View source for Religion:Muhammad in Islam

{{Short description|Role of Muhammad in the Islamic religion}}

{{Infobox religious biography
| religion           = [[Religion:Islam|Islam]]
| mother             = Amina bint Wahb
| resting_place      = Green Dome, Prophet's Mosque, Medina
| other_names        = ''See'' Names and titles of Muhammad
| successor1         = None
| predecessor1       = Isa (Jesus)
| office1            = Prophet of Islam
| father             = Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib
| name               = Muhammad
| native_name        = مُحَمَّدٌ
| native_name_lang   = ar
| title              = Khatam an-Nabiyyin ('Seal of the Prophets')
| death_date         = Monday, 12 [[Religion:Rabi' al-Awwal|Rabi' al-Awwal]] 11 AH (8 June 632 CE)
| birth_place        = [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]],  [[Place:Hejaz|Hejaz]], [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]
| death_place        = [[Place:Medina|Medina]], Hejaz, Arabia
| honorific prefix   = Imam al-Anbiya<br />Rasūl Allāh
| birth_date         = Monday, 12 [[Religion:Rabi' al-Awwal|Rabi' al-Awwal]] 53 BH ({{circa}} 21 April 570 CE) or Saturday, 17 Rabi' al-Awwal 53 BH ({{circa}} 26 April 570 CE)
| caption            = 'Muhammad' in Islamic calligraphy
| image              = محمد صلى الله عليه وسلم.svg
| notable_works      = Constitution of Medina
| successor          = ''See'' Succession to Muhammad
| spouse             = ''See'' [[Social:Muhammad's wives|Muhammad's wives]]
| children           = ''See'' Muhammad's children
| relatives          = ''See'' Family tree of Muhammad, [[Religion:Ahl al-Bayt|Ahl al-Bayt]]{{nbsp|2}}("Family of the House")
| module             = {{Infobox Arabic name|embed=yes
| ism = Muhammad
| nasab = Muḥammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai ibn Kilab
| kunya = Abu al-Qasim
}}
| signature          = 50px <br />[[Religion:Seal of Muhammad|Seal of Muhammad]]
}}


{{Islam}}

'''Muḥammad bin ʿAbd Allāh bin ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib bin Hāshim''' ('''{{lang-ar|{{Script|Arab|مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ ٱللهِ بْنِ عَبْدِ ٱلْمُطَّلِبِ بْنِ هَاشِمٍ}}}}'''; {{circa}} 570 – 8 June 632 CE), is believed to be the seal of the messengers and prophets of [[Religion:God in Islam|God]] in all the main branches of Islam. Muslims believe that the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], the central [[Religion:Religious text|religious text]] of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God, and that Muhammad was sent to restore [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], which they believe did not originate with Muhammad but is the true [[Religion:Tahrif|unaltered]] original [[Philosophy:Monotheism|monotheistic]] faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.<ref name="Esposito-12">{{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511233-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat00espo_0/page/12 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat00espo_0/page/12 }}</ref><ref>Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Peters|first= F.E.|title= Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians|year= 2003|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn= 978-0-691-11553-5|page= [https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 9]|url= https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Esposito|first=John|title=Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.)|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511234-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo/page/9 9, 12]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo}}</ref> The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with the Quran became the foundation of Islam and the [[Religion:Muslim world|Muslim world]].<ref name="Encarta1">{{cite book |title=Microsoft® Student 2008 [DVD] (Encarta Encyclopedia) |year=2007 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation |location=Redmond, WA |chapter=Muhammad (prophet)}}</ref>

Born about the year 53 BH (570 CE) into a respected Qurayshi family of [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]], Muhammad earned the title "al-Amin" ({{lang|ar|اَلْأَمِينُ}}, meaning "the Trustworthy").<ref>{{cite book |last1= Khan |first1= Majid Ali |title= Muhammad the final messenger |edition=1998 |page=332|year=1998|publisher=Islamic Book Service |location=India|isbn= 978-81-85738-25-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Khan |first=Muhammad Zafrullah |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 |year = 1980 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=17}}</ref> At the age of 40 in 11 BH (610 CE), Muhammad is said to have received his first verbal revelation in the cave called Hira, which was the beginning of the descent of the Quran that continued up to the end of his life; and Muslims hold that Muhammad was asked by God to preach the [[Religion:Tawhid|oneness of God]] in order to stamp out [[Religion:Jahiliyyah|idolatry]], a practice overtly present in pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muir |first=William |author-link=William Muir |title=Life of Mahomet |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.215983/page/n54/mode/1up |volume=2 |year=1861 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=London |page=55}}</ref><ref name="Shibli1">Shibli Nomani. ''[[Religion:Sirat-un-Nabi|Sirat-un-Nabi]]''. Vol 1 Lahore.</ref> Because of persecution of the newly converted Muslims, upon the invitation of a delegation from [[Place:Medina|Medina]] (then known as Yathrib), Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in [[Engineering:Islamic calendar#Year numbering|1 AH]] (622 CE), an event known as the [[Religion:Hijrah|Hijrah]].<ref name=Hitti-116>{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |author-link=Philip Khuri Hitti |title=History of the Arabs |year=1946 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |location=London |page=116|title-link=History of the Arabs (book) }}</ref><ref name="Brit.Hijra">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251796/The-advent-of-the-revelation-and-the-Meccan-period |title=Muhammad |year=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |access-date=27 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127111138/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251796/The-advent-of-the-revelation-and-the-Meccan-period |archive-date=27 January 2013 }}</ref> A turning point in Muhammad's life, this Hijrah also marks the beginning of the [[Engineering:Islamic calendar|Islamic calendar]]. In Medina, Muhammad sketched out the Constitution of Medina specifying the rights of and relations among the various existing communities there, formed an [[Religion:Ummah|independent community]], and managed to establish the first Islamic state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghali |first=Muhammad M |title=The History of Muhammad: The Prophet and Messenger |access-date=25 January 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Al-Falah Foundation |location=[[Place:Cairo|Cairo]] |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ggp8OFBIzssC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707030002/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ggp8OFBIzssC&pg=PA5 |archive-date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> Despite the ongoing hostility of the Meccans, Muhammad, along with his followers, took control of Mecca in 630,<ref name=Ramadan-178>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/178 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/178 178] }}</ref><ref name=Haykal-438>{{cite book |last=Husayn Haykal |first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Husayn Haykal |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA438  |year=2008 |publisher=Islamic Book Trust |location=Selangor |isbn=978-983-9154-17-7 |pages=438–9 & 441}}</ref> and ordered the destruction of all pagan idols.<ref name=Hitti-118>{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |author-link=Philip Khuri Hitti |title=History of the Arabs |year=1946 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |location=London |page=118|title-link=History of the Arabs (book) }}</ref><ref name=Ramadan-177>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/177 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/177 177] }}</ref> In his later years in Medina, Muhammad unified the different tribes of Arabia under Islam<ref>Campo (2009), "Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 494</ref> and carried out social and religious reforms.<ref name="Watt1">{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=William Montgomery Watt |title=Muhammad at Medina |year=1956 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1|pages=261–300}}</ref> By the time he died in about 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]] had converted to Islam.<ref>Richard Foltz, "Internationalization of Islam", Encarta Historical Essays.</ref>

Muslims often refer to Muhammad as '''Prophet Muhammad''', or just "The Prophet" or "The Messenger", and regard him as the greatest of all Prophets.<ref name=Esposito-12/><ref name=Morgan77>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Garry R |title=Understanding World Religions in 15 Minutes a Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kph_W86k-VoC&pg=PT77 |access-date=29 September 2015 |year=2012 |publisher=Baker Books |isbn=978-1-4412-5988-2 |page=77 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624065901/https://books.google.com/books?id=kph_W86k-VoC&pg=PT77 |archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref name=Mead5>{{cite book |last=Mead |first=Jean |title=Why Is Muhammad Important to Muslims |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdJtfwE8_H4C&pg=PA5 |access-date=29 September 2015 |year=2008 |publisher=Evans Brothers |isbn=978-0-237-53409-7 |page=5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623223317/https://books.google.com/books?id=CdJtfwE8_H4C&pg=PA5 |archive-date=23 June 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Riedling |first= Ann Marlow |title= Is Your God My God |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=e5QTBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |access-date= 29 September 2015 |year= 2014 |publisher= WestBow Press |isbn= 978-1-4908-4038-3 |page= 38 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160514162431/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5QTBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |archive-date= 14 May 2016 }}</ref> He is seen by the Muslims as a possessor of all [[Philosophy:Virtue|virtue]]s.<ref name=Stefon-58>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |url-access=registration|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2010 |location=New York City |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/58 58]}}</ref> As an act of respect, Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction ''sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam'', (meaning [[Religion:Peace be upon him|Peace be upon him]]),<ref name="Stefon18">Matt Stefon (2010). ''Islamic Beliefs and Practices'', p. 18</ref> sometimes abbreviated as "SAW" or "PBUH". 
== In the Quran ==
{{see|Muhammad in the Quran}}
[[File:Muhammad Salat.svg|thumb|right|The name ''Muhammad'' written in [[Thuluth]], a script variety of Islamic calligraphy]]

The Quran enumerates little about Muhammad's early life or other biographic details, but it talks about his prophetic mission, his moral excellence, and theological issues regarding Muhammad. According to the Quran, Muhammad is the last in a chain of prophets sent by God ({{cite quran|33|40|s=ns|b=n}}). Throughout the Quran, Muhammad is referred to as "Messenger", "Messenger of God", and "Prophet". Some of such verses are 2:101, 2:143, 2:151, 3:32, 3:81, 3:144, 3:164, 4:79-80, 5:15, 5:41, 7:157, 8:01, 9:3, 33:40, 48:29, and 66:09. Other terms are used, including "Warner", "bearer of glad tidings", and the "one who invites people to a Single God" (Quran {{cite quran|12|108|s=ns|b=n}}, and {{cite quran|33|45-46|s=ns|b=n}}). The Quran asserts that Muhammad was a man who possessed the highest moral excellence, and that God made him a good example or a "goodly model" for Muslims to follow (Quran {{cite quran|68|4|s=ns|b=n}}, and {{cite quran|33|21|s=ns|b=n}}). The Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad,<ref name="Nigosian 2004 17">{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/17 17] }}</ref> but describes him in terms of positive human qualities. In several verses, the Quran crystallizes Muhammad's relation to humanity. According to the Quran, God sent Muhammad with truth (God's message to humanity), and as a blessing to the whole world (Quran {{cite quran|39|33|s=ns|b=n}}, and {{cite quran|21|107|s=ns|b=n}}). In Islamic tradition, this means that God sent Muhammad with his message to humanity the following of which will give people salvation in the [[Philosophy:Afterlife|afterlife]], and it is Muhammad's teachings and the purity of his personal life alone which keep alive the worship of God on this world.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |volume=6 |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran |url= http://www.islamibayanaat.com/MQ/English-MaarifulQuran-MuftiShafiUsmaniRA-Vol-6-Page-184-243.pdf |page=236 |url-status= live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219181058/http://www.islamibayanaat.com/MQ/English-MaarifulQuran-MuftiShafiUsmaniRA-Vol-6-Page-184-243.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-19 |}}</ref>

According to the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], the coming of [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]] was predicted by [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]]: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel! I am God's messenger to you, confirming the law (which came) before me, and giving glad tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad'" (Quran 61:6). Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Virani|first=Shafique N.|year=2011|title=Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community|url=https://www.academia.edu/36996009|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=70|issue=1|pages=99–139|doi=10.1017/S0021911810002974|s2cid=143431047|issn=0021-9118}} p. 128.</ref>

== Traditional Muslim account ==
[[File:Prophet home mecca.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Bayt al-Mawlid]]'' ({{coord|21|25|30|N|39|49|48|E|type:landmark_scale:5000_region:SA|name=Bayt al-Mawlid / Makkah Al Mukarramah Library}}), the birthplace of Muhammad. After his migration, the house was taken and sold by Aqil ibn Abi Talib. In modern times, the house was demolished and converted into a library in 1951.]]

