion:Rashidun|Rashidun]] Caliphs, later Caliphates during the Islamic Golden Age had a much lesser degree of collective participation, but since "no one was superior to anyone else except on the basis of piety and virtue" in Islam, and following the example of Muhammad, later Islamic rulers often held public consultations with the people in their affairs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weeramantry |first=Christopher G. |date=1997 |title=Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights |publisher=Kluwer Law International |location=The Hague |pages=135 |isbn=90-411-0241-8}}</ref>

The legislative power of the Caliph (or later, the [[Religion:Sultan|Sultan]]) was always restricted by the scholarly class, the ''[[Religion:Ulama|ulama]]'', a group regarded as the guardians of Islamic law. Since the law came from the legal scholars, this prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results. Sharia rulings were established as authoritative based on the ''[[Religion:Ijma|ijma]]'' (consensus) of legal scholars, who theoretically acted as representatives of the [[Religion:Ummah|Ummah]] (Muslim community).<ref name=Feldman2008>{{cite news |last=Feldman |first=Noah |date=March 16, 2008 |title=Why Shariah? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?&pagewanted=all |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-10-05 |archive-date=December 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211171453/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After law colleges (''[[Engineering:Madrasa|madrasa]]s'') became widespread beginning with the 11th and 12th century CE, a student often had to obtain an ''[[Engineering:Ijazah|ijaza-t al-tadris wa-l-ifta]]'' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in order to issue legal rulings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=George |date=April–June 1989 |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 [175–77] |doi=10.2307/604423|jstor=604423}}</ref> In many ways, classical Islamic law functioned like a constitutional law.<ref name=Feldman2008 />

Bangladeshi Islamic scholar Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir said in a scholarly interview about Islam and democracy that,
{{blockquote|Sovereignty means ownership. This is simple that sovereign means owner. For example, I am the owner of this land which is true. I can erect building here, I can demolish it, I can make partition, and I can sell it. I have this ownership. Again, this land belongs to Allah. This is also true. And the fact is, according to Islam, with this land I can do many things, but I cannot make a brothel here. People's ownership is limited; Allah's ownership is the supreme over all other sovereigns. My ownership is worldly, and if I put it over Allah's ownership, I will be offender to Allah. In the same vein, people are the owner of the country, it is a simple word. Those who say it is anti-Islamic to say people are sovereign and they are the source of all powers, I do not agree with them. Here by power, it does not mean power regarding storm-rain, or disease, it means the power of ministers, prime minister and above all state power. This power actually belongs to people. In Islam, power will be attained by the consent of the people. If in a society the chiefs of tribes consent and the mass people agree to it, it is ok, this is democracy. People's participation and share is mandatory in Islam which is democracy. Therefore, people are the owner of the state, and people are the source of power is not contradictory to Islam. However, if anyone thinks this ownership means that anyone can do anything; can make a haram (prohibited) a halal (legitimate), and a halal a haram, then obviously it is anti-Islamic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Islam |first1=Md Nazrul |last2=Islam |first2=Md Saidul |title=Islam and Democracy in South Asia: The Case of Bangladesh |date=20 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-42909-6 |page=87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ci3YDwAAQBAJ&dq=quote%7CSovereignty+means+ownership.+This+is+simple+that+sovereign+means+owner.+For+example,+I+am+the+owner+of+this+land+which+is+true.+I+can+erect+building+here,+I+can+demolish+it,+I+can+make+partition,+and+I+can+sell+it.+I+have+this+ownership.+Again,+this+land+belongs+to+Allah.+This+is+also+true.+And+the+fact+is,+according+to+Islam,+with+this+land+I+can+do+many+things,+but+I+cannot+make+a+brothel+here.+People%E2%80%99s+ownership+is+limited;+Allah%E2%80%99s+ownership+is+the+supreme+over+all+other+sovereigns.+My+ownership+is+worldly,+and+if+I+put+it+over+Allah%E2%80%99s+ownership,+I+will+be+offender+to+Allah.+In+the+same+vein,+people+are+the+owner+of+the+country,+it+is+a+simple+word.+Those+who+say+it+is+anti-Islamic+to+say+people+are+sovereign+and+they+are+the+source+of+all+powers,+I+do+not+agree+with+them.+Here+by+power,+it+does+not+mean+power+regarding+storm-rain,+or+disease,+it+means+the+power+of+ministers,+prime+minister+and+above+all+state+power.+This+power+actually+belongs+to+people.+In+Islam,+power+will+%E2%80%A6&pg=PA87 |access-date=25 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref>}}

====Salafi view====
Salafi scholars opine that democracy is [[Religion:Haram|haram]] in Islam,<ref>{{cite web |title=Concept of democracy in Islam - Islam Question & Answer |url=https://www.islamqa.info/en/answers/98134 |website=islamqa.info |access-date=4 August 2022 |language=en |date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=April 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428233423/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/98134/concept-of-democracy-in-islam |url-status=live }}</ref> but they legitimize the opportunity to use democracy to come to power and to vote to establish Islamic rule<ref>{{cite web |title=Ruling on democracy and elections and participating in that system - Islam Question & Answer |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/107166/ruling-on-democracy-and-elections-and-participating-in-that-system |website=islamqa.info |access-date=4 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=August 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804001043/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/107166/ruling-on-democracy-and-elections-and-participating-in-that-system |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ruling on democracy and elections |url=https://en.islamway.net/amp/article/13847/ruling-on-democracy-and-elections |website=en.islamway.net |access-date=4 August 2022 |date=21 December 2012 |archive-date=March 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319195058/https://en.islamway.net/amp/article/13847/ruling-on-democracy-and-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> and encourage voting to choose the better between evils, among these scholars are Shaykh Abd al-Aziz bin Baz, Shaykh Muhammad ibn Uthaymeen, Abdullah al-Ghudayyan, Abdullah Quyud, Abdur Razzaq Afifi, Senior Scholars of Saudi Arabia: [[Religion:Grand Mufti|Grand Mufti]] Shaykh Abdul Aziz Ash-Shaikh, Shaykh Abdul Muhsin Al-Abbad, Shaykh Wasiullah Abbas and Saudi Arabia's most senior fatwa panel of scholars, "Permanent Committee for Scholarly Research and Ifta", all echoed similar calls to encourage Muslims to vote.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Scholars Urge Western Muslims to Vote: Saudi Arabia {{!}} MWJ |journal=Muslim World Journal |date=4 May 2015 |url=https://www.muslimworldjournal.com/scholars-urge-western-muslims-to-vote-saudi-arabia/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-date=October 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010190359/https://www.muslimworldjournal.com/scholars-urge-western-muslims-to-vote-saudi-arabia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir in his book ("Hadiser Namey Jaliyati") (Forgery in the Name of Hadith) says about the interpretation of Hadith of democratic Islamist parties about Islamic politics,
{{blockquote|A variation of lying in the name of hadith is to add or omit something from the translation without doing a literal translation or making the interpretation of what the Prophet (ﷺ) said a part of the hadith. Almost all of us in our society are involved in this crime.  For self-purification, Pir-Muridi, Dawat-Tabligh, politics, etc., we provide evidence from Quran and Hadith to people of every group and opinion.  Providing such evidence is a very natural act and demand of faith. But usually we run this explanation in the name of Rasulullah (ﷺ). For example, Rasulullah (ﷺ) governed the state, but did not do 'party politics' in the traditional sense, i.e. did not do anything like change of power through voting. Currently many scholars are doing democratic 'politics'. It is accepted as a new method of enjoining justice, forbidding injustice or Iqamat Deen.  But if we say that, 'Rasulullah (ﷺ) did politics', then the listener or reader will understand the conventional meaning of 'politics', i.e. the seizure of power through voting. And he did not do this politics. As a result, lies will be told in his name. That is why we should tell separately what he did and said and what we are interpreting<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hadithbd.com/books/link/?id=4644 | title=৬. ৩. অনুবাদে, ব্যাখ্যায় ও গবেষণায় মিথ্যা | access-date=November 26, 2022 | archive-date=October 23, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023203158/https://www.hadithbd.com/books/link/?id=4644 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jahangir |first1=Khandaker Abdullah |title=হাদীসের নামে জালিয়াতি: প্রচলিত মিথ্যা হাদীস ও ভিত্তিহীন কথা (Forgery in the name of Hadith: common false hadith and baseless words) |date=September 2010 |publisher=As-Sunnah Publications |location=Jhenaidah, Bangladesh |page=84 |edition=4th |url=https://d1.islamhouse.com/data/bn/ih_books/single2/bn_Hadis_er_nam_e_jaliyati.pdf |access-date=24 November 2022 |language=bn |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308074538/https://d1.islamhouse.com/data/bn/ih_books/single2/bn_Hadis_er_nam_e_jaliyati.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jahangir |first1=Khandaker Abdullah |title=হাদীসের নামে জালিয়াতি: প্রচলিত মিথ্যা হাদীস ও ভিত্তিহীন কথা (Forgery in the name of Hadith: common false hadith and baseless words) |date=April 2017 |publisher=As-Sunnah Publications |location=Jhenaidah, Bangladesh |page=184 |edition=5th|isbn= 978-984-90053-3-9|language=bn}}</ref>}}

===Shia Islam===
According to the Shia understanding, Muhammad named as his successor (as leader, with Muhammad being the final prophet), his son-in-law, and cousin [[Biography:Ali|Ali]]. Therefore, the first three of the four elected "Rightly Guided" Caliphs recognized by Sunnis (Ali being the fourth), are considered usurpers, notwithstanding their having been "elected" through some sort of conciliar deliberation (which the Shia do not accept as a representative of the Muslim society of that time). The largest Shia grouping—the [[Religion:Twelver|Twelver]]s branch—recognizes a series of Twelve Imams, the last of which (Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Hidden Imam) is still alive and the Shia are waiting for his "reappearance".