=== Early years ===

Muhammad, the son of 'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim and his wife Aminah, was born in [[Religion:Year of the Elephant|570 CE, approximately]],<ref name="abraha">* {{cite journal|last1=Conrad|first1=Lawrence I.|year=1987|title=Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=50|issue=2|pages=225–40|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00049016|s2cid=162350288}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby|url=https://archive.org/details/elementsofjewish00burnuoft|title=Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan calendars: with rules and tables and explanatory notes on the Julian and Gregorian calendars|publisher=G. Bell|year=1901|page=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofjewish00burnuoft/page/465 465]}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Hamidullah|first=Muhammad|date=February 1969|title=The Nasi', the Hijrah Calendar and the Need of Preparing a New Concordance for the Hijrah and Gregorian Eras: Why the Existing Western Concordances are Not to be Relied Upon|url=http://aaiil.org/text/articles/islamicreview/1969/02feb/islamicreview_196902.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=The Islamic Review & Arab Affairs|pages=6–12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105021544/http://aaiil.org/text/articles/islamicreview/1969/02feb/islamicreview_196902.pdf|archive-date=5 November 2012}}</ref><ref group="n">Opinions about the exact date of Muhammad's birth slightly vary. Shibli Nomani and Philip Khuri Hitti fixed the date to be 571 CE. But August 20, 570 CE is generally accepted. See Muir, vol. ii, pp. 13–14 for further information.</ref> in the city of Mecca in the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]]. He was a member of the family of Banu Hashim, a respected branch of the prestigious and influential Quraysh tribe. It is generally said that 'Abd al-Muttalib named the child "Muhammad" ({{lang-ar|مُحَمَّد}}).<ref name="Sell">{{cite book |last=Sell |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Sell (priest) |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=http://www.muhammadanism.org/Canon_Sell/muhammad/life_muhammad.pdf |access-date=19 January 2013 |year=1913 |location=Madras |page=7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031202846/http://www.muhammadanism.org/Canon_Sell/muhammad/life_muhammad.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2013 }}</ref>

==== Orphanhood ====
Muhammad was orphaned when young. Some months before the birth of Muhammad, his father died near Medina on a mercantile expedition to [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/12 12]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref><ref name="Volume 9 1997 page 261">Article "AL-SHĀM" by C.E. Bosworth, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Volume 9 (1997), page 261.</ref><ref name="Salibi2003">{{cite book |author=Kamal S. Salibi |title=A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_amYLJq4SQC |year=2003 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-912-7 |pages=61–62 |quote=To the Arabs, this same territory, which the Romans considered Arabian, formed part of what they called [[Place:Bilad al-Sham|Bilad al-Sham]], which was their own name for Syria. From the classical perspective however Syria, including [[Place:Palestine (region)|Palestine]], formed no more than the western fringes of what was reckoned to be Arabia between the first line of cities and the coast. Since there is no clear dividing line between what are called today the [[Place:Syrian Desert|Syrian]] and Arabian deserts, which actually form one stretch of arid tableland, the classical concept of what actually constituted Syria had more to its credit geographically than the vaguer Arab concept of Syria as Bilad al-Sham. Under the Romans, there was actually a province of Syria, with its capital at Antioch, which carried the name of the territory. Otherwise, down the centuries, Syria like Arabia and Mesopotamia was no more than a geographic expression. In Islamic times, the Arab geographers used the name arabicized as Suriyah, to denote one special region of Bilad al-Sham, which was the middle section of the valley of the Orontes river, in the vicinity of the towns of Homs and [[Company:Hama|Hama]]. They also noted that it was an old name for the whole of Bilad al-Sham which had gone out of use. As a geographic expression, however, the name Syria survived in its original classical sense in Byzantine and Western European usage, and also in the Syriac literature of some of the Eastern Christian churches, from which it occasionally found its way into Christian Arabic usage. It was only in the nineteenth century that the use of the name was revived in its modern Arabic form, frequently as Suriyya rather than the older Suriyah, to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham: first of all in the Christian Arabic literature of the period, and under the influence of Western Europe. By the end of that century it had already replaced the name of Bilad al-Sham even in Muslim Arabic usage. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516031507/https://books.google.com/books?id=t_amYLJq4SQC |archive-date=2016-05-16 }}</ref> When Muhammad was six, he accompanied his mother Amina on her visit to Medina, probably to visit her late husband's tomb. While returning to Mecca, Amina died at a desolate place called Abwa, about half-way to Mecca, and was buried there. Muhammad was now taken in by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who himself died when Muhammad was eight, leaving him in the care of his uncle Abu Talib. In Islamic tradition, Muhammad's being orphaned at an early age has been seen as a part of divine plan to enable him to "develop early the qualities of self-reliance, reflection, and steadfastness".<ref name=Khan-15>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/15 15]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> Muslim scholar Muhammad Ali sees the tale of Muhammad as a spiritual parallel to the life of Moses, considering many aspects of their lives to be shared.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Ali (writer) |title=Introduction to the Study of The Holy Qur'an |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_j9ayrVpHMC&pg=PT113 |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-934271-21-6 |page=113 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029034335/https://books.google.com/books?id=f_j9ayrVpHMC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=2015-10-29 }}</ref> The Quran said about Moses: "I cast (the garment of love) over thee from Me, so that thou might be reared under My eye. ... We saved thee from all grief, although We tried thee with various trials. ... O Moses, I have chosen thee for Mine Own service" ({{cite quran|20|39-41|s=ns|b=n}}). Taking into account the idea of this spiritual parallelism, together with other aspects of Muhammad's early life, it has been suggested that it was God under Whose direct care Muhammad was raised and prepared for the responsibility that was to be conferred upon him.<ref name=Khan-15 /> Islamic scholar Tariq Ramadan argued that Muhammad's orphan state made him dependent on God and close to the destitute&nbsp;– an "initiatory state for the future Messenger of God".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/11 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/11 11] }}</ref>

==== Early life ====
{{Six Islamic Prophets}}
According to Arab custom, after his birth, infant Muhammad was sent to Banu Sa'ad clan, a neighboring Bedouin tribe, so that he could acquire the pure speech and free manners of the desert.<ref name="Muir">{{cite book |last=Muir |first=William |title=Life of Mahomet |url=https://archive.org/details/lifemahomet00muirgoog |access-date=18 January 2013 |volume=2 |year=1861 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=London |page=xvii-xviii }}</ref> There, Muhammad spent the first five years of his life with his foster-mother Halima. Islamic tradition holds that during this period, God sent two angels who opened his chest, took out the heart, and removed a blood-clot from it. It was then washed with Zamzam water. In Islamic tradition, this incident signifies the idea that God purified his prophet and protected him from sin.<ref>Stefon, ''Islamic Beliefs and Practices'', pp. 22–23</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Al Mubarakpuri |first=Safi ur Rahman |title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA74 |year=2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=74 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031184558/https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2015-10-31 }}</ref>

Islamic belief holds that God protected Muhammad from getting involved in any disrespectful and coarse practice. Even when he verged on any such activity, God intervened. [[Religion:Hadith|Prophetic tradition]] narrates one such incident in which it is said on the authority of Ibn Al-Atheer that while working as herdsman at early period of his life, young Muhammad once told his fellow-shepherd to take care of his sheep so that the former could go to the town for some recreation as the other youths used to do. But on the way, his attention was diverted to a wedding party, and he sat down to listen to the sound of music only to soon fall asleep. He was awakened by the heat of the sun. Muhammad reported that he never tried such things again.<ref>Ramadan (2007), p. 16</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/17 17]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref><ref>Al Mubarakpuri (2002); [[Religion:Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum|Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum]] (The Sealed Nectar) pp. 81–3</ref>

Around the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib in a mercantile journey to [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]], and gained experience in commercial enterprise.<ref name=Khan-16>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/16 16]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> On this journey Muhammad is said to have been recognized by a Christian monk, Bahira, who prophesied about Muhammad's future as a prophet of God.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>Sell (1913), p. 12</ref>

Around the age of twenty five, Muhammad was employed as the caretaker of the mercantile activities of Khadijah, a distinguished Qurayshi lady.

Attracted by his noble ethics, honesty and trustworthiness, she sent a marriage proposal to Muhammad through her maid-servant Meisara. As Muhammad gave his consent, the marriage was solemnized in the presence of his uncle.

==== Social welfare ====
Between 580 CE and 590 CE, Mecca experienced a bloody feud between Quraysh and Bani Hawazin that lasted for four years, before a truce was reached. After the truce, an alliance named [[Religion:Hilf al-Fudul|Hilf al-Fudul]] (The Pact of the Virtuous)<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama|url-access=registration |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/21 21]|isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 }}</ref> was formed to check further violence and injustice; and to stand on the side of the oppressed, an oath was taken by the descendants of Hashim and the kindred families, where Muhammad was also a member.<ref name=Khan-16 /> In later days of his life, Muhammad is reported to have said about this pact, "I witnessed a confederacy in the house of 'Abdullah bin Jada'an. It was more appealing to me than herds of cattle. Even now in the period of Islam I would respond positively to attending such a meeting if I were invited."<ref>{{cite book |author=Al Mubarakpuri |title=Al-Fudoul Confederacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA77 |page=77 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031184605/https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2015-10-31 |isbn=9789960899558 |year=2002 }}</ref>

Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with settling a dispute peacefully, regarding setting the sacred [[Religion:Black Stone|Black Stone]] on the wall of [[Religion:Kaaba|Kaaba]], where the clan leaders could not decide on which clan should have the honor of doing that. The Black stone was removed to facilitate the rebuilding of Kaaba because of its dilapidated condition. The disagreement grew tense, and bloodshed became likely. The clan leaders agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate of Kaaba and ask him to choose. The 35-year-old Muhammad entered through that gate first, asked for a mantle which he spread on the ground, and placed the stone at its center. Muhammad had the clans' leaders lift a corner of it until the mantle reached the appropriate height, and then himself placed the stone on the proper place. Thus, an ensuing bloodshed was averted by the wisdom of Muhammad.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>Stefon, ''Islamic Beliefs and Practices'', p. 24</ref><ref>Al Mubarakpuri (2002); p. 80</ref>

=== Prophethood ===
{{Muhammad}}
Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final messenger and prophet of God who began receiving direct verbal revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five [[Religion:Ayah|verses]] of sura Al-Alaq that the archangel [[Biography:Gabriel#Islam|Jibril]] brought from God to Muhammad in the cave Mount Hira.<ref name=Brown-72>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel  |title=A New Introduction to Islam |year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional |isbn=978-0-631-21604-9 |pages=72–73}}</ref><ref name=Sell-29>{{cite book |last= Sell |first= Edward  |title= The Life of Muhammad |year=1913 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=Madras |page=29}}</ref>

After his marriage with Khadijah and during his career as a merchant, although engaged in commercial activities and family affairs, Muhammad gradually became preoccupied with contemplation and reflection.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref name="Haykal-77">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA77|title=The Life of Muhammad|last=Haykal|first=Muhammad Husayn|year=2008|isbn=9789839154177|page=77}}</ref> and began to withdraw periodically to a cave named Mount Hira, three miles north of [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogle |first=Emory C. |title=Islam: Origin and Belief |year=1998 |publisher=Texas University Press |isbn=978-0-292-70862-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islam00emor/page/6 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/islam00emor/page/6 }}</ref> According to Islamic tradition, in the year 610 CE, during one such occasion while he was in contemplation, Jibril appeared before him and said 'Recite', upon which Muhammad replied: 'I am unable to recite'. Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and embraced him heavily. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:<ref name=Brown-72 /><ref name=Sell-29 />
{{Quote|Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created-<br />Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood:<br />Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,-<br />He Who taught (the use of) the pen,-<br />Taught man that which he knew not.|Quran, chapter 96 (Al-Alaq), verse 1-5<ref>{{cite quran|96|1|e=5|s=ns}}</ref>}} This was the first verbal revelation. Perplexed by this new experience, Muhammad made his way to home where he was consoled by his wife Khadijah, who also took him to her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah was familiar with scriptures of the Torah and [[Religion:Gospel|Gospel]]. Islamic tradition holds that Waraka, upon hearing the description, testified to Muhammad's prophethood.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>Sell (1913), p. 30</ref> It is also reported by Aisha that Waraqah ibn Nawfal later told Muhammad that Muhammad's own people would turn him out, to which Muhammad inquired "Will they really drive me out?" Waraka replied in the affirmative and said "Anyone who came with something similar to what you have brought was treated with hostility; and if I should be alive till that day, then I would support you strongly."<ref>Ramadan (2007), p. 30</ref><ref>Al Mubarakpuri (2002); "Gabriel brings down the Revelation", pp. 86-7</ref> Some Islamic scholars argue that Muhammad was foretold in the Bible.<ref name="HessWenham1998">{{cite book |author1=Richard S. Hess |author2=Gordon J. Wenham |title=Make the Old Testament Live: From Curriculum to Classroom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2IaCV-fon4C&pg=PA139 |access-date=4 April 2013 |year=1998 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-4427-9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012232200/http://books.google.com/books?id=J2IaCV-fon4C&pg=PA139 |archive-date=12 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Tataminbwas>{{cite web |publisher=Truth Will Prevail Productions |title=The Absolute Truth About Muhammad in the Bible With Arabic Titles |url=https://archive.org/details/The_Absolute_Truth_About_Muhammad_in_the_Bible_With_Arabic_Subtitles |access-date=2016-10-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909013313/https://archive.org/details/The_Absolute_Truth_About_Muhammad_in_the_Bible_With_Arabic_Subtitles |archive-date=2016-09-09 }}</ref><ref name="Renaissance2010">[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/SeptBiblicalSt2y6.html Muhammad foretold in the Bible: An Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927205845/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/SeptBiblicalSt2y6.html |date=2007-09-27 }}, by Abdus Sattar Ghauri, retrieved July 3, 2010</ref>