==Theoretical perspectives on democracy==

===Al-Farabi===
The early Islamic philosopher, [[Biography:Al-Farabi|Al-Farabi]] (c. 872–950), in one of his most notable works ''Al-Madina al-Fadila'', theorized an ideal Islamic state which he compared to [[Biography:Plato|Plato]]'s ''The Republic''.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-natural |title=Arabic and Islamic Natural Philosophy and Natural Science |website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2018 |access-date=December 17, 2008 |archive-date=August 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802102546/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-natural/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Al-Farabi departed from the [[Philosophy:Platonism|Platonic]] view in that he regarded the ideal state to be ruled by the prophet, instead of the [[Philosophy:Philosopher king|philosopher king]] envisaged by Plato. Al-Farabi argued that the ideal state was the [[Earth:City-state|city-state]] of [[Place:Medina|Medina]] when it was governed by Muhammad, as its [[Social:Head of state|head of state]], as he was in direct communion with God whose law was revealed to him. In the absence of the prophet, Al-Farabi considered democracy as the closest to the ideal state, regarding the republican order of the [[Place:Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphate]] as an example within early [[Religion:History of Islam|Muslim history]]. However, he also maintained that it was from democracy that imperfect states emerged, noting how the republican order of the early Islamic Caliphate of the Rashidun caliphs was later replaced by a form of government resembling a monarchy under the [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bontekoe |first1=Ronald |last2=Stepaniants |first2=Mariėtta Tigranovna |date=1997 |title=Justice and Democracy: Cross-Cultural Perspectives |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=251 |isbn=0-8248-1926-8}}</ref>

===Varieties of modern Islamic theories===
Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:<ref name=OEIW>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Muslih|first1=Muhammad|last2=Browers|first2=Michaelle|title= Democracy |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611235451/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0185|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 11, 2017}}</ref>
* The rejectionist Islamic view, elaborated by Sayyid Qutb and [[Biography:Abul A'la Maududi|Abul A'la Maududi]], condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between Western democracy and the Islamic doctrine of ''shura'' (consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of sharia, was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an Islamic state, but its popularity has diminished in recent years.
* The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of ''[[Religion:Maslaha|maslaha]]'' (public interest), ''[[Religion:Adl|ʿadl]]'' (justice), and ''shura'' (consultation). Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through ''shura''. In this view, ''shura'' provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values. Hasan al-Turabi, Rashid al-Ghannushi, and Yusuf al-Qaradawi have advocated different forms of this view.
* The liberal Islamic view is influenced by [[Biography:Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad Abduh]]'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses democratic principles based on pluralism and freedom of thought. Authors like Fahmi Huwaidi and Tariq al-Bishri have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like [[Biography:Mohammed Arkoun|Mohammed Arkoun]] and Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation. [[Biography:Abdolkarim Soroush|Abdolkarim Soroush]] has argued for a "religious democracy" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic context.

===Secularist views===
{{main|Religion:Islam and secularism}}

In the modern history of the Muslim world, the notion of secularism has acquired strong negative connotations due to its association with foreign colonial domination and the removal of religious values from the public sphere. Traditional Islamic theory distinguishes between matters of religion (''[[Religion:Din (Arabic)|din]]'') and state (''dawla''), but insists that political authority and public life must be guided by religious values.<ref name=odi>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014}}</ref> Some Islamic reformists like Ali Abdel Raziq and Mahmoud Mohammed Taha have advocated a secular state in the sense of political order that does not impose any single interpretation of [[Religion:Sharia|sharia]] on the nation, though they did not advocate secularism in the sense of a morally neutral exercise of state power. The Islamic scholar Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im has argued for a secular state built on constitutionalism, human rights and full citizenship, seeking to demonstrate that his vision is more consistent with Islamic history than visions of an Islamic state.<ref name=arda /> Proponents of [[Religion:Islamism|Islamism]] ([[Religion:Political Islam|political Islam]]) reject secularist views that would limit Islam to a matter of personal belief and insist on implementation of Islamic principles in the legal and political spheres.<ref name=odi/> Moreover, the concept of 'Separation of Powers' was propounded by [[Biography:Ruhollah Khomeini|Ruhollah Khomeini]].

===Muhammad Iqbal===
The modern [[Religion:Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosopher]], [[Biography:Muhammad Iqbal|Muhammad Iqbal]], viewed the early Islamic Caliphate as being compatible with democracy. He "welcomed the formation of popularly elected legislative assemblies" in the Muslim world as a "return to the original purity of Islam." He argued that Islam had the "gems of an economic and democratic organization of society", but that this growth was stunted by the monarchist rule of Umayyad Caliphate, which established the Caliphate as a great Islamic empire but led to [[Religion:Political aspects of Islam|political Islamic]] ideals being "[[Religion:Paganism|repaganized]]" and the early Muslims losing sight of the "most important potentialities of their faith."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bontekoe |first1=Ronald |last2=Stepaniants |first2=Mariėtta Tigranovna |date=1997 |title=Justice and Democracy: Cross-Cultural Perspectives |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |page=253 |isbn=0-8248-1926-8}}</ref>

===Muhammad Asad===
Another Muslim scholar and thinker, [[Biography:Muhammad Asad|Muhammad Asad]], viewed democracy as perfectly compatible with Islam. In his book ''The Principles of State and Government in Islam'', he notes:
<blockquote>Viewed from this historical perspective, 'democracy' as conceived in the modern West is infinitely nearer to the Islamic than to the ancient Greek concept of liberty; for Islam maintains that all human beings are socially equal and must, therefore, be given the same opportunities for development and self-expression. On the other hand, Islam makes it incumbent upon Muslims to subordinate their decisions to the guidance of the Divine Law revealed in the Qur'ãn and exemplified by the Prophet: an obligation which imposes definite limits on the community's right to legislate and denies to the 'will of the people' that attribute of sovereignty which forms so integral a part of the Western concept of democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.honestthinking.org/en/quotes.html|title=HonestThinking - Quotes|website=www.honestthinking.org|access-date=July 19, 2013|archive-date=July 18, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718185801/http://www.honestthinking.org/en/quotes.html|url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

===Abul A'la Maududi===
Islamist writer and politician [[Biography:Abul A'la Maududi|Abul A'la Maududi]], conceived of an "Islamic state" that would eventually "rule the earth".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maududi|first1=Sayyid Abdul al'al|title=Political Theory of Islam|date=1960|publisher=Islamic Publications|location=Lahore, Pakistan|page=35|edition=1993|quote=the power to rule over the earth has been promised to ''the whole community of believers''. [italics original]}}</ref> The antithesis of secular Western democracy, it would follow an all-embracing Sharia law. Maududi called the system he outlined a "theo-democracy", which he argued would be different from a [[Social:Theocracy|theocracy]] as the term is understood in the Christian West, because it would be run by the entire Muslim community (pious Muslims who followed sharia), rather than ruled by a clerical class in the name of God.<ref name=OEIW /><ref>{{cite book |last=Ullah |first=Haroon K. |date=2013 |title=Vying for Allah's Vote: Understanding Islamic Parties, Political Violence, and Extremism in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luiVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |page=79 |isbn=978-1-62616-015-6 |quote="Maududi proposed forming a Muslim theodemocracy in which Islamic law would guide public policy in all areas of life. (Maududi specifically rejected the term 'theocracy' to describe his ideal state, arguing that the truly Islamic state would be ruled not by the ''ulema'' but by the entire Muslim community.)"}}</ref>

Maududi's vision has been criticized (by Youssef M. Choueiri) as an
<blockquote>ideological state in which legislators do not legislate, citizens only vote to reaffirm the permanent applicability of God's laws, women rarely venture outside their homes lest social discipline be disrupted, and non-Muslims are tolerated as foreign elements required to express their loyalty by means of paying a financial levy.<ref>Choueiri, p.111, quoted in {{cite book|last1=Ruthven|first1=Malise|title=Islam in the World|date=2000|publisher=Penguin|page=70|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Choueiri |first=Youssef M. |date=2010 |title=Islamic Fundamentalism: The Story of Islamist Movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgmc35nCzjIC&pg=PA144 |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Continuum |page=144 |isbn=978-0-8264-9801-4}}</ref></blockquote>

===L. Ali Khan===
Legal scholar L. Ali Khan argues that Islam is fully compatible with democracy. In his book, ''A Theory of Universal Democracy'', Khan provides a critique of liberal democracy and secularism. He presents the concept of "fusion state" in which religion and state are fused. There are no contradictions in [[Religion:God in Islam|God's]] universe, says Khan. Contradictions represent the limited knowledge that human beings have. According to the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]] and the [[Religion:Sunnah|Sunnah]], Muslims are fully capable of preserving spirituality and self-rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/wilj/abstracts/161.htm |title=Abstracts: A Theory of Universal Democracy |website=University of Wisconsin Law School |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006135755/http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/wilj/abstracts/161.htm |archive-date=2011-10-06 |access-date=2014-11-03}}</ref>

===Javed Ahmed Ghamdi===
Religious scholar, [[Biography:Javed Ahmad Ghamidi|Javed Ahmed Ghamdi]] interprets the Quranic verses as <nowiki>''</nowiki>The collective affairs of Muslims are run on the basis of mutual consultations<nowiki>''</nowiki> (42:37).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.al-mawrid.org/index.php/articles/view/is-democracy-compatible-with-islam|title=Is Democracy Compatible with Islam? {{!}} Javed Ahmad Ghamidi|website=www.al-mawrid.org|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=September 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923223056/http://www.al-mawrid.org/index.php/articles/view/is-democracy-compatible-with-islam|url-status=live}}</ref> He is of the view that all the matters of a Muslim state must be sought out through consultations.The parliamentary bodies would provide that platform to practice and implement those consultations.

==Views of the general Muslim public==
Esposito and DeLong-Bas distinguish four attitudes toward Islam and democracy prominent among Muslims today:<ref>{{cite book|first1=John L.|last1=Esposito|first2=Natana J.|last2=DeLong-Bas|title=Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|pages=142–143}}</ref>
* Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the [[Social:Arab Spring|Arab Spring]] uprisings;
* Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like Yusuf al-Qaradawi;
* Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as [[Religion:Shura|shura]] (consultation) and [[Religion:Ijma|ijma]] (consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements;
* Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.

Polls conducted by Gallup and PEW in Muslim-majority countries indicate that most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a theocracy, nor a secular democracy, but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Islam.<ref name=polls>{{cite book|first1=John L.|last1=Esposito|first2=Natana J.|last2=DeLong-Bas|title=Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|page=145}}</ref><ref name=pew>{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|title=Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life|date=July 10, 2012|url=https://www.pewglobal.org/2012/07/10/most-muslims-want-democracy-personal-freedoms-and-islam-in-political-life/|access-date=April 20, 2019|archive-date=April 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417133154/https://www.pewglobal.org/2012/07/10/most-muslims-want-democracy-personal-freedoms-and-islam-in-political-life/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gallup>{{cite web|website=Gallup|title=Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible|date=Oct 3, 2017|first1=Magali|last1=Rheault|first2=Dalia|last2=Mogahed|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/28762/majorities-muslims-americans-see-religion-law-compatible.aspx|access-date=April 20, 2019|archive-date=August 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812164738/https://news.gallup.com/poll/28762/majorities-muslims-americans-see-religion-law-compatible.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Islam and democracy in practice==

===Obstacles===
There are several ideas on the relationship between Islam in the Middle East and democracy. Waltz writes that transformations to democracy seemed on the whole to pass by the Islamic Middle East at a time when such transformations were a central theme in other parts of the world, although she does note that, of late, the increasing number of elections being held in the region indicates some form of adoption of democratic traditions.<ref>Waltz, S.E., 1995, ''Human Rights & Reform: Changing the Face of North African Politics'', London, University of California Press Ltd</ref>

Following the [[Social:Arab Spring|Arab Spring]], professor [[Biography:Olivier Roy (professor)|Olivier Roy]] of the [[Organization:European University Institute|European University Institute]] in an article in ''Foreign Policy'' has described [[Religion:Islamism|political Islam]] as "increasingly interdependent" with democracy, such that "neither can now survive without the other".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Roy |first=Olivier |date=April 16, 2012 |title=The New Islamists |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/16/the_new_islamists |magazine=Foreign Policy |access-date=March 7, 2017 |archive-date=October 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009193849/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/16/the_new_islamists |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Orientalist scholars offer another viewpoint on the relationship between Islam and [[Social:Democratization|democratisation]] in the Middle East. They argue that the compatibility is simply not there between secular democracy and Arab-Islamic culture in the Middle East which has a strong history of undemocratic beliefs and authoritarian power structures.<ref name="Weiffen2004" /> Kedourie, a well known Orientalist scholar, said for example: "to hold simultaneously ideas which are not easily reconcilable argues, then, a deep confusion in the Arab public mind, at least about the meaning of democracy. The confusion is, however, understandable since the idea of democracy is quite alien to the mind-set of Islam."<ref>Kedourie, E., 1994, ''Democracy and Arab Political Culture'', London, Frank Cass & Co Ltd, page 1</ref> A view similar to this that understands Islam and democracy to be incompatible because of seemingly irreconcilable differences between Sharia and democratic ideals is also held by some Islamists.

However, within Islam there are ideas held by some that believe Islam and democracy in some form are indeed compatible due to the existence of the concept of ''[[Religion:Shura|shura]]'' (meaning consultation) in the Quran. Views such as this have been expressed by various thinkers and political activists in the Middle East.<ref>Esposito, J. & Voll, J.,2001, Islam and Democracy, ''Humanities'', Volume 22, Issue 6</ref> They continue to be the subject of controversy, e.g. at the second Dubai Debates, which debated the question "Can Arab and Islamic values be reconciled with democracy?"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeFwArelc04 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/eeFwArelc04| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|title=Can Arab and Islamic values be reconciled with democracy?|work=YouTube |access-date=2014-11-03}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

====Brian Whitaker's 'four major obstacles'====
Writing on {{wipe|The Guardian}} website,<ref name="Guardian15Mar2004">{{cite news |last=Whitaker |first=Brian |date=March 15, 2004 |title=Beware instant democracy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,,1169776,00.html |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=2014-11-03}}</ref> Brian Whitaker, the paper's Middle East editor, argued that there were four major obstacles to democracy in the region: 'the [[Social:Colonialism|imperial legacy]]', 'oil wealth', 'the Arab–Israeli conflict' and {{single+double}}militant" Islam'.

The imperial legacy includes the borders of the modern states themselves and the existence of significant minorities within the states. Acknowledgment of these differences is frequently suppressed usually in the cause of "national unity" and sometimes to obscure the fact that minority elite is controlling the country. Brian Whitaker argues that this leads to the formation of political parties on ethnic, religious or regional divisions, rather than over policy differences. Voting therefore becomes an assertion of one's identity rather than a real choice.

The problem with [[Chemistry:Petroleum|oil]] and the wealth it generates is that the states' rulers have the wealth to remain in power, as they can pay off or repress most potential opponents. Brian Whitaker argues that as there is no need for taxation there is less pressure for representation. Furthermore, Western governments require a stable source of oil and are therefore more prone to maintain the status quo, rather than push for reforms which may lead to periods of instability. This can be linked into [[Finance:Political economy|political economy]] explanations for the occurrence of [[Social:Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] regimes and lack of democracy in the Middle East, particularly the prevalence of [[Social:Rentier state|rentier state]]s in the Middle East.<ref>Beblawi, H., 1990, The Rentier State in the Arab World, in Luciani, G., ''The Arab State'', London, Routledge</ref> A consequence of the lack of taxation that Whitaker talks of in such rentier economies is an inactive [[Social:Civil society|civil society]]. As civil society is seen to be an integral part of democracy it raises doubts over the feasibility of democracy developing in the Middle East in such situations.<ref name="Weiffen2004">{{cite journal |last=Weiffen |first=Britta |date=2004 |url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/john.ashworth/EPCS/Papers/Weiffen.pdf |title=The Cultural-Economic Syndrome: Impediments to Democracy in the Middle East |journal=Comparative Sociology |volume=3 |issue=3–4 |pages=353–375 |doi=10.1163/1569133043019780 |via=European Public Choice Society (EPCS) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306112042/http://www.dur.ac.uk/john.ashworth/EPCS/Papers/Weiffen.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-06}}</ref>

Whitaker's third point is that the Arab–Israeli conflict serves as a unifying factor for the countries of the Arab League, and also serves as an excuse for repression by Middle Eastern governments. For example, in March 2004 [[Religion:Sheikh|Sheikh]] Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanon]]'s leading Shia cleric, is reported as saying "We have emergency laws, we have control by the security agencies, we have stagnation of opposition parties, we have the appropriation of political rights – all this in the name of the Arab-Israeli conflict". The West, especially the US, is also seen as a supporter of [[Place:Israel|Israel]], and so it and its institutions, including democracy, are seen by many Muslims as suspect. Khaled Abou El Fadl, a lecturer in Islamic law at the [[Organization:University of California|University of California]] comments "modernity, despite its much scientific advancement, reached Muslims packaged in the ugliness of disempowerment and alienation."

This repression by [[Philosophy:Secularism|secularistic]] Arab rulers has led to the growth of radical Islamic movement groups, as they believe that the institution of an Islamic [[Social:Theocracy|theocracy]] will lead to a more just society. These groups tend to be very intolerant of alternative views however, including the ideas of democracy. Many Muslims who argue that Islam and democracy are compatible live in the West, and are therefore seen as "contaminated" by non-Islamic ideas.<ref name="Guardian15Mar2004" />