==== Divine revelation ====
{{Main|Religion:Wahy}}
In Islamic belief, revelations are God's word delivered by his chosen individuals&nbsp;– known as Messengers—to humanity.<ref>Campo (2009), "Revelation", ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 589</ref> According to [[Religion:Islamic scholar|Islamic scholar]] Muhammad Shafi Usmani, God created three media through which humans receive knowledge: [[Philosophy:Sense|men's senses]], [[Philosophy:Reason|the faculty of reason]], and divine revelation; and it is the third one that addresses the liturgical and eschatological issues, answers the questions regarding God's purpose behind creating humanity, and acts as a guidance for humanity in choosing the correct way.<ref name="MQIntro">{{cite book |chapter=Introduction |title=Tafsir Maariful Quran |chapter-url=http://www.islamibayanaat.com/MQ/English-MaarifulQuran-MuftiShafiUsmaniRA-Vol-1-IntroHistoryAndPage-0-28.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915231807/http://www.islamibayanaat.com/MQ/English-MaarifulQuran-MuftiShafiUsmaniRA-Vol-1-IntroHistoryAndPage-0-28.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-15 |title-link=Tafsir Maariful Quran }}</ref> In Islamic belief, the sequence of divine revelation came to an end with Muhammad.<ref name="MQIntro" /> Muslims believe these revelations to be the verbatim word of God, which were later collected together, and came to be known as [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], the central [[Religion:Religious text|religious text]] of Islam.<ref name=Campo-570>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA570 |publisher=Facts on File |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|pages=570–573|quote=The Quran is the sacred scripture of Islam. Muslims believe it contains the infallible word of God as revealed to Muhammad the Prophet in the Arabic language during the latter part of his life, between the years 610 and 632… (p. 570). Quran was revealed piecemeal during Muhammad’s life, between 610 C.E. and 632 C.E., and that it was collected into a physical book (mushaf) only after his death. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support this understanding of the Quran’s early development, although they are unclear in other respects. They report that the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656) ordered a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit (d. ca. 655), Muhammad’s scribe, to establish a single authoritative recension of the Quran… (p. 572-3).}}</ref><ref name=Leaman-520>{{cite encyclopedia |editor= Oliver Leaman |encyclopedia= The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA520|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=9-78-0-415-32639-1|page=520}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef|url-access=registration|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2010 |location=New York City |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/39 39–40]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/65 65]–68}}</ref>

==== Early preaching and teachings ====
During the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. The first to believe him was his wife Khadijah, who was followed by [[Biography:Ali|Ali]], his cousin, and Zayd ibn Harithah. Notable among the early converts were Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn Affan, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Masud, Arqam, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Ammar ibn Yasir and Bilal ibn Rabah. In the fourth year of his prophethood, according to Islamic belief, he was ordered by God to make public his propagation of this monotheistic faith (Quran {{cite quran|15|94|s=ns|b=n}}).

Muhammad's earliest teachings were marked by his insistence on the oneness of God (Quran {{cite quran|112|1|s=ns|b=n}}), the denunciation of polytheism (Quran {{cite quran|6|19|s=ns|b=n}}), belief in the Last judgment and its recompense (Quran {{cite quran|84|1|e=15|s=ns|b=n}}), and social and economic justice (Quran {{cite quran|89|17|e=20|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref name="Encarta1" /> In a broader sense, Muhammad preached that he had been sent as God's messenger;<ref name="Campo 2009 p. 492">Campo (2009), "Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 492.</ref> that God is [[Religion:Tawhid|One]] who is all-powerful, creator and controller of this universe (Quran {{cite quran|85|8|e=9|s=ns|b=n}}, Quran {{cite quran|6|2|s=ns|b=n}}), and merciful towards his creations (Quran {{cite quran|85|14|s=ns|b=n}});<ref name=Holt-32>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |page=32}}</ref> that worship should be made only to God;<ref name="Campo 2009 p. 492" /> that ascribing partnership to God is a major sin (Quran {{cite quran|4|48|s=ns|b=n}}); that men would be accountable, for their deeds, to God on [[Religion:Last Judgment|last judgment day]], and would be assigned to heaven or hell (Quran {{cite quran|85|10|e=13|s=ns|b=n}}); and that God expects man to be generous with their wealth and not miserly (Quran {{cite quran|107|1|e=7|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref name=Holt-32 />

=== Opposition and persecution ===
Muhammad's early teachings invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]] who feared the loss not only of their ancestral paganism but also of the lucrative pilgrimage business.<ref name=Campo-493>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |chapter=Muhammad|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA493 |publisher=Facts on File |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|page=493}}</ref> At first, the opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm which proved insufficient to arrest Muhammad's faith from flourishing, and soon they resorted to active persecution.<ref name=Hitti-113>{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |title=History of the Arabs |year=1946 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |pages=113–4|title-link=History of the Arabs (book) }}</ref> These included verbal attack, ostracism, unsuccessful boycott, and physical persecution.<ref name=Campo-493 /><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |page=38}}</ref> Biographers have presented accounts of diverse forms of persecution on the newly converted Muslims by the Quraysh. The converted slaves who had no protection were imprisoned and often exposed to scorching sun. Alarmed by mounting persecution on the newly converts, Muhammad in 615 CE directed some of his followers to migrate to neighboring Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia), a land ruled by king Aṣḥama ibn Abjar famous for his justice, and intelligence.<ref name=ZKhan-42>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/42 42]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> Accordingly, eleven men and four women made their flight, and were followed by more in later time.<ref name=ZKhan-42 /><ref>{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |title=History of the Arabs |year=1946 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |page=114|title-link=History of the Arabs (book) }}</ref>

Back in [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]], Muhammad was gaining new followers, including notable figures like Umar ibn Al-Khattāb. Muhammad's position was greatly strengthened by their acceptance of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], and the Quraysh became much perturbed. Upset by the fear of losing the leading position, and shocked by continuous condemnation of idol-worship in the Quran, the merchants and clan-leaders tried to come to an agreement with Muhammad. They offered Muhammad the prospect of higher social status and advantageous marriage proposal in exchange for forsaking his preaching. Muhammad rejected both offers, asserting his nomination as a messenger by God.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977| isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |pages=36–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/36 36–37]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA98  |year=2008 |pages=98 & 105–6|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref> Unable to deal with this status quo, the Quraysh then proposed to adopt a common form of worship, which was denounced by the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]]: 'Say: O ye the disbelievers, I worship not that which ye worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. To you be your Way, and to me mine' ({{cite quran|109|1| s=ns|b=n}}).

==== Social boycott ====
Thus frustrated from all sides, the leaders of various Quraysh clans, in 617 CE, enacted a complete boycott of Banu Hashim family to mount pressure to lift its protection on Muhammad. The Hashemites were made to retire in a quarter of Abu Talib, and were cut off from outside activities.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA141 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=141}}</ref> During this period, the Hashemites suffered from various scarcities, and Muhammad's preaching confined to only the pilgrimage season.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA98  |year=2008 |pages=144–5|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>William Muir (1861). ''Life of Mahomet. '' vol. vol. 2, p.181</ref> The boycott ended after three years as it failed to serve its end. This incident was shortly followed by the death of Muhammad's uncle and protector Abu Talib and his wife Khadijah.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA148 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |pages=148–150}}</ref> This has largely been attributed to the plight to which the Hashemites were exposed during the boycott.<ref>{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=Islam: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354|url-access=limited |year=2002 |publisher=Modern Library |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-8129-6618-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354/page/n52 13]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/54 54–55]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref>

==== Last years in Mecca ====
The death of his uncle Abu Talib left Muhammad unprotected, and exposed him to some mischief of Quraysh, which he endured with great steadfastness. An uncle and a bitter enemy of Muhammad, Abu Lahab succeeded Abu Talib as clan chief, and soon withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad.<ref name=Holt-39>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |page=39}}</ref> Around this time, Muhammad visited Ta'if, a city some sixty kilometers east of Mecca, to preach Islam, but met with severe hostility from its inhabitants who pelted him with stones causing bleeding. It is said that God sent angels of the mountain to Muhammad who asked Muhammad's permission to crush the people of Ta'if in between the mountains, but Muhammad said 'No'.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Jonathan A.C. |title=Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esoUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-955928-2 |page=22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216213126/https://books.google.com/books?id=esoUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |archive-date=2017-02-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA141 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=165}}</ref> At the pilgrimage season of 620, Muhammad met six men of Khazraj tribe from Yathrib (later named [[Place:Medina|Medina]]), propounded to them the doctrines of Islam, and recited portions of [[Religion:Quran|Quran]].<ref name=Holt-39 /><ref>{{cite book |last= Sell |first= Edward  |title= The Life of Muhammad |year=1913 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=Madras |page=70}}</ref> Impressed by this, the six embraced [[Religion:Islam|Islam]],<ref name="Shibli1" /> and at the Pilgrimage of 621, five of them brought seven others with them. These twelve informed Muhammad of the beginning of gradual development of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]] in [[Place:Medina|Medina]], and took a formal pledge of allegiance at Muhammad's hand, promising to accept him as a prophet, to [[Religion:Tawhid|worship none but one God]], and to renounce certain sins like theft, adultery, murder and the like. This is known as the "First Pledge of al-Aqaba".<ref name=Holt-40>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977| isbn=978-0-521-29135-4|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Sell |first= Edward  |title= The Life of Muhammad |year=1913 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=Madras |page=71}}</ref> At their request, Muhammad sent with them Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair to teach them the instructions of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]]. Biographers have recorded the success of Mus'ab ibn 'Umair in preaching the message of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]] and bringing people under the umbrella of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]] in Medina.<ref>{{cite book |last=Husayn Haykal |first=Muhammad |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA169 |year=2008 |publisher=Islamic Book Trust |location=Selangor |isbn=978-983-9154-17-7 |pages=169–70 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501113658/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC |archive-date=2016-05-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/70 70–1]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref>

The next year, at the pilgrimage of June 622, a delegation of around 75 converted [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s of Aws and Khazraj tribes from Yathrib came. They invited him to come to [[Place:Medina|Medina]] as an arbitrator to reconcile the hostile tribes.<ref name=Hitti-116 /> This is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqabah",<ref name=Holt-40 /><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/73 73]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> and was a 'politico-religious' success that paved the way for his and his followers' emigration to [[Place:Medina|Medina]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Sell |first= Edward  |title= The Life of Muhammad |year=1913 |publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co. |location=Madras |page=76}}</ref> Following the pledges, Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Yathrib in small groups, and within a short period, most of the [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s of [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]] migrated there.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first= Muhammad Zafrullah |title= Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA75 |year= 1980 |publisher= Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=[[Place:London|London]] |isbn= 978-0-7100-0610-3 |page=75 |quote= Accordingly, within a very short period, despite the opposition of the Quraysh, most of the Muslims in Mecca managed to migrate to Yathrib. }}</ref>