===Practice===
* The Green Algeria Alliance is an Islamist coalition of political parties, created for the legislative election, 2012 in Algeria. It consists of the Movement of Society for Peace, Islamic Renaissance Movement (Ennahda) and the Movement for National Reform (Islah).<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Slimani |first=Salah |date=May 10, 2012 |title=Islamists Predict Victory as Algerians Head to the Polls |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-05-10/islamists-predict-victory-as-algerians-head-to-the-polls |magazine=Bloomberg Businessweek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518082127/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-05-10/islamists-predict-victory-as-algerians-head-to-the-polls |archive-date=2012-05-18}}</ref> The alliance is led by Bouguerra Soltani of the MSP.<ref>{{cite news |date=May 7, 2012 |title=Algeria's Islamists confident of election victory |url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/algerias-islamists-confident-election-victory |publisher=RNW |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025141341/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/algerias-islamists-confident-election-victory |archive-date=2014-10-25}}</ref> However, the incumbent coalition, consisting of the FLN of President Abdelaziz Bouteflika and the RND of Prime Minister Ahmed Ouyahia, held on to power after winning a majority of seats and the Islamist parties of the Green Algeria Alliance lost seats in legislative election of 2012.<ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Schemm |date=May 11, 2012 |title=Algerian Islamists fall to govt party in election |url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-3113123ecd1d45dea53d5b125f0bae33.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109193226/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-3113123ecd1d45dea53d5b125f0bae33.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 9, 2016 |agency=Associated Press |via=[[Software:HighBeam Research|HighBeam Research]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Benoît |last=Faucon |date=May 11, 2012 |title=Algerian Ruling Party Beats Islamists in Vote |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304543904577398253928469254?mod=googlenews_wsj |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=August 8, 2017 |archive-date=October 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010092938/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304543904577398253928469254?mod=googlenews_wsj |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Shia Islamist Al Wefaq, Salafi Islamist Al Asalah and Sunni Islamist Al-Menbar Islamic Society are dominant democratic forces in Bahrain.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 15, 2011 |title=Guide to Bahrain's politics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/168471 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=December 11, 2016 |archive-date=February 5, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205103330/https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/168471 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* During the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan opposed the independence of Bangladesh, but established itself there as an independent political party, the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami after 1975. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party is the second largest party in the Parliament of Bangladesh and the main opposition party. The BNP promotes a center-right policy combining elements of conservatism, Islamism, nationalism and anti-communism. The party believes that Islam is an integral part of the socio-cultural life of Bangladesh, and favors Islamic principles and cultural views. Since 2000, it has been allied with the Islamic parties Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jote.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Riaz |first=Ali |date=2003 |title="God Willing": The Politics and Ideology of Islamism in Bangladesh |journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East |volume=23 |issue=1–2 |pages=301–320 |doi=10.1215/1089201X-23-1-2-301}}</ref>
* The Party of Democratic Action is the largest political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Party of Democratic Action was founded in May 1990 by reformist Islamist [[Biography:Alija Izetbegović|Alija Izetbegović]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3133038.stm |title=Obituary: Alija Izetbegovic |publisher=BBC |date=October 19, 2003 |access-date=2010-01-01 |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107121726/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3133038.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> representing the conservative Bosniaks and other Slavic Muslim population in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the former [[Place:Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Binder |first=David |date=October 20, 2003 |title=Alija Izetbegović, Muslim Who Led Bosnia, Dies at 78 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/20/world/alija-izetbegovic-muslim-who-led-bosnia-dies-at-78.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=February 19, 2017 |archive-date=April 26, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426235505/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/20/obituaries/20IZET.html?pagewanted=all |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election, the political parties identified as "Islamist" and "democratic" (the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party, Salafist Al-Nour Party and liberal Islamist Al-Wasat Party) won 75% of the total seats.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=January 21, 2012 |title=Islamists Win 70% of Seats in the Egyptian Parliament |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/world/middleeast/muslim-brotherhood-wins-47-of-egypt-assembly-seats.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=February 19, 2017 |archive-date=October 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004105215/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/world/middleeast/muslim-brotherhood-wins-47-of-egypt-assembly-seats.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohamed Morsi, an Islamist democrat was the first Islamist president of [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]], stemming from the Muslim Brotherhood.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-18|title=Who Was Mohamed Morsi? A Timeline of His Rise and Fall|url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2019/06/18/who-was-mohamed-morsi-a-timeline-of-his-rise-and-fall/|access-date=2020-10-19|website=Egyptian Streets|language=en-US|archive-date=September 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929201634/https://egyptianstreets.com/2019/06/18/who-was-mohamed-morsi-a-timeline-of-his-rise-and-fall/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah are two very influential Islamic social movement in Indonesia. United Development Party and the opposition Prosperous Justice Party are major Indonesian Islamist parties, active in country's democratic process.<ref name="Evans, Kevin R 2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/172 172] |isbn=0-521-77326-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dhume |first=Sadanand |date=December 1, 2005 |title=Indonesian Democracy's Enemy Within |url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/indonesian-democracy%E2%80%99s-enemy-within |journal=YaleGlobal Online |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221131945/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/indonesian-democracy%E2%80%99s-enemy-within |archive-date=December 21, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* The Islamic Action Front is Jordan's Islamist political party and largest democratic political force in country. The IAF's survival in Jordan is primarily due to its flexibility and less radical approach to politics.<ref name="atimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EC07Ak01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316070108/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EC07Ak01.html|archive-date=2003-03-16|title=Jordan's Islamic Front rallies Muslims|access-date=2014-11-03|url-status=<!--unfit-->dead}}</ref>
* The Islamic Group is a Sunni Islamist and Hezbollah is a Shia Islamist political party in Lebanon.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hamzeh |first=A. Nizar |date=1997 |title=Islamism in Lebanon: A Guide to the Groups |url=http://www.meforum.org/362/islamism-in-lebanon-a-guide-to-the-groups |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=4 |pages=47–53 |access-date=January 18, 2013 |archive-date=February 8, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208212323/http://www.meforum.org/362/islamism-in-lebanon-a-guide-to-the-groups |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The Justice and Construction Party is the Muslim Brotherhood's political arm in [[Place:Libya|Libya]] and the second largest political force in the country.<ref>{{cite news |date=March 3, 2012 |title=Muslim Brotherhood formally launches party |newspaper=Libya Herald |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/muslim-brotherhood-formally-launches-party/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016003952/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/03/muslim-brotherhood-formally-launches-party/ |archive-date=October 16, 2013 |access-date=2012-03-08 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Dominique |last=Soguel |date=March 4, 2012 |title=Muslim Brother picked to lead new Libya party |url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120304/world/Muslim-Brother-picked-to-lead-new-Libya-party.409595 |work=Times of Malta |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=2012-03-08 |archive-date=December 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222141346/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120304/world/Muslim-Brother-picked-to-lead-new-Libya-party.409595 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Haimzadeh">{{cite news |last=Haimzadeh |first=Patrick |date=July 3, 2012 |title=Libya's Unquiet Election |url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=53172 |newspaper=Middle East Online |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325124948/http://middle-east-online.com/english/?id=53172}}</ref> National Forces Alliance, largest political group in country, doesn't believe the country should be run entirely by Sharia law or [[Philosophy:Secularity|secular]] law, but does hold that Sharia should be "the main inspiration for legislation". Party leader Jibril has said the NFA is a moderate Islamic movement that recognises the importance of Islam in political life and favours Sharia as the basis of the law.<ref>{{cite news |last=Grant |first=George |date=July 1, 2012 |title=Party Profile: The National Forces Alliance |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/07/01/party-profile-the-national-forces-alliance/ |newspaper=Libya Herald |url-access=subscription |access-date=January 18, 2013 |archive-date=January 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116074640/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/07/01/party-profile-the-national-forces-alliance/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Religion:United Malays National Organisation|United Malays National Organisation]] is the dominant party of Malaysia since that country's independence in 1957. UMNO sees and defines itself as a moderate Islamist, Islamic democratic and [[Philosophy:Social conservatism|social conservative]] party of Muslim Malays.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://umno-online.com/?page_id=2787 |title=Perlembagaan |language=ms |website=UMNO Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229132114/http://umno-online.com/?page_id=2787 |archive-date=2012-02-29 |quote=: Goal 3.3 and 3.5}}</ref> The Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party is a major [[Social:Opposition (politics)|opposition]] party and is relatively more conservative and traditionalist than the UMNO.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pas.org.my/v2/kertaskerja/AGS_Penjenamaan_Islam2.pdf |title=ISLAM HADHARI: Antara Pemalsuan dan Bid'ah |website=Parti Islam Se Malaysia (PAS) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311001332/http://pas.org.my/v2/kertaskerja/AGS_Penjenamaan_Islam2.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-11}}</ref><ref name="malaysianpasparty">{{cite web|url=https://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/news-events/podcasts/pan-malaysian-islamic-party-democratic-islamists-or-illiberal-ethno|title=PAN Malaysian party, democratic Islamist or Illiberal ethno-nationalists?|date=October 20, 2017|publisher=Australian National University|access-date=2 May 2022|archive-date=May 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502004857/https://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/news-events/podcasts/pan-malaysian-islamic-party-democratic-islamists-or-illiberal-ethno|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The Moroccan Justice and Development Party has been the ruling party in Morocco since November 29, 2011. The Justice and Development Party advocates Islamism and Islamic democracy.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chen |first=Cherice |date=November 25, 2011 |title=Morocco votes in first election since protests; Islamist party eyes victory |url=http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/etn/news_content.php?id=1769378 |work=Taiwan News |access-date=2011-11-25 |archive-date=November 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127170734/http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/etn/news_content.php?id=1769378 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Alami |first=Aida |date=November 25, 2011 |title=Moroccans Vote in Election Marking Shift of Power From King |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-25/moroccans-vote-in-election-marking-shift-of-power-from-king.html |work=Bloomberg Businessweek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604161427/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-25/moroccans-vote-in-election-marking-shift-of-power-from-king.html |archive-date=2013-06-04 |access-date=2011-11-25}}</ref>
* The Muslim Brotherhood of Syria is a Sunni Islamist force in [[Place:Syria|Syria]] and very loosely affiliated to the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. It has also been called the "dominant group" or "dominant force" in the Arab Spring uprising in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sly |first=Liz |date=May 12, 2012 |title=Syria's Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrias-muslim-brotherhood-is-gaining-influence-over-anti-assad-revolt/2012/05/12/gIQAtIoJLU_story.html |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=December 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209191311/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrias-muslim-brotherhood-is-gaining-influence-over-anti-assad-revolt/2012/05/12/gIQAtIoJLU_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The group's stated political positions are moderate and in its most recent April 2012 manifesto it "pledges to respect individual rights", to promote pluralism and democracy.<ref>{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |date=May 6, 2012 |title=Syria's Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-brotherhood-idUSBRE84504R20120506 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=July 1, 2017 |archive-date=October 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015235535/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/06/us-syria-brotherhood-idUSBRE84504R20120506 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Religion:Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan|Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan]] is Tajikistan's Islamist party and main opposition and democratic force in that country.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Mountain Rigger |url=http://www.economist.com/node/8148621 |magazine=[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]] |date=November 11, 2006}}</ref>
* The Ennahda Movement, also known as Renaissance Party or simply Ennahda, is a moderate Islamist political party in Tunisia.<ref>{{cite news |date=March 1, 2011 |title=Tunisia legalises Islamist group Ennahda |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12611609 |publisher=BBC News Online |access-date=2011-06-24 |archive-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818200504/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12611609 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Roula |last=Khalaf |date=April 27, 2011 |title=Tunisian Islamists seek poll majority |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/20208be6-70e1-11e0-9b1d-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1QD6AeB85 |newspaper=[[Social:Financial Times|Financial Times]] |access-date=2011-06-24 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210201203/https://www.ft.com/content/20208be6-70e1-11e0-9b1d-00144feabdc0#axzz1QD6AeB85 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=January 20, 2011 |title=Tunisian leader returns from exile |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/2011130111220856971.html |publisher=[[Engineering:Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera English]] |access-date=2011-06-24 |archive-date=January 23, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123161325/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/2011130111220856971.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Kaminski |date=October 26, 2011 |title=On the Campaign Trail With Islamist Democrats |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204777904576651361230968584?mod=googlenews_wsj |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=2011-10-26 |archive-date=July 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713195716/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204777904576651361230968584?mod=googlenews_wsj |url-status=live }}</ref> On March 1, 2011, after the government of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali collapsed in the wake of the 2011 Tunisian revolution, Tunisia's interim government granted the group permission to form a political party. Since then it has become the biggest and most well-organized party in Tunisia, so far outdistancing its more secular competitors. In the Tunisian Constituent Assembly election, 2011, the first honest election in the country's history with a turn out of 51.1% of all eligible voters, the party won 37.04% of the popular vote and 89 (41%) of the 217 assembly seats, far more than any other party.<ref>{{cite news |last=Feldman |first=Noah |date=October 30, 2011 |title=Islamists' Victory in Tunisia a Win for Democracy: Noah Feldman |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2011-10-30/islamists-victory-in-tunisia-a-win-for-democracy-noah-feldman |agency={{wipe|Bloomberg News}} |access-date=2011-10-31 |archive-date=January 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117030153/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2011-10-30/islamists-victory-in-tunisia-a-win-for-democracy-noah-feldman |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Decree of 23 Nov. 2011 about the Final Results of the National Constituent Assembly Elections |language=ar |url=http://www.isie.tn/Ar/image.php?id=722 |year=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118043826/http://www.isie.tn/Ar/image.php?id=722 |archive-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Lynch |first=Marc |date=June 29, 2011 |title=Tunisia's New al-Nahda |url=http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/06/29/tunisias_new_al_nahda |magazine=Foreign Policy |access-date=January 18, 2013 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023319/http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/06/29/tunisias_new_al_nahda |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bay |first=Austin |date=2011-11-30 |title=Tunisia and its Islamists: The Revolution, Phase Two |url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2011/11/30/tunisia_and_its_islamists_the_revolution_phase_two_112228.html |publisher=RealClearPolitics |access-date=2012-03-22 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403155453/https://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2011/11/30/tunisia_and_its_islamists_the_revolution_phase_two_112228.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Totten |first=Michael |date=March 21, 2012 |title=No to America and No to Radical Islam |url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/michael-j-totten/no-america-and-no-radical-islam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324121609/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/michael-j-totten/no-america-and-no-radical-islam |archive-date=2012-03-24 |url-status=usurped |access-date=2012-03-22}}</ref>

====Pakistan====
Early in the history of the state of {{wipe|Pakistan}} (March 12, 1949), a parliamentary resolution (the Objectives Resolution) was adopted, stating the objectives on which the future constitution of the country was to be based. It contained the basic principles of both Islam and Western Democracy, in accordance with the vision of the founders of the Pakistan Movement (Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan).<ref>"[http://therepublicofrumi.com/archives/liaquat19490309.html Objectives Resolution, Republic of Rumi] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107131744/http://therepublicofrumi.com/archives/liaquat19490309.html |date=November 7, 2014}}</ref> It proclaimed:

{{Blockquote|Sovereignty belongs to [[Religion:Allah|Allah]] alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust.
* The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the elected representatives of the people.
* The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed.
* Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings of Islam as set out in the Quran and Sunnah.
* Provision shall be made for the religious minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures.}}

This resolution was included in the 1956 constitution as preamble and in 1985<ref>(Revival of Constitution of 1973 Order, 1985 (President's Order No. 14 of 1985))</ref> it was inserted in the constitution itself as Article 2 and Schedule item 53<ref>(with effect from March 2, 1985)</ref> (but with the word "freely" in ''Provision shall be made for the religious minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures'', removed.<ref name=OR-253>{{cite web |title=Annex 731 The Objectives Resolution [Article 2(A)] |url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/annex.html |website=pakistan.org |access-date=2015-01-16 |archive-date=March 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329221651/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/annex.html |url-status=live }}</ref>). The resolution was inserted again in the constitution in 2010,<ref>(Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 2010, Section 99 (with effect from April 19, 2010)</ref> with the word "freely" reinstated.<ref name=OR-253 />

However, Islamisation has proceeded slowly in Pakistan, and Islamists and Islamic parties and activists have expressed frustration that sharia law has not yet been fully implemented.