==== Emigration to Medina ====
{{Main|Religion:Hijrah}}
[[File:Masjid khuba.JPG|thumb|right|Inside view of Quba Mosque]]
Because of assassination attempts from the Quraysh, and prospect of success in Yathrib, a city {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us|abbr=on}} north of Mecca, Muhammad emigrated there in 622 CE.<ref name="Holt-41">{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977| isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |page=41}}</ref> According to Muslim tradition, after receiving divine direction to depart Mecca, Muhammad began taking preparation and informed Abu Bakr of his plan. On the night of his departure, Muhammad's house was besieged by men of the Quraysh who planned to kill him in the morning. At the time, Muhammad possessed various properties of the Quraysh given to him in trust; so he handed them over to '[[Biography:Ali|Ali]] and directed him to return them to their owners. It is said that when Muhammad emerged from his house, he recited the ninth verse of [[Religion:Surah|surah]] Ya Sin of the Quran and threw a handful of dust at the direction of the besiegers, rendering the besiegers unable to see him.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ibn Kathir |title=Stories of the Prophet: From Adam to Muhammad |year=2001 |publisher=Dar Al-Manarah |location=[[Place:Mansoura, Egypt|Mansoura, Egypt]] |isbn=978-977-6005-17-4 |page=389|author-link=Ibn Kathir }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ya-Seen Ninth Verse|url=http://quran.com/36/9|access-date=4 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306151049/http://quran.com/36/9|archive-date=6 March 2014}} [http://irebd.com/quran/english/surah-36/verse-9/ Quran Surah Yaseen ( Verse 9 )]</ref> After eight days' journey, Muhammad entered the outskirts of Medina on 28 June 622,<ref name=FazlurRehman-51>{{cite book |last= Shaikh |first= Fazlur Rehman |title=Chronology of Prophetic Events |year=2001 |publisher= Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. |location= London |pages=51–52}}</ref> but did not enter the city directly. He stopped at a place called Quba', a place some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there. On 2 July 622, he entered the city.<ref name=FazlurRehman-51 /> Yathrib was soon renamed ''Madinat an-Nabi'' ({{lang-ar|مَدينة النّبي}}, literally "City of the Prophet"), but ''an-Nabi'' was soon dropped, so its name is "Medina", meaning "the city".<ref>F. A. Shamsi, "The Date of Hijrah", ''Islamic Studies'' '''23''' (1984): 189-224, 289-323 ([https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847270 JSTOR link 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090126/http://www.jstor.org/stable/20847270 |date=2016-03-04 }} + [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847277 JSTOR link 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226152008/http://www.jstor.org/stable/20847277 |date=2016-12-26 }}).</ref>

=== In Medina ===
[[File:Thaniat Al-Wadaa.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The place where the people of Medina welcomed Muhammad when he came from Mecca]]
In Medina, Muhammad's first focus was on the construction of a mosque, which, when completed, was of an austere nature.<ref>Armstrong (2002), p. 14</ref> Apart from being the center of prayer service, the mosque also served as a headquarters of administrative activities. Adjacent to the mosque was built the quarters for Muhammad's family. As there was no definite arrangement for calling people to prayer, Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed to call people in a loud voice at each prayer time, a system later replaced by [[Religion:Adhan|Adhan]] believed to be informed to Abdullah ibn Zayd in his dream, and liked and introduced by Muhammad.

The Emigrants of Mecca, known as [[Religion:Muhajirun|Muhajirun]], had left almost everything there and came to Medina empty-handed. They were cordially welcomed and helped by the Muslims of Medina, known as [[Religion:Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] (the helpers). Muhammad made a formal bond of fraternity among them<ref>Muir (1861), vol. 3, p. 17</ref> that went a long way in eliminating long-established enmity among various tribes, particularly Aws and Khazraj.<ref>Ibn Kathir (2001), Translated by Sayed Gad, p. 396</ref>

==== Establishment of a new polity ====
After the arrival of Muhammad in Medina, its people could be divided into four groups:<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/88 88]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref><ref>Sell (1913), pp. 86-87.</ref>
# The Muslims: emigrants from Mecca and Ansars of Medina.
# The [[Religion:Munafiq|hypocrites]]; they nominally embraced Islam, but actually were against it.
# Those from Aws and Khazraj who were still pagans, but were inclined to embrace Islam.
# The Jews; they were huge in number and formed an important community there.
In order to establish peaceful coexistence among this heterogeneous population, Muhammad invited the leading personalities of all the communities to reach a formal agreement which would provide a harmony among the communities and security to the city of Medina, and finally drew up the Constitution of Medina, also known as the Medina Charter, which formed "a kind of alliance or federation" among the prevailing communities.<ref name="Holt-41"/> It specified the mutual rights and obligations of the Muslims and Jews of Medina, and prohibited any alliance with the outside enemies. It also declared that any dispute would be referred to Muhammad for settlement.<ref>Campo (2009), Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 493</ref>

==== Persistent hostility of Quraysh ====
Before the arrival of Muhammad, the clans of Medina had suffered a lot from internal feuds and had planned to nominate Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy as their common leader with a view to restoring peace. The arrival of Muhammad rendered this design unlikely, and from then Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy began entertaining hostility towards Muhammad. Soon after Muhammad's settlement in Medina, Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy received an ultimatum from the Quraysh directing him to fight or expel the Muslims from Medina, but was convinced by Muhammad not to do that.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |last= Al Mubarakpuri |first= Safi ur Rahman |chapter= The attempts of the Quraysh to provoke the Muslims |title= The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC |access-date= 2011-11-11 |year= 2002 |publisher= Darussalam |isbn= 978-9960-899-55-8 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130527215439/http://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb |archive-date= 2013-05-27 |title-link= Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum }}</ref><ref name="Khan 1980, p. 90">Khan, Muhammad Zafrullah (1980). ''Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets'', p. 90</ref> Around this time, Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh, chief of Aws, went to Mecca to perform Umrah. Because of mutual friendship, he was hosted and escorted by a Meccan leader, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, but the two could not escape the notice of Abu Jahl, an archenemy of Islam. At the sight of Sa'ad, Abu Jahl became angry and threatened to stop their visit to [[Religion:Kaaba|Kaaba]] as his clan had sheltered the Muhammad. Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh also threatened to hinder their trading caravans.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref name="Khan 1980, p. 90" />

Thus, there remained a persistent enmity between the Muslims and the Quraysh tribe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251798/The-early-battles |title=Muhammad |year=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |access-date=19 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516044749/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251798/The-early-battles |archive-date=16 May 2013 }}</ref> The Muslims were still few and without substantial resources, and fearful of attacks.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/91 91]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref>

==== Causes of and preparation for fighting ====
Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |title=Islam |year=1979 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810/page/21 21] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 }}</ref> The Quraysh leaders of Mecca persecuted the newly converted Muslims there, and they migrated to Medina to avoid persecution, abandoning their properties. Muhammad and the Muslims found themselves in a more precarious situation in Medina than in Mecca.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/93 93]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> Besides the ultimatum of the Quraysh they had to confront the designs of the [[Religion:Munafiq|hypocrites]], and had to be wary of the pagans and Jews also.<ref>Armstrong (2002), p. 19</ref> The trading caravans of Quraysh, whose usual route was from Mecca to [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]], used to set the neighboring tribes of Medina against the Muslims, which posed a great danger to the security of Muslims of Medina<ref name=Khan-96>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/96 96]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> given that war was common at that time. In view of all this, the Quran granted permission to the persecuted Muslims to defend themselves: "Permission to fight is granted to those against whom war is made, because they have been wronged, and God indeed has the power to help them. They are those who have been driven out of their homes unjustly only because they affirmed: "Our Lord is God"" (Quran {{cite quran|22|39-40|s=ns|b=n}}). The Quran further justifies taking defensive measures by stating that "And if God had not repelled some men by others, the earth would have been corrupted. But God is a Lord of Kindness to (His) creatures" (Quran {{cite quran|2|251|s=ns|b=n}}). According to Quranic description, war is an abnormal and unenviable way which, when inevitable, should be limited to minimal casualty, and free from any kind of transgression on the part of the believers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/94 94]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref> In this regard, the Quran says, "Fight in the cause of God with those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors" ({{cite quran|2|190|s=ns|b=n}}), and "And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression" ({{cite quran|2|193|s=ns|b=n}}).

Thus, to ensure the security of the [[Religion:Ansar (Islam)|Ansars]] and [[Religion:Muhajirun|Muhajirun]] of Medina, Muhammad resorted to the following measures:
# Visiting the neighboring tribes to enter into non-aggression treaty with them to secure Medina from their attacks.<ref>Al Mubarakpuri (2002), "Permission to fight"</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/95 95]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref>
# Blocking or intercepting the trading caravans of the Quraysh to compel them into a compromise with the Muslims. As these trading enterprises were the main strength of the Quraysh, Muhammad employed this strategy to reduce their strength.<ref name="Shibli1" />
# Sending small scouting parties to gather intelligence about Quraysh movement, and also to facilitate the evacuation of those Muslims who were still suffering in Mecca and could not migrate to Medina because of their poverty or any other reason.<ref name=Khan-96 /> It is in this connection that the following verse of the Quran was revealed: "And why should you not fight in the cause of God and for those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee one who will protect; and raise for us from Thee one who will help!"" (Quran {{cite quran|4|75|s=ns|b=n}}).

==== Battle of Badr ====
[[File:Badr campaign recolorized.svg|thumb|right|A map of the Badr campaign]]
A key battle in the early days of Islam, the Battle of Badr was the first large-scale battle between the nascent Islamic community of Medina and their opponent Quraysh of Mecca where the Muslims won a decisive victory. The battle has some background. In 2 AH (623 CE) in the month of [[Religion:Rajab|Rajab]], a Muslim patrolling group attacked a Quraysh trading caravan killing its elite leader Amr ibn Hazrami. The incident happening in a sacred month displeased Muhammad, and enraged the Quraysh to a greater extent.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>Haykal (2008), pp. 225–26</ref> The Quran however neutralizes the effect saying that bloodshed in sacred month is obviously prohibited, but Quraysh paganism, persecuting on the Meccan converts, and preventing people from the Sacred Mosque are greater sins (Quran {{cite quran|2|217|s=ns|b=n}}). Traditional sources say that upon receiving intelligence of a richly laden trading caravan of the Quraysh returning from Syria to Mecca, Muhammad took it as a good opportunity to strike a heavy blow on Meccan power by taking down the caravan in which almost all the Meccan people had invested.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=4|year=1986 |location= English Translation by Muhammad Shameem. Lahore |pages=160–1|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|author-link= Muhammad Shafi Usmani}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=William Montgomery Watt |title=Muhammad at Medina |year=1956 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1|page=10}}</ref> With full liberty to join or stay back, Muhammad amassed some 313 inadequately prepared men furnished with only two horses and seventy camels, and headed for a place called Badr. Meanwhile, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, got the information of [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]] march, changed his route towards south-west along Red Sea, and send out a messenger, named Damdam ibn Umar, to [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]] asking for immediate help. The messenger exaggerated the news in a frenzy style of old Arab custom, and misinterpreted the call for protecting the caravan as a call for war.<ref name=MQ-4-163>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=4|year=1986|location= Lahore |page=163|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|author-link= Muhammad Shafi Usmani}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA252 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=252}}</ref>

The Quraysh with all its leading personalities except Abu Lahab marched with a heavily equipped army of more than one thousand men with ostentatious opulence of food supply and war materials.<ref name=MQ-4-163 /><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA253 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=253}}</ref> Abu Sufyan's second message that the trading caravan successfully had escaped the [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]] interception, when reached the Quraish force, did not stop them from entering into a major offensive with the Muslim force, mainly because of the belligerent Quraysh leader Abu Jahl.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |last= Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=Muhammad at Medina |year=1956 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=11}}</ref> The news of a strong Quraysh army and its intention reaching the Islamic prophet Muhammad, he held a council of war where the followers advised him to go forward. The battle occurred on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH) and resulted in a heavy loss on the Quraysh side: around seventy men, including chief leaders, were killed and a similar number were taken prisoner. Islamic tradition attributes the Muslim victory to the direct intervention of God: he sent down angels that emboldened the Muslims and wreaked damage on the enemy force.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=4|year=1986|location= Lahore |pages=169–70|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|}}</ref>

==== Treason, attacks, and siege ====
The defeat at the battle of Badr provoked the Quraysh to take revenge on Muslims. Meanwhile, two Qurayshi men&nbsp;– Umayr ibn Wahb and Safwan ibn Umayya&nbsp;– conspired to kill Muhammad. The former went to Medina with a poisoned sword to execute the plan but was detected and brought to Muhammad. It is said that Muhammad himself revealed to Umayr his secret plan and Umayr, upon accepting Islam, began preaching Islam in Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/127 127–28]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Al Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar |chapter=An Attempt on the Life of the Prophet |year=2002 |isbn=9789960899558 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527215439/http://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb |archive-date=2013-05-27 }}</ref> The Quraysh soon led an army of 3,000 men and fought the Muslim force, consisting of 700 men, in the Battle of Uhud. Despite initial success in the battle, the Muslims failed to consummate victory due to the mistake of the strategically posted archers. The predicament of Muslims at this battle has been seen by Islamic scholars as a result of disobedience of the command of Muhammad: Muslims realized that they could not succeed unless guided by him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Muhammad Zafrullah|title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets|year=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan/page/151 151]|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadsealofpr0000khan}}</ref>

The Battle of Uhud was followed by a series of aggressive and treacherous activities against the Muslims in Medina. Tulaiha ibn Khuweiled, chief of Banu Asad, and Sufyan ibn Khalid, chief of Banu Lahyan, tried to march against Medina but were rendered unsuccessful. Ten Muslims, recruited by some local tribes to learn the tenets of Islam, were treacherously murdered: eight of them being killed at a place called Raji, and the remaining two being taken to Mecca as captives and killed by Quraysh.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Al Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar |chapter=Ar-Raji Mobilization |year=2002 |isbn=9789960899558 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527215439/http://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb |archive-date=2013-05-27 }}</ref> About the same time, a group of seventy Muslims, sent to propagate Islam to the people of Nejd, was put to a massacre by Amir ibn Tufail's Banu Amir and other tribes. Only two of them escaped, returned to Medina, and informed Muhammad of the incidents.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Husayn Haykal |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=297 |year=2008 |page=297 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025101700/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=297 |archive-date=2015-10-25 |isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref>
Around 5th AH (627 CE), a large combined force of at least 10,000 men from Quraysh, Ghatafan, Banu Asad, and other pagan tribes known as the confederacy was formed to attack the Muslims mainly at the instigation and efforts of Jewish leader Huyayy ibn Akhtab and it marched towards Medina. The trench dug by the Muslims and the adverse weather foiled their siege of Medina, and the confederacy left with heavy losses. The Quran says that God dispersed the disbelievers and thwarted their plans ({{cite quran|33|5|s=ns|b=n}}). The Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, who were allied with Muhammad before the Battle of the Trench, were charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]].<ref name="Peterson">Peterson, ''Muhammad: the prophet of God'', p. 125-127.</ref><ref>Ramadan, ''In the Footsteps of the Prophet'', p. 140.</ref> After Banu Qurayza agreed to accept whatever decision Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh would take about them, Sa'ad pronounced that the male members be executed and the women and children be considered as war captives.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/146 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/146 146] |publisher=New York, NY : Oxford University Press }}</ref><ref>Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'', vol. 1, p. 191.</ref><ref>Brown, ''A New Introduction to Islam'', p. 81.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Lings |first= Martin |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources |url= https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140 |url-access= limited |year=1987 |publisher= Inner Traditions International Limited |isbn=978-0-89281-170-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140/page/n234 231]–232}}</ref>

==== Treaty with the Quraysh ====
Around 6 AH (628 CE) the nascent Islamic state was somewhat consolidated when Muhammad left Medina to perform [[Religion:Hajj|pilgrimage]] at Mecca, but was intercepted en route by the Quraysh who, however, ended up in a treaty with the Muslims known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/11 11]}}</ref> Though the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty were apparently unfavorable to the Muslims of Medina, the Quran declared it as a clear victory ({{cite quran|48|1|s=ns|b=n}}). Muslim historians mention that through the treaty, the Quraysh recognized Muhammad as their equal counterpart and Islam as a rising power,<ref>{{cite book |author=Haykal |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=380 |year=2008 |pages=380–81 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025101704/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=380 |archive-date=2015-10-25 |isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref> and that the treaty mobilized the contact between the Meccan pagans and the Muslims of Medina resulting in a large number of Quraysh conversion into Islam after being attracted by the Islamic norms.<ref name="Shibli1" />

=== Victory ===
[[File:Muhammad letter muqawqis.jpg|thumb|right|Artifact of Muhammad's letter to the Muqawqis, ruler of Egypt- actual document on the right with transcription on the left- Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul]]
Around the end of the 6 AH and the beginning of the 7 AH (628 CE), Muhammad sent letters to various heads of state asking them to accept Islam and to worship only one God.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lings |first=Martin |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140 |url-access=limited |year=1987 |publisher=Inner Traditions International Limited |isbn=978-0-89281-170-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140/page/n263 260]}}</ref> Notable among them were Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantium; Khosrau II, the emperor of Persia; the Negus of Ethiopia; Muqawqis, the ruler of [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]; Harith Gassani, the governor of [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]]; and Munzir ibn Sawa, the ruler of Bahrain. In the 6 AH, Khalid ibn al-Walid accepted [[Religion:Islam|Islam]] who later was to play a decisive role in the expansion of Islamic empire. In the 7 AH, the Jewish leaders of Khaybar&nbsp;– a place some 200 miles from Medina&nbsp;– started instigating the Jewish and Ghatafan tribes against Medina.<ref name="Shibli1" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Zafrullah Khan |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=225 |year=1980 |page=225 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025032947/https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=225 |archive-date=2015-10-25 |isbn=9780710006103 }}</ref> When negotiation failed, Muhammad ordered the blockade of the Khaybar forts, and its inhabitants surrendered after some days. The lands of Khaybar came under Muslim control. Muhammad however granted the Jewish request to retain the lands under their control.<ref name="Shibli1" /> In 629 CE (7 AH), in accordance with the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims performed their lesser pilgrimage (''Umrah'') to Mecca and left the city after three days.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/12 12]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=408 |year=2008 |publisher=Islamic Book Trust |isbn=978-983-9154-17-7 |pages=408 & 411}}</ref>

==== Conquest of Mecca ====
In 629 CE, The Banu Bakr tribe, an ally of Quraysh, attacked the Muslims' ally tribe Banu Khuza'a, and killed several of them.<ref>Khan, Majid Ali (1998), p. 274</ref> The Quraysh openly helped Banu Bakr in their attack, which in return, violated the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Of the three options now advanced by Muhammad, they decided to cancel the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.<ref>Khan, Majid Ali (1998), p. 274-5</ref> Muhammad started taking preparation for Mecca campaign. On 29 November 629 (6th of Ramadan, 8 AH),<ref>{{cite book |author=Fazlur Rehman Shaikh |title=Chronology of Prophetic Events |year=2001 |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd |location=London |page=72}}</ref> Muhammad set out with 10,000 [[Religion:Companions of the Prophet|companions]], and stopped at a nearby place from Mecca called Marr-uz-Zahran. When Meccan leader Abu Sufyan came to gather intelligence, he was detected and arrested by the guards. Umar ibn al-Khattab wanted the execution of Abu Sufyan for his past offenses, but Muhammad spared his life after he converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |author=Haykal |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=433 |year=2008 |pages=388, 432–33 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025101708/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=433 |archive-date=2015-10-25 |isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref> On 11 December 629 (18th of Ramadan, 8 AH), he entered Mecca almost unresisted, and declared a general amnesty for all those who had committed offences against Islam and himself.<ref name=Ramadan-178 /><ref name=Haykal-438 /> He then destroyed the idols&nbsp;– placed in and around the Kaaba&nbsp;– reciting the Quranic verse: "''Say, the truth has arrived, and falsehood perished. Verily, the falsehood is bound to perish''" (Quran {{cite quran|17|81|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref name=Hitti-118 /><ref name=Ramadan-177 /> William Muir comments, "The magnanimity with which Muhammad treated a people who had so long hated and rejected him is worthy of all admiration."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bible.ca/islam/library/Gilchrist/Vol1/1d.html |title=An Outline of the Life of Muhammad |access-date=17 June 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103022519/http://www.bible.ca/islam/library/Gilchrist/Vol1/1d.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref>

==== Conquest of Arabia ====
Soon after the Mecca conquest, the Banu Hawazin tribe together with the Banu Thaqif tribe gathered a large army, under the leadership of Malik Ibn 'Awf, to attack the Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=445  |year=2008 |page=445|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA475 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=475}}</ref> At this, the Muslim force, which included the newly converts of Mecca, went forward under the leadership of Muhammad, and the two armies met at the valley of Hunayn. Though at first disarrayed at the sudden attack of Hawazin, the Muslim force recollected mainly at the effort of Muhammad, and ultimately defeated the Hawazin. The latter was pursued at various directions.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA450  |year=2008 |page=450|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA480 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=480}}</ref> After Malik bin 'Awf along with his men took shelter in the fort of Ta'if, the Muslim army besieged it which however yielded no significant result, compelling them to return Medina. Meanwhile, some newly converts from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and made a plea to release their women and children who had been captivated from the battlefield of Hunayn. Their request was granted by the Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA456  |year=2008 |pages=456–7|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA487 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=487}}</ref>

After the Mecca conquest and the victory at the Battle of Hunayn, the supremacy of the Muslims was somewhat established throughout the Arabian peninsula.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=461  |year=2008 |page=461|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Holt, P. M.|editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=IA| year=1977| isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |page=52}}</ref> Various tribes started to send their representatives to express their loyalty to Muhammad. In the year 9 AH (630 CE), [[Religion:Zakat|Zakat]] – which is the obligatory charity in Islam – was introduced and was accepted by most of the people. A few tribes initially refused to pay it, but gradually accepted.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=477  |year=2008 |pages=477|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref>

[[File:Tabuk, Saudi Arabia locator map.png|thumb|right|Tabuk, Saudi Arabia]]
In October 630 CE, upon receiving news that the [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] was gathering a large army at the Syrian area to attack Medina, and because of reports of hostility adopted against Muslims,<ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA495 |year= 2002 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |page=495}}</ref> Muhammad arranged his Muslim army, and came out to face them. On the way, they reached a place called Hijr where remnants of the ruined Thamud nation were scattered. Muhammad warned them of the sandstorm typical to the place, and forbade them not to use the well waters there.<ref name="Shibli1" /> By the time they reached [[Place:Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]], they got the news of Byzantine's retreat,<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=483  |year=2008 |pages=482|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref> or according to some sources, they came to know that the news of Byzantine gathering was wrong.<ref>{{cite book |last= Lings |first= Martin |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources |url= https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140 |url-access= limited |year=1987 |publisher= Inner Traditions International Limited |isbn=978-0-89281-170-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140/page/n322 319]}}</ref> Muhammad signed treaties with the bordering tribes who agreed to pay tribute in exchange of getting security. It is said that as these tribes were at the border area between [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]] (then under Byzantine control) and Arabia (then under Muslim control), signing treaties with them ensured the security of the whole area.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=484  |year=2008 |pages=484|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref> Some months after the return from Tabuk, Muhammad's infant son Ibrahim died which eventually coincided with a sun eclipse. When people said that the eclipse had occurred to mourn Ibrahim's death, Muhammad said: "the sun and the moon are from among the signs of God. The eclipses occur neither for the death nor for the birth of any man".<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=488  |year=2008 |pages=488–9|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Al-Huseini  |first=Syed Farouq M. |title=Islam and the Glorious Kaabah |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FS8GAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2014  |publisher= Trafford Publishing |location=United States |isbn=978-1-4907-2912-1 |pages=103–4}}</ref> After the Tabuk expedition, the Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif sent their representative team to Muhammad to inform their intention of accepting Islam on condition that they be allowed to retain their Lat idol with them and that they be exempted from prayers. Given that there were inconsistent with Islamic principles, Muhammad rejected their demands and said "There is no good in a religion in which prayer is ruled out".<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=493  |year=2008 |pages=493–4|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Lings |first= Martin |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources |url= https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140 |url-access= limited |year=1987 |publisher= Inner Traditions International Limited |isbn=978-0-89281-170-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140/page/n324 321]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Al-Mubarakpuri |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqjCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT280 |year= 2014 |publisher=Darussalam |pages=280–1}}</ref> After Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif accepted Islam, many other tribes of [[Place:Hejaz|Hejaz]] followed them and declared their allegiance to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=495 |year=2008 |publisher=Islamic Book Trust |location=Malaysia |isbn= 9789839154177|page=495|quote= With the destruction of al Lat and the conversion of al-Thaqif, the conversion of the Hijaz was complete. Muhammad's power expanded from the frontiers of Byzantium in the north to al Yaman and Hadramawt in the south. The territories of South Arabia were all preparing to join the new religion and integrate themselves into a system of defense. That is why delegations from all corners proceeded to Madinah to declare allegiance to the new order and to convert to the new faith. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first= Muhammad Zafrullah |title= Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247 |year= 1980 |publisher= Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=[[Place:London|London]] |isbn= 978-0-7100-0610-3 |page=247 |quote= The adhesion of Taif and the destruction of its famous idol had enhanced the Holy Prophet’s fame throughout the south and east of the peninsula. A stream of submissive embassies from all quarters now flowed uninterruptedly towards Medina.}}</ref>