====Indonesia====
Officially, Indonesia does not have a state religion, and is in many respects a secular democracy. The constitution of Indonesia gives its people the freedom of worship, according to their religion or belief. This is based on the state ideology of "Pancasila" whose first tenet, ''Ketuhanan yang Maha Esa,'' translates as "The One and Almighty God", implying that there is a supreme God that unites the nation. It does not specify any religion, though this is also sometimes mistranslated as an endorsement for monotheism. As a result, Indonesians have a religion column in their identity card; however, it is not mandatory (an empty column will indicate not having a religion) and is only used for censuses (which are a Dutch colonial legacy). The 5th point of practice of the ''Butir-butir pengamalan Pancasila'' states "Religion and belief in God Almighty are private matters that concern the human relationship with God Almighty."<ref>{{cite web |title=Isi Butir-Butir Pancasila Sila 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 dan Penjelasannya |url=https://tirto.id/isi-butir-butir-pancasila-sila-1-2-3-4-5-dan-penjelasannya-f5Mw |website=tirto.id |access-date=24 August 2022 |language=id |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922023732/https://tirto.id/isi-butir-butir-pancasila-sila-1-2-3-4-5-dan-penjelasannya-f5Mw |url-status=live }}</ref> Sukarno's conception of Pancasila's ideology is not 'secular' in the Western sense, although he agreed with Mahmud Esad Bay and Mustafa Kemal Ataturks' view that Islam should be free of government control. In his speech titled "Islam Sontoloyo" or "Foolish Islam", he was critical of Islamic leaders' misuse of authority to justify wrong actions. According to Yudi Latief, Indonesia's founding leaders, while thoroughly educated and motivated as secularists of the time, were unable to comprehend an Indonesian society without religion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Latif |first1=Yudi |title=Negara Paripurna: Historitas, Rasionalitas, Aktualitas Pancasila |date=June 2011 |publisher=PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama |location=Jakarta}}</ref> Indonesian nationalist leaders characterized the country as a "religiously neutral state", in which Islam would be separated from the state and that Islamic affairs should be managed by Muslims without the help of the state. A preliminary meeting based on Hatta's initiative agreed that Islamic laws could be used for family laws that are passed by the People's Representative Council, but only if they relate to Muslims, while the 'secular' national criminal code could not to be changed because it applies to all regardless of religion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unud.ac.id/en/berita2052-Bung-Hatta-dalam-Merevisi-Sila-Ketuhanan-dengan-kewajiban-menjalankan-syariat-Islam-bagi-pemeluk-pemeluknya-.html|title=Bung Hatta dalam Merevisi Sila 'Ketuhanan dengan kewajiban menjalankan syariat Islam bagi pemeluk-pemeluknya'|website=University of Udayana|access-date=9 September 2022|archive-date=September 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909104601/https://www.unud.ac.id/en/berita2052-Bung-Hatta-dalam-Merevisi-Sila-Ketuhanan-dengan-kewajiban-menjalankan-syariat-Islam-bagi-pemeluk-pemeluknya-.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Sukarno also banned the most popular Islamic party, Masjumi, for alleged involvement in the PRRI rebellion. On 27 January 1953, Sukarno delivered a speech in Amuntai, South Kalimantan, a region with a strong Islamic community. There was a banner reading "Indonesia a Nation State or an Islamic State?" Commenting on the banner, Sukarno said: {{Blockquote|The state we want is a nation state consisting of all Indonesia. If we establish a state based on Islam, many areas whose population is not Islamic, such as the Moluccas, Bali, Flores, Timor, the Kai Islands, and Sulawesi, will secede. And West Irian, which has not yet become part of the territory of Indonesia, will not want to be part of the Republic.<ref>{{cite web|date=29 January 1953|title=President Sukarno and the Islamic State|url=http://www.icwa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/BRC-8.pdf|website=Institute of Current World Affairs|access-date=September 8, 2022|archive-date=June 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617081403/http://www.icwa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/BRC-8.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>}} Sukarno also disagreed with Aceh adopting Islamic criminal laws as its form of sharia bylaws, stating that "Indonesia is a nation state with the ideology of Pancasila, not a theocratic country with a certain religious orientation" and "Muslim's habit of reading the Quran" is also a form of obedience towards [[Religion:Sharia|sharia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historia.id/politik/articles/air-mata-bung-karno-meleleh-di-aceh-vqrx1|title=Bung Karno's Tears Melt in Aceh|last=Jo|first=Hendi|date=October 9, 2015|website=Historia.id|archive-date=June 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621060504/https://historia.id/politik/articles/air-mata-bung-karno-meleleh-di-aceh-vqrx1|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Sukarno, religion is a private matter between individuals and god, that could only be regulated through personal or family matters. During the Suharto era, Islamic parties were even more tightly controlled by the government, through the state formation of the United Development Party. Islamic veils were also banned. Nurcholis Majid, one of the prominent young Islamic thinkers at the time, in his speech "The Need for Reform in Islamic Thinking and the Problem of Ummah Integration", considered Indonesian Muslims to be stuck in ideological dogmatism, and as a result had lost dynamism. He therefore coined the famous slogan: "Islam Yes, Islamic Party No".<ref name="Ahsan 2019">{{cite web |last=Ahsan |first=Ivan Aulia |title=Nurcholish Madjid & Sekularisasi: Dua Sisi yang Kerap Disalahpahami |website=tirto.id |date=2019-08-29 |url=https://tirto.id/nurcholish-madjid-sekularisasi-dua-sisi-yang-kerap-disalahpahami-eha7 |language=id |access-date=2021-04-13 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413182808/https://tirto.id/nurcholish-madjid-sekularisasi-dua-sisi-yang-kerap-disalahpahami-eha7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Most of his colleagues considered this to be an endorsement of secularism. However,  Abdurrahman Wahid, the fourth president of Indonesia, explained Indonesia's case as "mild secularism".<ref name="Wahid 2001 pp. 25–28">{{cite journal|last=Wahid|first=Abdurrahman|date=2001-07-01|title=Indonesia's Mild Secularism|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/30563/summary|journal=SAIS Review|volume=21|issue=2|pages=25–28|doi=10.1353/sais.2001.0051|s2cid=154646071|issn=1945-4724|access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> Neither man considered themselves to be secularist and preferred to use 'secularisation', acknowledging the concern that secularism as an ideology could become a new closed world view functioning like a new religion.

However, in 1970, another political movement centered in students small groups of university students called "liqo" started. It was directly inspired by [[Biography:Hassan al-Banna|Hassan al-Banna]]'s Muslim Brotherhood, the proponent of which is Hilmi Aminuddin, which advocates for a gradual change to become more ideal Muslim. This coalesced in the formation of the Indonesian Muslim Students Action Union (KAMMI) in 1998, which alongside Abdurrahman Wahid's Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Amien Rais' Muhammadiyah as student leaders formed the groups of student protests against Suharto's government. After the fall of Suharto, KAMMI became the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), while NU and Muhammadiyah chose not to be involved in practical politics of winning elections and instead formed independent political parties aligned to, but independent of, their Islamic organizations, in the form of the National Awakening Party (PKB) and National Mandate Party (PAN). The democratic reforms led to calls for the adoption of Islamic sharia law in the form of the Jakarta Charter in national legislative body (MPR) in 2002. However, it was rejected, with even the PKB and PAN voting against it.

This was because the two largest Muslim organizations of Indonesia, NU and Muhammadiyah, very much accepted the ''Pancasila'' 'secularism' basis of the country. NU and the party closest to it, PKB (Abdurrahman's party), is member of Centrist Democrat International,  which also contains the German CDU as well as the Hungarian Fidesz party.<ref name="Jakarta Globe 2020">{{cite web|date=2020-01-15|title=The Peculiar Case of Viktor Orban's Visit to Indonesia|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/opinion/the-peculiar-case-of-viktor-orbans-visit-to-indonesia|access-date=2021-04-13|website=Jakarta Globe|archive-date=April 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413171551/https://jakartaglobe.id/opinion/the-peculiar-case-of-viktor-orbans-visit-to-indonesia|url-status=live}}</ref>  Indonesia has a party associated with the Muslim Brotherhood, the PKS, but even it has to commit to the state ideology, which means it is pluralist.<ref name="Umam 2020">{{cite web|last=Umam|first=Chaerul|date=2020-07-23|title=Politikus PKS Jawab PDIP: Ideologi Bernegara Kita Sama, Pancasila|url=https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2020/07/23/politikus-pks-jawab-pdip-ideologi-bernegara-kita-sama-pancasila|access-date=2021-04-13|website=Tribunnews.com|language=id|archive-date=April 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413172033/https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2020/07/23/politikus-pks-jawab-pdip-ideologi-bernegara-kita-sama-pancasila|url-status=live}}</ref> Islamic groups that stray from and tried to change Pancasila such as HTI (Indonesian branch of Hizb ut-Tahrir) are banned even though they 'participated' in a democracy.<ref name="BBC News Indonesia 2018">{{cite web|date=2018-05-07|title=HTI dinyatakan ormas terlarang, pengadilan tolak gugatan|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-44026822|access-date=2021-04-13|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|archive-date=April 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413182647/https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-44026822|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a practical sense, in central government levels, Indonesia has six recognized religions, as these are the recognized majority religions of most Indonesians and received state support.

In the Ministry of Religion Affairs, there are separate religious leader administrators for each of the six major religions. Sometimes the president or government members in a formal speech will greet audiences using in all six religious greetings. An example of this was in President Joko Widodo's speech on March 26, 2021.<ref name="Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia 2021">{{cite web|date=2021-03-26|title=Peresmian Pembukaan Musyawarah Nasional V Asosiasi Pemerintah Kabupaten Seluruh Indonesia (APKASI) Tahun 2021, 26 Maret 2021, di Istana Negara, Provinsi DKI Jakarta|url=https://setkab.go.id/peresmian-pembukaan-musyawarah-nasional-v-asosiasi-pemerintah-kabupaten-seluruh-indonesia-apkasi-tahun-2021-26-maret-2021-di-istana-negara-provinsi-dki-jakarta/|access-date=2021-04-13|website=Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia|language=id|archive-date=April 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413222528/https://setkab.go.id/peresmian-pembukaan-musyawarah-nasional-v-asosiasi-pemerintah-kabupaten-seluruh-indonesia-apkasi-tahun-2021-26-maret-2021-di-istana-negara-provinsi-dki-jakarta/|url-status=live}}</ref> In which he used all religious greetings including:
* "Assalamu’alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh" for [[Religion:Muslims|Muslims]]
* "Salam Sejahtera" and "Shaloom" for [[Religion:Christians|Christians]] and Catholics
* "Om Swastyastu" for [[Religion:Hindus|Hindus]]
* "Namo Buddhaya" for Buddhists
* "Salam Kebajikan" or "Wei De Dong Tian" (惟德動天) for [[Philosophy:Confucianism|Kong Hu Cu]] (Confucians)

Some Indonesian Muslims have long had problems with the implementation of sharia law, seeing it as not necessary and infringing on the non-Muslim population, while others see the implementation of some sharia-based laws as a solution to a failed and corrupt democratic process. In the 1960s, the "Darul Islam" rebellion tried to forcefully form an "Islamic State of Indonesia" although they were eventually defeated. Its regional offshoot based in Aceh advocated for independence, and continued an insurgency for a separate Islamic Aceh country. As a result of the Boxing Day tsunami in 2004 and negotiations facilitated by the Swedish government (Hasan di Tiro had a Swedish passport and lived there in exile) as well as the Finnish government, the Helsinki MoU was signed ending the conflict. Indonesia would allow Aceh to adopt its own version of law called Qanun, and Aceh would stop fighting for independence and adopt the special autonomy law.<ref>{{cite act|url=https://peacemaker.un.org/indonesia-memorandumaceh2005|date=15 August 2005|title=Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement|article-type=Article|article=1}}</ref>

====Iran====

=====Theory=====
Since the revolution in Iran, the largest Shia country, Twelver Shia political thought has been dominated by that of [[Religion:Ayatollah|Ayatollah]] [[Biography:Ruhollah Khomeini|Ruhollah Khomeini]], the founder and leader of the revolution. Khomeini argued that in the absence of the Hidden Imam and other divinely-appointed figures (in whom ultimate political authority rests), Muslims have not only the right, but also the obligation to establish an "[[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]".<ref>[http://quest4truth.weebly.com/imam-03.html] {{Dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref> To that end they must turn to scholars of Islamic law ([[Religion:Fiqh|fiqh]]) who are qualified to interpret the Quran and the writings of the imams.