=== Final days ===

==== Farewell Pilgrimage ====
In 631 CE, during the Hajj season, Muhammad appointed Abu Bakr to lead 300 Muslims to the pilgrimage in Mecca. As per old custom, many pagans from other parts of Arabia came to Mecca to perform pilgrimage in pre-Islamic manner. [[Biography:Ali|Ali]], at the direction of Muhammad, delivered a sermon stipulating the new rites of Hajj and abrogating the pagan rites. He especially declared that no unbeliever, pagan, and naked man would be allowed to circumambulate the Kaaba from the next year.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=500  |year=2008 |page=500|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |title=Muhammad and the origins of Islam |publisher=SUNY Press |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadorigins00pete |url-access=registration |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1875-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadorigins00pete/page/251 251] }}</ref> After this declaration was made, a vast number of people of Bahrain, Yemen, and Yamama, who included both the pagans and the people of the book, gradually embraced Islam. Next year, In 632 CE, Muhammad performed hajj and taught Muslims first-hand the various rites of Hajj.<ref name="Haykal 2008 522">{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=522  |year=2008 |page=522|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref name=Campo-494 /> On the 9th of [[Religion:Dhu al-Hijjah|Dhu al-Hijjah]], from Mount Arafat, he delivered his [[Religion:Farewell Sermon|Farewell Sermon]] in which he abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system, repudiated racial discrimination, and advised people to "be good to women". According to Sunni [[Religion:Tafsir|tafsir]], the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran {{cite quran|5|3|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref name="Haykal 2008 522" /><ref name=Campo-494 /><ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=3|year=1986 |location= English Translation by Muhammad Shamim. Lahore |page=45|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|}}</ref>

==== Death ====
Soon after his return from the pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He was confined to bed by Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Muir|1892|p=1}} During his illness, he appointed Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in the mosque.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=534  |year=2008 |pages=534|isbn=9789839154177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Lings |first= Martin |title=Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources |url= https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140 |url-access= limited |year=1987 |publisher= Inner Traditions International Limited |isbn=978-0-89281-170-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadhislifeb00ling_140/page/n342 339]}}</ref> He ordered to donate the last remaining coins in his house as charity. It is narrated in Sahih al-Bukhari that at the time of death, Muhammad was dipping his hands in water and was wiping his face with them saying "There is no god but God; indeed death has its pangs."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor= Oliver Leaman |encyclopedia= The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA171|publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1|pages=171}}</ref> He died on June 8 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A. |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/13 13]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaikh|first1=Fazlur Rehman|title=Chronology of Prophetic Events|date=2001|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd|location=London|pages=78–79}}</ref>

== Legacy ==

=== Final prophet ===
Muhammad is regarded as the final messenger and prophet by all the main branches of Islam who was sent by God to guide humanity to the right way ([[Religion:Quran|Quran]] {{cite quran|7|157|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref name=Esposito-12/><ref name="Nigosian 2004 17" /><ref name=Campo-494>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA494 |publisher=Facts on File |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |page=494 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930121515/https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A1438126964&pg=PA494#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2015-09-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Malcolm |title=Islam for Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT100 |year=2003 |publisher=Wiley Publishing Inc. |location=Indiana |page=100 |isbn=9781118053966 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043530/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT100#v=onepage&q&f=true |archive-date=2015-09-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad |title=Muhammad |year=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |access-date=27 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202060950/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad |archive-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref> The Quran uses the designation ''Khatam an-Nabiyyin {{cite quran|33|40|s=ns|b=n}}'' ''('''Arabic:''''' خاتم النبين'')'' which is translated as ''Seal of the Prophets''. The title is generally regarded by Muslims as meaning that Muhammad is the last in the series of prophets beginning with Adam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Khatam al-Nabiyyin |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford |page=171 |quote=Khatam al-Nabiyyin: Seal of the prophets. Phrase occurs in Quran 33:40, referring to Muhammad, and is regarded by Muslims as meaning that he is the last of the series of prophets that began with Adam.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Seal of the Prophets, The |encyclopedia=Dictionary of Qur'ānic Terms and Concepts |author-first=Mustansir |author-last=Mir |year=1987 |publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York |page=171 |quote= Muḥammad is called "the seal of the prophets" in 33:40. The expression means that Muḥammad is the final prophet, and that the institution of prophecy after him is "sealed."}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=K͟HĀTIMU 'N-NABĪYĪN |encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, Together with the Technical and Theological Terms, of the Muhammadan Religion |first=Thomas Patrick |last=Hughes |year=1885 |publisher=W. H. Allen |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDtbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA270 |page=270 |quote=K͟HĀTIMU 'N-NABĪYĪN (خاتم النبيين). "The seal of the Prophets." A title assumed by Muhammad in the Qur'ān. Surah xxxiii. 40: "He is the Apostle of God and the 'seal of the Prophets'." By which is meant, that he is the last of the Prophets. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004045311/https://books.google.com/books?id=rDtbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA270 |archive-date=2015-10-04 }}</ref> The belief that a new prophet cannot arise after Muhammad is shared by both Sunni and Shi'i Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldziher|first1=Ignác|author-link1=Ignác Goldziher|title=Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law|date=1981|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|pages=220–21|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6zeStDQZOSgC&pg=PA220|chapter=Sects|others=Translated by Andras and Ruth Hamori from the German ''Vorlesungen über den Islam'' (1910)|isbn=0691100993|quote=Sunnī and Shī'ī theology alike understood it to mean that Muhammad ended the series of Prophets, that he had accomplished for all eternity what his predecessors had prepared, that he was God's last messenger delivering God's last message to mankind.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005103712/https://books.google.com/books?id=6zeStDQZOSgC&pg=PA220|archive-date=2015-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title='Ali |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |volume=1 |editor-first=Richard C. |editor-last=Martin |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xL9YAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37}}</ref> Believing Muhammad is the last prophet is a fundamental belief in Islamic theology.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1=Coeli Fitzpatrick |editor2=Adam Hani Walker |encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AtvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |publisher=[[Company:ABC-CLIO|ABC-CLIO]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-61069-178-9 |page=16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427082038/https://books.google.com/books?id=2AtvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |archive-date=2016-04-27 |title=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God &#91;2 volumes&#93; }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bogle |first=Emory C. |title=Islam: Origin and Belief |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IpFhLDUw20gC&pg=PA135 |access-date=18 October 2015 |year=1998 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-70862-4 |page=135 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624053507/https://books.google.com/books?id=IpFhLDUw20gC&pg=PA135 |archive-date=24 June 2016 }}</ref>

=== Moral character ===
Muslims believe that Muhammad was the possessor of moral [[Philosophy:Virtue|virtue]]s at the highest level, and was a man of moral excellence.<ref name=Stefon-58 /><ref name=Campo-494 /> He represented the 'prototype of human perfection' and was the best among God's creations.<ref name=Stefon-58 /><ref name=Nigosian-15>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A.  |title= Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url= https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn= 978-0-253-21627-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/15 15]}}</ref> The {{cite quran|68|4|s=ns|b=n}} verse of the Quran says: 'And you [Muhammad] are surely on exalted quality of character'. Consequently, to the Muslims, his life and character are an excellent example to be emulated both at social and spiritual levels.<ref name=Campo-494 /><ref name=Nigosian-15 /><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/48 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/48 48] }}</ref> The virtues that characterize him are modesty and [[Philosophy:Humility|humility]], [[Philosophy:Forgiveness|forgiveness]] and generosity, [[Philosophy:Honesty|honesty]], [[Philosophy:Justice|justice]], [[Philosophy:Patience|patience]], and, self-denial.<ref name=Stefon-58 /><ref>{{cite book| last=Khan |first=Muhammad Zafrullah |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |year = 1980 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=264}}</ref> Muslim biographers of Muhammad in their books have shed much light on the moral character of Muhammad. Besides, there is a genre of biography that approaches his life focusing on his moral qualities rather than discussing the external affairs of his life.<ref name=Stefon-58 /><ref name=Campo-494 />

According to biographers, Muhammad lived a simple and austere life often characterized by poverty.<ref name=ZKhan-266>{{cite book| last=Khan |first=Muhammad Zafrullah |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA266 |year = 1980 |isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=266 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/117 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/117 117–118] |publisher=New York, NY : Oxford University Press }}</ref> He was more bashful than a maiden, and was rare to laugh in a loud voice; rather, he preferred soft smiling.<ref name=Shibli-2>Shibli Nomani. ''[[Religion:Sirat-un-Nabi|Sirat-un-Nabi]]'', vol 2. Lahore</ref> Ja'far al-Sadiq, a descendant of Muhammad and an acclaimed scholar, narrated that Muhammad was never seen stretching his legs in a gathering with his companions and when he would shake hands, he would not pull his hand away first.<ref name= "Kulayni">{{cite book |last1=al-Kulayni |first1=Muhammad ibn Ya‘qub |title=Al-Kafi |date=2015 |publisher=Islamic Seminary Incorporated |location=NY |isbn=9780991430864 |edition=Volume 6 }}</ref> It is said that during the conquest of Mecca, when Muhammad was entering into the city riding on a camel, his head lowered, in gratitude to God, to the extent that it almost touched the back of the camel.<ref name=Ramadan-177 /><ref name=Shibli-2 /><ref>{{cite book |author=Ibn Kathir |title=Stories of the Prophets: From Adam to Muhammad |year=2001 |publisher= Dar Al-Manarah |location=English Translation by Sayed Gad et all. Mansura |isbn=978-977-6005-17-4 |page=423|title-link=Stories of the Prophets (Ibn Kathir) |author-link=Ibn Kathir }}</ref> He never took revenge from anyone for his personal cause.<ref name=Shibli-2 /><ref>{{cite book| last=Khan |first=Muhammad Zafrullah |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263 |year = 1980 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3|page=263 |quote=He was most forgiving and forbearing in respect of personal wrongs suffered by him.}}</ref> He maintained honesty and justice in his deeds.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/77 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/77 77] |quote=He scrupulously applied the principles of honesty and justice that Islam had taught him, whomever he dealt with, be they Muslims or non-Muslims. |publisher=New York, NY : Oxford University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Khadduri |first=Majid  |title=The Islamic Conception of Justice |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicconceptio0000khad |url-access=registration |year=1984 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6974-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicconceptio0000khad/page/8 8]}}</ref> When an elite woman in Medina was accused of theft, and others pleaded for the mitigation of the penalty, Muhammad said: "Even if my daughter Fatima were accused of theft, I would pronounce the same verdict." He preferred mildness and leniency in behavior and in dealing with affairs,<ref name=ZKhan-266 /><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/111 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/111 111–13] }}</ref> and is reported as saying: "He who is not merciful to others, will not be treated mercifully (by God)" ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|8|73|42}}). He pardoned many of his enemies in his life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/194 |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/194 194] }}</ref> Biographers especially mention his forgiving the Meccan people after the Conquest of Mecca who at the early period of Islam tortured the Muslims for a long time, and later fought several battles with the Muslims.<ref name=Ramadan-178 /><ref name=Haykal-438 />

=== Muslim veneration ===
Muhammad is highly venerated by the Muslims,<ref>{{cite book |last=Rippin |first=Andrew |title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KTX7M-Mr-YC&q=andrew+rippin+muslims |year=2005 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-34888-1 |page=200 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929022508/https://books.google.com/books?id=1KTX7M-Mr-YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=andrew+rippin+muslims&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BL9uUf3SLpOu2gW0sYGwAw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=andrew%20rippin%20muslims&f=false |archive-date=2015-09-29 }}</ref> and is sometimes considered by them to be the greatest of all the prophets.<ref name=Esposito-12/><ref name=Morgan77 /><ref name=Mead5 /> Muslims do not worship Muhammad as worship in Islam is only for God.<ref name=Mead5 /><ref name=DianeMorgan101>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Diane |title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36025-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/101 101] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Arshad |title=Islam, Muslims, and America: Understanding the Basis of Their Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LacP0-C6MEC&pg=PA172 |year=2003 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-87586-194-4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527165418/https://books.google.com/books?id=5LacP0-C6MEC&pg=PA172 |archive-date=2016-05-27 }}</ref> In Muhammad's own words, he said: 'Do not extol me as the Christians extolled the son of Mary, I am merely a servant'.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Barker|first1=Gregory A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xMUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|title=Jesus Beyond Christianity: The Classic Texts|last2=Gregg|first2=Stephen E.|date=2010-01-28|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-955345-7|language=en}}</ref> Muslim understanding and reverence for Muhammad can largely be traced to the teachings of Quran which emphatically describes Muhammad's exalted status. To begin with, the Quran describes Muhammad as ''al-nabi al-ummi'' or unlettered prophet (Quran {{cite quran|7|158|s=ns|b=n}}), meaning that he "received his religious knowledge only from God".<ref name="Campo494">Campo (2009), p. 494</ref> As a result, Muhammad's examples have been understood by the Muslims to represent the highest ideal for human conduct, and to reflect what God wants humanity to do. The Quran ranks Muhammad above previous prophets in terms of his moral excellence and the universal message he brought from God for humanity. The Quran calls him the "beautiful model" (''al-uswa al-hasana'') for those who hope for God and the last day (Quran {{cite quran|33|21|s=ns|b=n}}). Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent not for any specific people or region, but for all of humanity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onislam.net/english/shariah/muhammad/reflections/449209-the-universal-message-of-the-prophet.html |title=The Universal Message of the Prophet |author=Zeki Saritoprak |year=2013 |work=OnIslam |publisher=OnIslam.net |access-date=17 April 2013}}</ref>

Muslims venerate Muhammad in various ways:
*In proclamation of Islamic faith, the attestation to [[Religion:Tawhid|oneness of God]] is always followed by the declaration "verily, I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God".<ref name="Stefon18" />
*In speaking or writing, Muslims attach the title "Prophet" to Muhammad's name, and always follow it with ''sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam'' ({{lang|ar|صَلّى الله عليه وسلّم}}, "[[Religion:Peace be upon him|Peace be upon him]]"),<ref name="Stefon18" /> sometimes abbreviated SAW, PBUH, or {{lang|ar|ﷺ}}.
*Muhammad's tomb in Medina is considered the second most holy place for Muslims,<ref name="Campo494" /> and is visited by most pilgrims who go to Mecca for Hajj.<ref name="Bennett1998">{{cite book|author=Clinton Bennett|title=In search of Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182|year=1998|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-304-70401-9|pages=182–83|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922131141/https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182|archive-date=2015-09-22}}</ref><ref name="Clark2011">{{cite book|author=Malcolm Clark|title=Islam For Dummies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-05396-6|page=165|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035138/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165|archive-date=2015-09-24}}</ref>
*Muslims often use various titles of praise and appellations to express Muhammad's exalted status.<ref name="Stefon18" />

=== Sunnah: A model for Muslims ===
{{Rquote|right|'''For more than thirteen hundred years Muslims have modeled their lives after their prophet Muhammad. They awaken every morning as he awakened; they eat as he ate; they wash as he washed; and they behave even in the minutest acts of daily life as he behaved.'''|'''S. A. Nigosian'''}}
In Muslim legal and religious thought, Muhammad, inspired by God to act wisely and in accordance with his will, provides an example that complements God's revelation as expressed in the Quran; and his actions and sayings&nbsp;– known as [[Religion:Sunnah|Sunnah]]&nbsp;– are a model for Muslim conduct.<ref>"Sunnah." In ''The Islamic World: Past and Present''. Ed. John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 22-Apr-2013. {{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e332 |title=Sunnah - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=2013-04-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419025308/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e332 |archive-date=2014-04-19 }}</ref> The Sunnah can be defined as "the actions, decisions, and practices that Muhammad approved, allowed, or condoned".<ref name="Nigosian80">Nigosian (2004), p. 80</ref> It also includes Muhammad's confirmation to someone's particular action or manner (during Muhammad's lifetime) which, when communicated to Muhammad, was generally approved by him.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Taqi Usmani |title=The Authority of Sunnah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&pg=PA6 |page=6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064636/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&lpg=PA5&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2015-10-22 |year=2004 }}</ref> The Sunnah, as recorded in the [[Religion:Hadith|Hadith]] literature, encompasses everyday activities related to men's domestic, social, economic, political life.<ref name="Nigosian80" /> It addresses a broad array of activities and Islamic beliefs ranging from the simple practices like, for example, the proper way of entering into a mosque, and private cleanliness to the most sublime questions involving the love between God and humans.<ref name="Stefon59">Stefon, ''Islamic Beliefs and Practices'', p. 59</ref> The Sunnah of Muhammad serves as a model for the Muslims to shape their life in that light. The Quran tells the believers to offer prayer, to fast, to perform pilgrimage, to pay [[Religion:Zakat|Zakat]], but it was Muhammad who practically taught the believers how to perform all these.<ref name="Stefon59" /> In Islamic theology, the necessity to follow the examples (the Sunnah) of Muhammad comes from the ruling of the Quran which it describes in its numerous verses. One such typical verse is "And obey God and the Messenger so that you may be blessed" (Quran {{cite quran|3|132|s=ns|b=n}}). The Quran uses two different terms to denote this: ''ita’ah'' (to obey) and ''ittiba'' (to follow). The former refers to the orders of Muhammad, and the latter to his acts and practices.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Authority of Sunnah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&pg=PA9|page=9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204143843/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&lpg=PA5&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=2015-12-04|last1=ʻus̲Mānī|first1=Muḥammad Taqī|year=2004}}</ref> Muhammad often stressed the importance of education and intelligence in the Muslim [[Religion:Ummah|Ummah]] because it removes ignorance and promotes acceptance and tolerance. This can be illustrated when Muhammad advises his cousin Ali that, "No poverty is more severe than ignorance and no property is more valuable than intelligence."<ref name="Kulayni" />

=== Pre-existence ===
Muslims also venerate Muhammad as the manifestation of the [[Unsolved:Logos (Islam)|Muhammadan Light]].<ref>Josiane Cauquelin, Paul Lim, Birgit Mayer-Koenig ''Asian Values: Encounter with Diversity'' Routledge 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-136-84125-5}}</ref> Accordingly, Muhammad's spirit already existed before the creation of the world and he was actually the first prophet created, but the last who was sent.<ref name="ReferenceA">Marion Holmes Katz ''The Birth of The Prophet Muhammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam'' Routledge 2007 {{ISBN|978-1-135-98394-9}} page 13</ref> A hadith from Al-Tirmidhi states, that Muhammad was once asked, when his prophethood was decreed and he answered: "When Adam was between the spirit and the body." A more popular, but less authenticated version states,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> that Muhammad answered: "when Adam was between water and mud."<ref>G. Widengren ''Historia Religionum, Volume 2 Religions of the Present, Band 2'' Brill 1971 {{ISBN|978-9-004-02598-1}} page 177</ref> Both Sunni and Shia sources later elaborated [[Astronomy:Cosmogony|cosmogonic]] scenarios in which the world emanated from the light of Muhammad.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> According to a Sunni tradition, when Adam was in heaven, he read an inscription on the throne of God of the ''Shahada'', Muhammad already mentioned. There also exists an extended version in Shia traditions. Therefore, the ''Shahada'' does not only mention Muhammad, but also [[Biography:Ali|Ali]].<ref>M.J. Kister ''Adam: A Study of Some Legends in Tafsir and Hadit Literature'' ''Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of The Qur'an, Oxford 1988'' p.129</ref>

However the idea of Muhammad's pre-existence was also a controversial one and disputed by some scholars like [[Biography:Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazali]] and [[Biography:Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyyah]].<ref>Marion Holmes Katz ''The Birth of The Prophet Muhammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam'' Routledge 2007 {{ISBN|978-1-135-98394-9}} page 14</ref> Although the notion of the pre-existing Muhammad takes some resemblance of the [[Religion:Christianity|Christian]] doctrine of the [[Religion:Pre-existence of Christ|pre-existence of Christ]], in Islam there can not be found any trace of Muhammad as a second person within the Godhead.<ref>Rom Landau ''The Philosophy of Ibn 'Arabi'' Routledge 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-135-02969-2}}</ref>

=== Muhammad as lawgiver ===
In Islamic [[Religion:Sharia|Sharia]], the [[Religion:Sunnah|Sunnah]] of Muhammad is regarded a vital source for Islamic law, next in importance only to the Quran.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Taqi Usmani|title=The Authority of Sunnah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&pg=PA5|page=5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064633/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&lpg=PA5&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=2015-10-22|year=2004}}</ref><ref name="AR">{{cite web |url=http://thecorner.wordpress.com/2006/06/22/the-life-significance-of-muhammad-2/ |title=The Life & Significance of Muhammad |author= Abdur Rahman |access-date=8 March 2013|date=2006-06-22 }}</ref> Additionally, the Quran in its several verses authorizes Muhammad, in his capacity as a prophet, to promulgate new laws. The {{cite quran|7|157|s=ns|b=n}} verse of the Quran says, "those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet whom they find written down in the Torah and the Injil, and who (Muhammad) bids them to the Fair and forbids them the Unfair, and makes lawful for them the good things, and makes unlawful for them the impure things,... So, those who believe in him, and honor him, and help him, and follow the light that has been sent down with him (Muhammad)&nbsp;– they are the ones who acquire success." Commenting on this verse, [[Religion:Mufti|Islamic scholar]] Muhammad Taqi Usmani says, "one of the functions of the Holy Prophet (saaw) is ''to make lawful the good things and make unlawful the impure things''. This function has been separated from ''bidding the fair and forbidding the unfair'', because the latter relates to the preaching of what has already been established as fair, and warning against what is established as unfair, while the former embodies the making of lawful and unlawful".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Authority of Sunnah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&pg=PA46|pages=46–47|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064626/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&lpg=PA5&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=2015-10-22|last1=ʻus̲Mānī|first1=Muḥammad Taqī|year=2004}}</ref> Taqi Usmani recognizes two kinds of revelations&nbsp;– the "recited" one which is collectively known as Quran, and the "unrecited" one that Muhammad received from time to time to let him know God's will regarding how human affairs should be&nbsp;– and concludes that Muhammad's prophetic authority to promulgate new laws had its base on the later type. Therefore, in Islamic theology, the difference between God's authority and that of his messenger is of great significance: the former is wholly independent, intrinsic and self-existent, while the authority of the latter is derived from and dependent on the revelation from God.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Authority of Sunnah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&pg=PA48|page=48|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064629/https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxvo6IUo5IC&lpg=PA5&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=2015-10-22|last1=ʻus̲Mānī|first1=Muḥammad Taqī|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lassner |first=Jacob |title=Islam in the Middle Ages: The Origins and Shaping of Classical Islamic Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yHiTZ3L_Qh4C&pg=PA238 |year=2010 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=California |isbn=978-0-313-04709-1 |page=238 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427040559/https://books.google.com/books?id=yHiTZ3L_Qh4C&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A031304709X&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2017-04-27 }}</ref>

=== Muhammad as intercessor ===
Muslims see Muhammad as primary intercessor and believe that he will intercede on behalf of the believers on [[Religion:Last Judgment|Last Judgment]] day.<ref name="MC103">{{cite book|author=Malcolm Clark|title=Islam For Dummies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT103|page=103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029034341/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT103|archive-date=2015-10-29|isbn=9781118053966|date=2011-03-10}}</ref> This non-Qur'anic vision of Muhammad's eschatological role appears for the first time in the inscriptions of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed in 72/691-692.<ref>{{Citation|last=Tillier|first=Mathieu|title='Abd al-Malik, Muḥammad et le Jugement dernier: le dôme du Rocher comme expression d'une orthodoxie islamique|url=http://books.openedition.org/psorbonne/53878|work=Les vivants et les morts dans les sociétés médiévales : XLVIIIe Congrès de la SHMESP (Jérusalem, 2017)|pages=351|series=Histoire ancienne et médiévale|date=3 April 2020|place=Paris|publisher=Éditions de la Sorbonne|isbn=979-10-351-0577-8}}</ref> Islamic tradition narrates that after [[Unsolved:Resurrection|resurrection]] when humanity will be gathered together and they will face distress due to heat and fear, they will come to Muhammad. Then he will intercede for them with God and the judgment will start.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title=Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=5|year=1986 |location= English Translation by Muhammad Shameem. Lahore |pages=538. See commentary on 17:79|title-link=Tafsir Maariful Quran|author-link=Muhammad Shafi Usmani}}</ref> [[Religion:Hadith|Hadith]] narrates that Muhammad will also intercede for the believers who for their sins have been taken to [[Religion:Hell|hell]]. Muhammad's intercession will be granted and a lot of believers will come out of hell.<ref>{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|9|93|507}}</ref>
=== Muhammad and the Quran ===
{{Islamic prophets}}
To Muslims, the Quran is the verbatim word of God which was revealed, through Gabriel, to Muhammad<ref>{{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Clinton|title=In Search of Muhammad|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofmuhamm00benn|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Cassell|location=London|isbn=978-0-304-70401-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofmuhamm00benn/page/2 2]}}</ref> who delivered it to people without any change (Q53:2-5,<ref>{{cite quran|53|2-5|s=ns|b=n}}</ref> 26:192-195),<ref>{{cite quran|26|192-195|s=ns|b=n}}</ref> Thus, there exists a deep relationship between Muhammad and the Quran. Muslims believe that as a recipient of the Quran, Muhammad was the man who best understood the meaning of the Quran, was its chief interpreter, and was granted by God "the understanding of all levels of Quran's meaning".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251799/Muhammad-and-the-Quran |title=Muhammad and the Quran |year=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=7 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117061518/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251799/Muhammad-and-the-Quran |archive-date=17 January 2013 }}</ref> In Islamic theology, if a report of Muhammad's Quranic interpretation is held to be authentic, then no other interpretative statement has higher theoretical value or importance than that.<ref name="AR" />

In Islamic belief, though the inner message of all the divine revelations given to Muhammad is essentially the same, there has been a "gradual evolution toward a final, perfect revelation".<ref name="Nigosian17">Nigosian (2004), p. 17</ref> It is in this case that Muhammad's revelation excels the previous ones as Muhammad's revelation is considered by the Muslims to be "the completion, culmination, and perfection of all the previous revelations".<ref name="Nigosian17" /> Consequently, when the Quran declares that Muhammad is the final prophet after which there will be no future prophet (Q33:40),<ref>{{cite quran|33|40|s=ns|b=n}}</ref> it is also meant that the Quran is the last revealed divine book.