Once in power and recognizing the need for more flexibility, Khomeini modified some earlier positions, insisted the ruling jurist need not be one of the most learned, that ''Sharia'' rule was subordinate to interests of Islam ([[Religion:Maslaha|Maslaha]]—"expedient interests" or "public welfare"<ref>Abrahamian, Ervand, ''A History of Modern Iran'', Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 165</ref>), and the "divine government" as interpreted by the ruling jurists, who could overrule Sharia if necessary to serve those interests. The Islamic "government, which is a branch of the absolute governance of the Prophet of God, is among the primary ordinances of Islam, and has precedence over all 'secondary' ordinances."

The last point was made in December 1987, when Khomieni issued a fatwa in support of the Islamic government's attempt to pass a labor protection bill not in accordance with sharia.<ref>Schirazi, Asghar. ''The Constitution of Iran'', p. 212</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gemsofislamism.tripod.com/khomeini_promises_kept.html#footnote_72a|title=Khomeini's REVERSALS of Promises|access-date=2015-05-04|archive-date=July 8, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708183450/http://gemsofislamism.tripod.com/khomeini_promises_kept.html%23Islamic_Clerics#footnote_72a|url-status=live}}</ref> He ruled that in the Islamic state, governmental ordinances were primary ordinances,<ref>{{cite book |last=Arjomand |first=Said Amir |date=1993 |chapter=Shi'ite Jurisprudence and Constitution Making in the Islamic Republic of Iran |editor1-last=Marty |editor1-first=Martin E. |editor2-last=Appleby |editor2-first=R. Scott |title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doCmVaOnh_wC&pg=PA104 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart/page/104 104] |isbn=978-0-226-50884-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart/page/104}}</ref> and that the Islamic state has absolute right ({{lang-fa|ولايت مطلقه}}) to enact state commandments, taking precedence over "all secondary ordinances such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage".

<blockquote>Were the powers of government to lie only within the framework of secondary divine decrees, the designation of the divine government and absolute deputed guardianship (''wilayat-i mutlaqa-yi mufawwada'') to the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him and his progeny) would have been in practice entirely without meaning and content. ... I must point out, the government which is a branch of the absolute governance of the Prophet of God is among the primary ordinances of Islam, and has precedence over all secondary ordinances such as prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), and [[Religion:Hajj|pilgrimage (hajj)]].</blockquote>

The idea and concept of Islamic democracy has been accepted by many Iranian clerics, scholars and intellectuals.<ref>{{cite news |date=August 10, 2002 |title=President Says Democracy Conforms With Religion in Iran |url=http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=6426&sec=59&con=33 |newspaper=Tehran Times |via=WorldWide Religious News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308230836/http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=6426&sec=59&con=33 |archive-date=2007-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.khatami.ir/|title=" Official Website of Sayyid Mohammad Khatami " www.khatami.ir|access-date=2015-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016063245/http://www.khatami.ir/|archive-date=October 16, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drsoroush.com/|title=AbdolKarim Soroush:: عبدالکريم سروش|access-date=2014-11-03|archive-date=December 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217093113/http://drsoroush.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leader.ir/langs/EN/index.php?p=news&id=3447 |title=News |website=The Office of the Supreme Leader, Sayyid Ali Khamenei |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310170922/http://www.leader.ir/langs/EN/index.php?p=news&id=3447 |archive-date=2012-03-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khamenei.ir/EN/News/detail.jsp?id=20031220A |title=Participation in Majlis Elections, Religious and Logical Duty: Leader |date=December 20, 2003 |website=Institute for Preserving and Publishing Works by Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225743/http://www.khamenei.ir/EN/News/detail.jsp?id=20031220A |archive-date=2007-09-27}}</ref> The most notable of those who have accepted the theory of Islamic democracy is probably Iran's Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who mentions Islamic democracy as "Mardomsalarie Dini" in his speeches. Nevertheless, Khamenei openly expresses his opposition to [[Social:Liberal democracy|liberal democracy]], having said, "Islam naturally stands against liberal democracy."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://english.khamenei.ir/news/9551/Islam-naturally-stands-against-liberal-democracy-s-plot-to-dominate |title=Islam naturally stands against liberal democracy's plot to dominate the world - Khamenei.ir |access-date=March 3, 2023 |archive-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316025234/https://english.khamenei.ir/news/9551/Islam-naturally-stands-against-liberal-democracy-s-plot-to-dominate |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are also other Iranian scholars who oppose or at least criticise the concept of Islamic democracy. Among the most popular of them are Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.makaremshirazi.org/|title=پایگاه اطلاع رسانی دفتر مرجع عالیقدر حضرت آیت الله العظمی مکارم شیرازی|access-date=2015-05-04|archive-date=October 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031115251/http://www.makaremshirazi.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> who have written: "If not referring to the people votes would result in accusations of tyranny then it is allowed to accept people vote as a secondary commandment."<ref>انوار الفقاهه- كتاب البيع – ج 1 ص 516</ref> Also Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi has more or less the same viewpoint.

=====Practice=====
Some Iranians, including Mohammad Khatami, categorize the [[Religion:Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]] as a kind of religious democracy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Envoy: Religious democracy materialized by Islamic Revolution |url=http://www2.irna.com/en/news/view/line-17/0702089736162511.htm |newspaper=Irna |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090437/http://www2.irna.com/en/news/view/line-17/0702089736162511.htm |archive-date=2007-09-29}}</ref> They maintain that [[Biography:Ruhollah Khomeini|Ruhollah Khomeini]] held the same view as well and that's why he strongly chose "Jomhoorie Eslami" (Islamic Republic) over "Hokoomate Eslami" (Islamic State).

Others maintain that not only is the Islamic Republic of Iran undemocratic (see Politics of Iran) but that Khomeini himself opposed the principle of democracy in his book ''Hokumat-e Islami: Wilayat al-Faqih'', where he denied the need for any legislative body saying, "no one has the right to legislate ... except ... the Divine Legislator", and during the Islamic Revolution, when he told Iranians, "Do not use this term, 'democratic.' That is the Western style."<ref>Bakhash, Shaul, ''The Reign of the Ayatollahs'', p.73</ref> Although it is in contrast with his commandment to Mehdi Bazargan. It is a subject of lively debate among pro-Islamic Iranian intelligentsia. Also they maintain that Iran's sharia courts, the Islamic Revolutionary Court, [[Religion:Blasphemy law in Iran|blasphemy laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran]], and the [[Religion:Islamic religious police#Iran|Islamic religious police]] violate the principles of democratic governance.<ref>{{cite news |date=June 12, 2004 |title=Iranian President Khatami Clashes with Reformist Students at Tehran University |url=http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=401 |publisher=MEMRI TV |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050209040406/http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=401 |archive-date=2005-02-09}}</ref> However, it should be understood that when a democracy is accepted to be Islamic by people, the law of Islam becomes the democratically ratified law of that country. Iranians have ratified the constitution in which the principle rules are explicitly mentioned as the rules of Islam to which other rules should conform. Khomeini fervently believed that principles of democracy can't provide the targeted justice of Islam in the Sharia and Islamic thoughts.(Mohaghegh. Behnam 2014)
This contrast of view between the two Iranian head leaders of this Islamic country, as above mentioned about Khatami's and Khomeini's views have provisionally been being a case of disaffiliation of nearly half a country in most probable political coincidence, so the people cognizant of this heterogeneous political belief shall not be affiliated by newly formed views of democratic principles.(Mohaghegh, Behnam 2014)

A number of deviations from traditional sharia regulations have been noted in Iran

<blockquote> ... the financial system has barely been Islamized; Christians, for example, are not subject to a poll tax and pay according to the common scheme. Insurance is maintained (even though chance, the very basis for insurance should theoretically be excluded from all contracts). The contracts signed with foreigners all accept the matter of interest.<ref>''The Failure of Political Islam'', by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, pp. 139–140.</ref></blockquote>

==Indices of democracy in Muslim countries==
There are several non-governmental organizations that publish and maintain [[List of democracy indices|indices of democracy]] in the world, according to their own various definitions of the term, and rank countries as being free, partly free, or unfree using various measures of freedom, including [[Social:Civil and political rights|political rights]], [[Philosophy:Economic freedom|economic rights]], freedom of the press and [[Philosophy:Civil liberties|civil liberties]].

The following lists Muslim-majority countries and shows the scores given by two frequently used indices: 2022 [[Social:Democracy Index|Democracy Index (The Economist)]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2022/ |title=Democracy Index 2022 |publisher=[[Company:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]] |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210003136/https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2022/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and 2023 [[Social:V-Dem Democracy indices|V-Dem Democracy indices]]<ref name="vdem_dataset">Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg, Jan Teorell, Nazifa Alizada, David Altman, Michael Bernhard, Agnes Cornell, M. Steven Fish, Lisa Gastaldi, Haakon Gjerløw, Adam Glynn, Allen Hicken, Garry Hindle, Nina Ilchenko, Joshua Krusell, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Kyle L. Marquardt, Kelly McMann, Valeriya Mechkova, Juraj Medzihorsky, Pamela Paxton, Daniel Pemstein, Josefine Pernes, Johannes von Römer, Brigitte Seim, Rachel Sigman, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jeffrey Staton, Aksel Sundström, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang, Tore Wig, Steven Wilson and Daniel Ziblatt. 2021. "V-Dem [Country–Year/Country–Date] Dataset v11.1" Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://doi.org/10.23696/vdemds21.</ref> for electoral democracy. These indices are frequently used in Western media, but have attracted some [[Social:Democracy Index#Criticism|criticism]] and may not reflect recent changes.

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! Location
! Democracy Index Score
! Democracy Index Rank
! Democracy Index Category
! V-Dem electoral democracy index
! Type of government
! Religion and State
|-
| {{flaglist|Afghanistan}} || 0.32 || 167 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.082 || [[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] provisional theocratic [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic]] [[Social:Emirate|emirate]]|| [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Albania}} || 6.41 || 64 || Flawed democracy || 0.484 || [[Social:Parliamentary system|Parliamentary system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Algeria}} || 3.66 || 113 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.281 || [[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] constitutional republic || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Azerbaijan}} || 2.87 || 134 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.188 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahrain}} || 2.52 || 141 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.122 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Bangladesh}} || 5.99 || 73 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.274 || [[Social:Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary republic]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} || 5.00 || 97 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.528 || [[Social:Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary republic]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Brunei}} || – || – || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || - || [[Social:Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchy]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Burkina Faso}} || 3.08 || 127 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.295|| [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Chad}} || 1.67 || 160 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.14 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Comoros}} || 3.20 || 120 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.284 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]], [[Social:Federal republic|Federal republic]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]] (de jure)<br>[[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]] (de facto)
|-
| {{flaglist|Djibouti}} || 2.74 || 137 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.255 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Egypt}} || 2.93 || 131 || Authoritarian regime || 0.175 || [[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] constitutional republic || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Gambia}} || 4.47 || 102 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.62 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Guinea}} || 2.32 || 145 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.191 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Guinea-Bissau}} || 2.56 || 140 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.371 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Indonesia}} || 6.71 || 54 || Flawed democracy || 0.574 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Iran}} || 1.96 || 154 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.182 || [[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] theocratic [[Social:Presidential system|presidential]] Islamic Republic || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Iraq}} || 3.13 || 124 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.362 || [[Social:Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary republic]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Ivory Coast}} || 4.22 || 106 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.437 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Jordan}} || 3.17 || 122 || Authoritarian regime ||0.259 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Kazakhstan}} || 3.08 || 127 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.277 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Kosovo}} || -|| – || – || 0.618 || || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Kuwait}} || 3.83 || 111 || Authoritarian regime || 0.317 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Kyrgyzstan}} || 3.62 || 116 || Authoritarian regime  || 0.382 || [[Social:Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary republic]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Lebanon}} || 3.64 || 115 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.426 || [[Social:Confessionalism (politics)|Confessionalist]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|Parliamentary republic]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Libya}} || 2.06 || 151 || Authoritarian regime || 0.213 || Provisional government || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Malaysia}} || 7.30 || 40 || Flawed democracy || 0.438 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]], [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Maldives}} || – || – || – || 0.583 || || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Mali}} || 3.23 || 119 || Authoritarian regime || 0.235 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Mauritania}} || 4.03 || 108 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.395 || Islamic republic, [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Morocco}} || 5.04 || 95 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.264 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Niger}} || 3.73 || 112 || Authoritarian regime || 0.511 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Nigeria}} || 4.23 || 105 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.49 || [[Social:Federalism|Federalism]], [[Social:Presidential system|presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]], [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]] (only in the northern Nigerian states)
|-
| {{flaglist|Oman}} || 3.12 || 125 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.17 || [[Social:Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchy]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Pakistan}} || 4.13 || 107 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.388|| Islamic Republic, [[Social:Federalism|Federalism]], [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan|title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan|via=Wikisource|access-date=April 5, 2020|archive-date=March 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323040415/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.na.gov.pk/publications/constitution.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=April 5, 2020 |archive-date=December 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226123401/http://www.na.gov.pk/publications/constitution.pdf%20 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1335242059_665.pdf|title=ENFORCEMENT OF SHARI'AH ACT. 1991|access-date=April 5, 2020|archive-date=August 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818215649/http://www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1335242059_665.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| ‡{{flaglist|State of Palestine}} ([[Place:Israeli-occupied territories|occupied by Israel]])|| 3.86 || 110 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.26 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2009)008-e |title=BASIC LAW - OF THE PALESTINIAN NATIONAL AUTHORITY |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030081752/https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2009)008-e |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{flaglist|Qatar}} || 3.65 || 114 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.088 || [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Semi-constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Saudi Arabia}} || 2.08 || 150 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.016 || Islamic [[Social:Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchy]] || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Senegal}} || 5.72 || 79 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.69 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Sierra Leone}} || 5.03 || 96 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.559 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Somalia}} || || || || 0.162 || [[Social:Federalism|Federalism]], [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| ‡{{flaglist|Somaliland}} (Somalia) || || || || 0.421 || || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Sudan}} || 2.47 || 144 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.169 || [[Social:Federalism|Federalism]], [[Social:Presidential system|presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]] (de jure), [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]] (de facto)
|-
| {{flaglist|Syria}} || 1.43 || 163 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.138 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Tajikistan}} || 1.94 || 156 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.175 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Tunisia}} || 5.51 || 85 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.307 || [[Social:Semi-presidential system|Semi-presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Turkey}} || 4.35 || 103 || [[Social:Hybrid regime|Hybrid regime]] || 0.276 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey|title=Constitution of the Republic of Turkey|via=Wikisource|access-date=November 12, 2015|archive-date=December 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204053416/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209123304/https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf |date=February 9, 2020 }} {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| {{flaglist|Turkmenistan}} || 1.66 || 161 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.149 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]], [[Social:One-party state|one-party state]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| {{flaglist|United Arab Emirates}} || 2.90 || 133 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.101 || [[Social:Federalism|Federalism]], [[Social:Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]] || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Uzbekistan}} || 2.12 || 149 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.221 || [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]] || [[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]
|-
| ‡Western Sahara (controlled by Morocco) || – || – || – || - || || [[Religion:State religion|State religion]]
|-
| {{flaglist|Yemen}} || 1.95 || 155 || [[Social:Authoritarianism|Authoritarian regime]] || 0.123 || Provisional government || [[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]
|}
:'''Key:''' '''‡''' – Disputed territory (according to Freedom House)

==Islamic democratic parties and organizations==
This is a list of parties and organizations which aim for the implementation of Sharia or an Islamic State, or subscribe to Muslim [[Philosophy:Identity politics|identity politics]], or in some other way fulfil the definitions of political Islam, activist Islam, or Islamism laid out in this article; or have been widely described as such by others.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Country or scope!!Movement/s
|-
|International||{{hlist|Muslim Brotherhood}}
|-
|{{flag|Bahrain}}|| Al Menbar<ref name="wikileaks">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/168471 Guide to Bahrain's politics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205103330/https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/168471 |date=February 5, 2017 }} – 4 Sep 2008. Ambassador Ereli, US Embassy, Bahrain/Wikileaks/''The Guardian''</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}||{{hlist|Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami<ref name="The Tenacity of Hope">{{cite magazine |title=The Tenacity of Hope |url=http://www.economist.com/node/12855437 |magazine=The Economist |date=30 December 2008 |access-date=25 October 2014 |quote=[The BNP] seems also to have been hurt by its alliance with Islamist parties, the largest of which, Jamaat-e-Islami, was reduced from 17 seats to just two.}}</ref><ref name="economist.com">{{cite magazine |title=Bangladesh and war crimes: Blighted at birth |url=http://www.economist.com/node/16485517?zid=309&ah=80dcf288b8561b012f603b9fd9577f0e |magazine=[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]] |date=1 July 2010 |quote=West [Pakistan]'s army had the support of many of East Pakistan's Islamist parties. They included Jamaat-e-Islami, still Bangladesh's largest Islamist party ... reinstating and enforcing that original constitution might amount to an outright ban on Jamaat, the standardbearer in Bangladesh for a conservative strain of Islam.}}</ref> {{small|(''banned'')}}|Islami Andolan Bangladesh}}
|-
|{{Flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|Party of Democratic Action
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}}||{{hlist|Freedom and Justice Party {{small|(''banned'')}}|Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt {{small|(''banned'')}}|Al-Nour Party|Al-Wasat Party<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/world/middleeast/muslim-brotherhood-wins-47-of-egypt-assembly-seats.html Islamists Win 75% of Seats in the Egyptian Parliament] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004105215/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/world/middleeast/muslim-brotherhood-wins-47-of-egypt-assembly-seats.html |date=October 4, 2022 }} ''The New York Times''.</ref>}}
|-
|{{flag|Finland}}||[[Religion:Finnish Islamic Party|Finnish Islamic Party]]
|-
|{{flag|India}}||{{hlist|Jamaat-e-Islami Hind|Indian Union Muslim League|Indian National League|Hurriyat Conference|AIUDF|AIMIM}}
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}||{{hlist|United Development Party|Prosperous Justice Party|National Awakening Party|National Mandate Party<ref name="Evans, Kevin R 2003">Evans, Kevin R (2003). ''The history of political parties & general elections in Indonesia''. Jakarta:Arise Consultancies.</ref><ref name="Schwarz, 1994 172">{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=0-521-77326-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/172 172]}}</ref><ref name="Indonesian Democracy's Enemy Within">Dhume, Sadanand. (December 1, 2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20051219200554/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=6579 Indonesian Democracy's Enemy Within]. Yale Global.</ref>}}
|-
|{{flag|Iran}}||{{hlist|Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran|Islamic Iran Participation Front|People's Mojahedin of Iran (exiled)}}
|-
|{{flag|Iraq}}||{{hlist|State of Law Coalition {{small|(''Shia'')}}|National Iraqi Alliance {{small|(''Shia'')}}}}
|-
|{{flag|Israel}}||Ra'am
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|{{flag|Jordan}}||Islamic Action Front<ref name="atimes.com"/>
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|{{flag|Kuwait}}||Hadas
|-
|{{flag|Libya}}||{{hlist|Justice and Construction Party<ref name="libyaherald.com">{{Cite news |title=Muslim Brotherhood formally launches party |newspaper=Libya Herald |date=3 March 2012 |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/muslim-brotherhood-formally-launches-party/ |access-date=8 March 2012 |archive-date=October 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016003952/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/03/muslim-brotherhood-formally-launches-party/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Soguel">{{Cite news|first=Dominique|last=Soguel|title=Muslim Brother picked to lead new Libya party|agency=Agence France-Presse|access-date=8 March 2012|date=3 March 2012|location=Tripoli|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-03/middle-east/31118855_1_gaddafi-party-north-african-nation|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701141951/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-03/middle-east/31118855_1_gaddafi-party-north-african-nation|archive-date=July 1, 2012|work=The Times of India|df=mdy-all}}</ref>|Homeland Party<ref>{{citation|first=Peter|last=Beaumont|title=Political Islam poised to dominate the new world bequeathed by Arab spring|newspaper=The Guardian|date=3 December 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/03/political-islam-poised-arab-spring|access-date=31 January 2012|archive-date=August 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820232551/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/03/political-islam-poised-arab-spring|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dr. Sallabi's views">{{cite news | date=15 September 2011 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/world/africa/in-libya-islamists-growing-sway-raises-questions.html?pagewanted=all | title=Islamists' Growing Sway Raises Questions for Libya | newspaper=The New York Times | access-date=2012-06-10 | last1=Nordland | first1=Rod | last2=Kirkpatrick | first2=David D. | archive-date=February 25, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225171234/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/world/africa/in-libya-islamists-growing-sway-raises-questions.html?pagewanted=all | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Richard|last=Spencer|title=Libyan cleric announces new party on lines of 'moderate' Islamic democracy|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=19 November 2011|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8879955/Libyan-cleric-announces-new-party-on-lines-of-moderate-Islamic-democracy.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8879955/Libyan-cleric-announces-new-party-on-lines-of-moderate-Islamic-democracy.html |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=31 January 2012}} </ref>|National Forces Alliance<ref name="Haimzadeh"/><ref name=lherald>{{Citation |first=George |last=Grant |title=Party Profile: The National Forces Alliance |newspaper=Libya Herald |date=1 July 2012 |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/07/01/party-profile-the-national-forces-alliance/ |access-date=January 18, 2013 |archive-date=January 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116074640/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/07/01/party-profile-the-national-forces-alliance/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
|-
|{{flag|Malaysia}}||{{hlist|Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party<ref name="pas.org.my">[http://pas.org.my/v2/kertaskerja/AGS_Penjenamaan_Islam2.pdf] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311001332/http://pas.org.my/v2/kertaskerja/AGS_Penjenamaan_Islam2.pdf |date=March 11, 2012}}</ref>|[[Religion:United Malays National Organisation|United Malays National Organisation]]<ref name="umno-online.com">UMNO Online. UMNO's Constitution: Goal 3.5. From:{{cite web|url=http://umno-online.com/?page_id%3D2787 |title=Perlembagaan |website=umno-online |access-date=2013-01-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229132114/http://umno-online.com/?page_id=2787 |archive-date=2012-02-29}}</ref>|Malaysian United Indigenous Party}}
|-
|{{flag| Maldives}}||{{hlist|Islamic Democratic Party|Adhaalath Party}}
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|{{flag|Morocco}}||Justice and Development Party<ref name="Chen">{{cite news |url=http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/etn/news_content.php?id=1769378 |last=Chen |first=Cherice |work=Taiwan News |access-date=25 November 2011 |date=25 November 2011 |title=Morocco votes in first election since protests; Islamist party eyes victory |archive-date=November 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127170734/http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/etn/news_content.php?id=1769378 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="bw-11-11-25">{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-25/moroccans-vote-in-election-marking-shift-of-power-from-king.html |last=Alami |first=Aida |work=Bloomberg Businessweek |title=Moroccans Vote in Election Marking Shift of Power From King |access-date=25 November 2011 |date=25 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127082331/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-11-25/moroccans-vote-in-election-marking-shift-of-power-from-king.html |archive-date=27 November 2011 }}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Pakistan}}||{{hlist|Jamaat-e-Islami|Majlis Wahdat-e-Muslimeen|Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal|Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf<ref>Sidrah Moiz Khan [http://tribune.com.pk/story/399907/pakistans-creation-pointless-if-it-fails-to-become-islamic-welfare-state// "Pakistan's creation pointless if it fails to become Islamic welfare state"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105030131/https://tribune.com.pk/story/399907/pakistans-creation-pointless-if-it-fails-to-become-islamic-welfare-state/ |date=November 5, 2019 }} "Imran Khan said on Wednesday that Pakistan's creation had been pointless if the country fails to become an Islamic welfare state" 27 June 2012.</ref><ref>Marcus Michaelsen [http://en.qantara.de/Pakistans-Dream-Catcher/18718c497/index.html// "Pakistan's dream catcher"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510061800/http://en.qantara.de/Pakistans-Dream-Catcher/18718c497/index.html |date=May 10, 2012 }} "Iqbal's work has influenced Imran Khan in his deliberations on an "Islamic social state" 27 March 2012.</ref>}}
|-
|{{flag|Palestine}}||{{hlist|Hamas<ref name="islamist/islamic">* "This is particularly the case in view of the scholarly debate on the compatibility of Islam and democracy but even more so in view of Hamas's self-definition as an Islamic national liberation movement." [https://books.google.com/books?id=AO-tZkbPDKYC The Palestinian Hamas: vision, violence, and coexistence, by Shaul Mishal & Avraham Sela, 2006, p. xxviii];
* In this way the PA has been able to control the economic activities of its political adversaries, including the Hamas and other Islamic opposition groups. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E3Zbk3ZHSSsC Investment in peace: politics of economic cooperation between Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority, by Shaul Mishal, Ranan D. Kuperman, David Boas, 2001, p.&nbsp;85]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }};
* "Hamas is a radical Islamic fundamentalist organization that has stated that its highest priority is a Jihad (holy war) for the liberation of Palestine ..." [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol-ud-Lj5zEC&q=%22an+islamic%22+%22hamas+is%22 Peace and war: the Arab-Israeli military balance enters the 21st century, by Anthony H. Cordesman, 2002, p.&nbsp;243] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226094606/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol-ud-Lj5zEC&dq=%22an+islamic%22+%22hamas+is%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=December 26, 2022 }};
* "One of the secrets behind the success of Hamas is that it is an Islamic and national movement at one and the same time ..." [https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBTqq68ZvQC 'Hamas: Palestinian Identity, Islam, and National Sovereignty', by Meir Litvak, in Challenges to the cohesion of the Arabic State, by Asher Susser, 2008, p.&nbsp;153.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226094646/https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBTqq68ZvQC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=December 26, 2022 }};
* "Hamas is an Islamic fundamentalist movement founded in 1987..." [https://books.google.com/books?id=1Iwd0--ZBUcC Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues], by Gus Martin, 2009, p.&nbsp;153;
* "Hamas is an Islamic jihadist organization..." [https://books.google.com/books?id=sm_eGpXb4EMC Why Israel Can't Wait: The Coming War Between Israel and Iran, by Jerome R. Corsi, 2009, p.&nbsp;39.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226094606/https://books.google.com/books?id=sm_eGpXb4EMC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=December 26, 2022 }};
* "The Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islam- iyya), known by its acronym Hamas, is an Islamic fundamentalist organization which defines itself as the military wing of the Muslim Brethren." [https://books.google.com/books?id=zaFtAAAAMAAJ Anti-semitic motifs in the ideology of Hizballah and Hamas, by Esther Webman, 1994, p.&nbsp;17.];
* [http://merln.ndu.edu/archive/icg/Islamism2Mar05.pdf "Understanding Islamism"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307123849/http://merln.ndu.edu/archive/icg/Islamism2Mar05.pdf |date=March 7, 2013 }}, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N°37, 2 March 2005;
* {{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/homepageCrisis/idUSL23611943._CH_.2400 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205143043/http://www.reuters.com/article/homepageCrisis/idUSL23611943._CH_.2400 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 5, 2016 |title=Hamas leader condemns Islamist charity blacklist |date=2007-08-23 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=2009-01-28 }};
* {{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article2641289.ece |title=Islamist leader hints at Hamas pull-out from Gaza |last=Hider |first=James |date=2007-10-12 |newspaper=The Times Online |access-date=2009-01-28 |location=London |archive-date=August 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805103618/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article2641289.ece |url-status=live }};
* "The New Hamas: Between Resistance and Participation." ''Middle East Report''. Graham Usher, August 21, 2005 * {{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968/#p5 |title=Council on Foreign Relations |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=May 27, 2010 |archive-date=June 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602205041/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968/#p5 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine}}
|-
|{{flag|Philippines}}||{{hlist|Lakas–CMD|Moro Islamic Liberation Front|United Bangsamoro Justice Party}}
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|{{flag|Rwanda}}||Islamic Democratic Party
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|{{flag|Sudan}}||National Umma Party Sudan
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|{{flag|Somalia}}||Peace and Development Party
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|{{flag|Syria}}||Muslim Brotherhood of Syria<ref name=wp05122012>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrias-muslim-brotherhood-is-gaining-influence-over-anti-assad-revolt/2012/05/12/gIQAtIoJLU_story.html Syria's Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209191311/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syrias-muslim-brotherhood-is-gaining-influence-over-anti-assad-revolt/2012/05/12/gIQAtIoJLU_story.html |date=December 9, 2017 }} By Liz Sly, ''Washington Post'', 12 May 2012</ref><ref name=reuters>Khaled Yacoub Oweis [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-brotherhood-idUSBRE84504R20120506 "Syria's Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015235535/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/06/us-syria-brotherhood-idUSBRE84504R20120506 |date=October 15, 2015 }} Reuters (6 May 2012).</ref><ref name=ikhwanweb>[http://ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=29851 "Syria Muslim Brotherhood Issues Post-Assad State-for-All Commitment Charter,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117043505/http://ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=29851 |date=January 17, 2013}} ikhwanweb.com (The Muslim Brotherhood's Official English web site) (7 April 2012).</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}}||{{hlist|Felicity Party|Free Cause Party|Justice and Development Party (AKP)<ref>{{cite web|title=AKP explains charter changes, slams foreign descriptions|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=akp-explains-charter-changes-slams-foreign-descriptions-2010-03-28|work=Hürriyet Daily News|access-date=21 July 2014|location=Istanbul|date=2010-03-28|quote="In the Western press, when the AK Party administration, the ruling party of the Turkish Republic, is being named, unfortunately most of the time 'Islamic,' 'Islamist,' 'mildly Islamist,' 'Islamic-oriented,' 'Islamic-leaning,' 'Islamic-based' or 'with an Islamic agenda,' and similar language is being used. These characterizations do not reflect the truth, and they sadden us," Çelik said. "Yes, the AK Party is a conservative democratic party. The AK Party's conservatism is limited to moral and social issues."|archive-date=July 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716091214/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Default.aspx?pageID=438|url-status=live}}</ref>|Future Party<ref>{{cite web|access-date=13 December 2019|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214160031/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/davutoglu-unveils-his-breakaway-future-party-turkey-erdogan|title=Arşivlenmiş kopya|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/davutoglu-unveils-his-breakaway-future-party-turkey-erdogan|url-status=live}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>}}
|-
|{{flag|Yemen}}||Al-Islah
|}

==See also==
* [[Organization:Institute on Religion and Democracy|Institute on Religion and Democracy]]
* [[Social:Dialogue Among Civilizations|Dialogue Among Civilizations]]
* ''The Clash of Civilizations''
* [[Social:Freedom deficit|Freedom deficit]]
* [[Religion:Islamic ethics|Islamic ethics]]
* [[Religion:Islamic revival|Islamic revival]]
* [[Religion:Islamism|Islamism]]
* Islam Yes, Islamic Party No

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* Mahmoud Sadri and Ahmad Sadri (eds.) 2002 ''Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush'', Oxford University Press
* Omid Safi (ed.) 2003 ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism'', Oneworld
* Azzam S. Tamimi 2001 ''Rachid Ghannouchi: A Democrat within Islamism'', Oxford University Press
* Khan L. Ali 2003 ''A Theory of Universal Democracy'', Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
* Khatab, Sayed & G. Bouma, ''Democracy in Islam'', Routledge 2007

==External links==
* [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1475928 Liberal Democracy and Political Islam: The Search for Common Ground]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090421082743/http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/writings/islamic/democracy.htm Islam and Democracy: Perceptions and Misperceptions] by Dr. Mohammad Omar Farooq
* [http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Current-Affairs/Security-Watch/Detail/?ots591=4888CAA0-B3DB-1461-98B9-E20E7B9C13D4&lng=en&id=97445 Democracy and the Muslim World]
* [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/125/story_12584_1.html Islamic Democracies (article)]
* [https://archive.today/20130112200145/http://www.ccd21.org/conferences/wwconf_transript2.htm Preview of the Seoul Conference on The Community of Democracies: Challenges and Threats to Democracy]
* Marina Ottoway, et al., ''[http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1086&zoom_highlight=Democratic+Mirage+in+the+Middle+East Democratic Mirage in the Middle East]'' Carnegie Endowment for Ethics and International Peace, Policy Brief 20, (October 20, 2002).
* [http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0503/0503afterjihad.htm The Muslim's world future is freedom] Book review, with some controversial content.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070101055229/http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/9.2/Iran/Schmid.pdf Expect the Unexpected: A Religious Democracy in Iran]
* [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200108/09/eng20010809_76891.html Iranian President Mohammad Khatami Vows to Establish Religious Democracy in Iran]
* [http://www.csidonline.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=104&Itemid=71 Recent Elections and the Future of Religious Democracy in Iran]
* [http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=331207&rel_no=1 Democracy Lacking in Muslim World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225191757/http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=331207&rel_no=1 |date=December 25, 2007 }}

{{Political ideologies}}
{{Relpolnav}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamic democracy}}
[[Category:Religion and politics]]

{{Sourceattribution|Islam and democracy}}