=== Names and titles of praise ===

Muhammad is often referenced with these titles of praise or epithet:
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* ''an-Nabi'', 'the Prophet';
* ''ar-Rasul'', 'the Messenger';
* ''al-Habeeb'', 'the beloved';
* ''al-Muṣṭafa'', 'the chosen one' ({{Quran-usc|22|75|s=ns}});
* ''al-Amin'', 'the trustworthy' ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|52|237}});
* ''as-Sadiq'', 'the honest'({{Quran-usc|33|22|s=ns}});
* ''al-Haq'', 'the truthful' ({{Quran-usc|10|08|s=ns}});
* ''ar-Rauf'', 'the kind' ({{Quran-usc|9|128|s=ns}});
* ''‘alā khuluq ‘aẓīm'' ({{lang-ar|عَلَى خُلُق عِظِيْم}}), 'on an exalted standard of character' ({{Quran-usc|68|4|s=ns}});
* ''al-Insan al-Kamil'', 'the perfect man';<ref>[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H022.htm#H022SECT4 Ibn al-'Arabi, Muhyi al-Din (1164–1240), The 'perfect human' and the Muhammadan reality] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921023512/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H022.htm |date=2011-09-21 }}</ref>
* ''Uswah Ḥasan'' ({{lang-ar|أُسْوَة حَسَن}}), 'good example' ({{Quran-usc|33|21|s=ns}});
* ''al-Khatim an-Nabiyin'', 'the seal of the prophets' ({{Quran-usc|33|40|s=ns}});
* ''ar-Rahmatul lil 'alameen'', 'mercy of all the worlds' ({{Quran-usc|21|107|s=ns}});
* ''[[Religion:Shahid|as-Shaheed]]'', 'the witness' ({{Quran-usc|33|45|s=ns}});
* ''al-Mubashir'', 'the bearer of good tidings' ({{Quran-usc|11|2|s=ns}});
* ''an-Nathir'', 'the warner' ({{Quran-usc|11|2|s=ns}});
* ''al-Mudhakkir'', 'the reminder' ({{Quran-usc|88|21|s=ns}});
* ''[[Religion:Dawah|ad-Da'i]]'', 'the one who calls [unto God]' ({{Quran-usc|12|108|s=ns}});
* ''al-Bashir'', 'the announcer' ({{Quran-usc|2|119|s=ns}});
* ''an-Noor'', 'the light personified' ({{Quran-usc|05|15|s=ns}});
* ''as-Siraj-un-Munir'', 'the light-giving lamp' ({{Quran-usc|33|46|s=ns}});
* ''al-Kareem'', 'the noble' ({{Quran-usc|69|40|s=ns}});
* ''an-Nimatullah'', 'the divine favour' ({{Quran-usc|16|83|s=ns}});
* ''al-Muzzammil'', 'the wrapped' ({{Quran-usc|73|01|s=ns}});
* ''al-Muddathir'', 'the shrouded' ({{Quran-usc|74|01|s=ns}});
* ''al-'Aqib'', 'the last [prophet]' ({{Hadith-usc|muslim|usc=yes|4|1859}}, {{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|56|732}});
* ''al-Mutawakkil'', 'the one who puts his trust [in God]' ({{Quran-usc|9|129|s=ns}});
* ''al-Kutham'', 'the generous one’
* ''al-Mahi'', 'the eraser [of disbelief]' ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|56|732|}});
* ''al-Muqaffi'', 'the one who followed [all other prophets]';
* ''[[Religion:Repentance in Islam|an-Nabiyyu at-Tawbah]]'', 'the prophet of penitence’
* ''al-Fatih'', 'the opener';
* ''al-Hashir'', 'the gatherer (the first to be resurrected) on the day of judgement' ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|4|56|732}});
* ''as-Shafe'e'', 'the intercessor' ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|9|93|601|}}, {{Quran-usc|3|159|s=ns}}, {{Quran-usc|4|64|s=ns}}, {{Quran-usc|60|12|s=ns}});
* ''al-Mushaffaun'', 'the one whose intercession shall be granted' ({{Quran-usc|19|87|s=ns}}, {{Quran-usc|20|109|s=ns}}).
{{div col end}}

He also has these names:
* ''Abu'l-Qasim'', "father of Qasim";
* ''Ahmad'', "the Praised one" ({{Quran-usc|61|06|s=ns}});
* ''Hamid'', "praiser";
* ''Mahmood'', "praiseworthy";
* '''Abd-Allah'', "servant of God" ({{Quran-usc|25|1|s=ns}}).

== Miracles ==
[[File:Temple Mount (Aerial view, 2007) 05.jpg|thumb|Masjid Al-Aqsa, in the Old City of Jerusalem, is said to be the location to which Muhammad traveled in his night journey. The location is the [[Religion:Holy Land|third holiest place]] for the [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s.<ref name="Grabar2006">{{cite book|author=Oleg Grabar|title=The Dome of the Rock|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|access-date=26 December 2011|date=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02313-0|page=14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020045/http://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref>]]

Several miracles are said to have been performed by Muhammad.<ref name="EoI-Miracle">A.J. Wensinck, ''Muʿd̲j̲iza'', Encyclopedia of Islam</ref> Muslim scholar Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti, in his book ''Al Khasais-ul-Kubra'', extensively discussed Muhammad's various miracles and extraordinary events. Traditional sources, indicate that Sura {{cite quran|54|1-2|style=nosup|expand=no}} refers to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh.<ref name="EoQ-Miracle">Denis Gril, ''Miracles'', Encyclopedia of the Quran</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, ''Moon''</ref>

=== Isra and Mi'raj ===
{{Main|Religion:Isra and Mi'raj}}
The [[Religion:Isra and Mi'raj|Isra and Mi'raj]] are the two parts of a "Night Journey" that, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad took during a single night around the year 621. It has been described as both a physical and spiritual journey.<ref name=enc>{{cite book | editor = Richard C. Martin | editor2 = Said Amir Arjomand | editor3 = Marcia Hermansen | editor4 = Abdulkader Tayob | editor5 = Rochelle Davis | editor6 = John Obert Voll | title = Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | date = December 2, 2003 | publisher = Macmillan Reference USA | isbn = 978-0-02-865603-8 | page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse/page/482 482] | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse }}</ref> A brief sketch of the story is in ''Sura'' (chapter) 17 ''Al-Isra'' of the Quran,<ref name="alisra">{{Cite quran|17|1|t=y|s=ns}}</ref> and other details come from the ''[[Religion:Hadith|hadith]]''.<ref name=Campo-528>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA185 |publisher=Facts on File |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|pages=528–9}}</ref> In the journey, Muhammad riding on [[Religion:Buraq|Buraq]] travels to the Masjid Al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] where he leads other prophets in prayer. He then ascends to the [[Unsolved:Heaven|heaven]]s, and meets some of the earlier prophets such as Abraham, Joseph, Moses, [[Biography:John the Baptist#Islam|John the Baptist]], and Jesus.<ref name=Campo-528/> During this Night Journey, [[Religion:God in Islam|God]] offered Muhammad five-time  daily prayer for the believers.<ref>{{cite book| last = Vuckovic| first = Brooke Olson| title = Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Mi'raj in the Formation of Islam (Religion in History, Society and Culture)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJmTOQQDxiQC&pg=PA70 | date = 2004| publisher = [[Company:Routledge|Routledge]]| isbn = 978-0-415-96785-3| page =70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Mahmoud| first = Omar| title = Muhammad: an evolution of God| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hqiQwmTDYBUC&q=isra+and+miraj&pg=PA56 | access-date = 27 March 2011| date =2008| publisher = AuthorHouse| isbn = 978-1-4343-5586-7| page = 56| chapter = The Journey to Meet God Almighty by Muhammad—Al-Isra}}</ref><ref name=Campo-528/> According to traditions, the Journey is associated with the ''[[Astronomy:Night|Lailaṫ]] al-Isrā' wal-Mi'rāj'' ({{lang-ar|لَيلَة الإِِسرَاء والمِعرَاج}}), as one of the most significant events in the [[Engineering:Islamic calendar|Islamic calendar]].<ref name=times>{{cite news|title=A night journey through Jerusalem|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article2279985.ece |date=August 18, 2007|access-date=March 27, 2011|author=Bradlow, Khadija|work=Times Online}}</ref>

=== Splitting of the Moon ===

Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with the miracle of the splitting of the [[Astronomy:Moon|moon]].<ref name=MQ-8-238>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=8|year=1986| location= English Translation by Ahmed Khalil Aziz. Lahore|pages=238–240|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|author-link= Muhammad Shafi Usmani}}</ref><ref name= Suyuti>Al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din. ''Al-Khasais-ul-Kubra.''</ref> According to Islamic account, once when Muhammad was in Mecca, the pagans asked him to display a miracle as a proof of his prophethood. It was night time, and Muhammad prayed to God. The moon split into two and descended on two sides of a mountain. The pagans were still incredulous about the credibility of the event but later heard from the distant travelers that they also had witnessed the splitting of the moon.<ref name=MQ-8-238 /><ref name= Suyuti /> Islamic tradition also tends to refute the arguments against the miracle raised by some quarters.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Shafi Usmani |title= Tafsir Maariful Quran| volume=8|year=1986| location= Lahore|pages=240–2|title-link= Tafsir Maariful Quran|author-link= Muhammad Shafi Usmani}}</ref>

=== During the Battle of the Trench ===
On the eve of the Battle of the Trench when the Muslims were digging a ditch, they encountered a firmly embedded rock that could not be removed. It is said that Muhammad, when apprised of this, came and, taking an axe, struck the rock that created spark upon which he glorified God and said he had been given the keys of the kingdom of [[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]]. He struck the rock for a second time in a likewise manner and said he had been given the keys of Persia and he could see its white palaces. A third strike crushed the rock into pieces whereupon he again glorified God and said he had been given the keys of Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muhammad Zafrullah Khan |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=174 |year=1980 |page=174 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005102416/https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=174 |archive-date=2015-10-05 |isbn=9780710006103 }}</ref><ref name="Suyuti1">Al-Suyuti, ''Al-Khasais-ul-Kubra''. Vol 2</ref>

===The Spider and the Dove===
When Muhammad and his close friend Abu Bakr had been threatened by the Quraysh, on their way to Medina, they hid themselves in Mount Thawr's cave. The cave had been concealed by a spider building a web and a dove building a nest at the entrance after they entered the cave,<ref>Jane Dammen McAuliffe Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Volume 1 Georgetown University, Washington DC p. 293</ref> therefore killing a spider became associated with sin.<ref>Gordon Newby (2013), A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Oneworld Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-780-74477-3}}</ref>

== Visual representation ==
Although Islam only explicitly condemns depicting the divinity, the prohibition was supplementally expanded to prophets and saints and among Arab Sunnism, to any living creature.<ref>Titus Burckhardt ''The Void in Islamic Art''  Studies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 16, No. 1 & 2 (Winter-Spring, 1984 p. 2</ref> Although both the Sunni schools of law and the Shia jurisprudence alike prohibit the figurative depiction of Muhammad,<ref name=best>{{cite journal
|jstor=860736 |title=An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions |journal=The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs |author=Arnold, T. W. |date=June 1919 |publisher=The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, No. 195. |volume=34 |issue=195 |pages=249–252}}</ref> visual representations of Muhammad exist in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish texts and especially flourished during the Ilkhanate (1256-1353), [[Place:Timurid Empire|Timurid]] (1370-1506), and Safavid (1501-1722) periods. But apart from these notable exceptions and modern-day Iran,<ref name="GruberHaugbolle2013">Christiane Gruber: [https://www.academia.edu/4061369/Images_of_the_Prophet_In_and_Out_of_Modernity_The_Curious_Case_of_a_2008_Mural_in_Tehran Images of the Prophet In and Out of Modernity: The Curious Case of a 2008 Mural in Tehran], in {{cite book |author1=Christiane Gruber |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLfEClsscNIC&pg=PA25 |title=Visual Culture in the Modern Middle East: Rhetoric of the Image |author2=Sune Haugbolle |date=17 July 2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00894-7 |pages=3–31}} See also [http://arthistorygradforum.tumblr.com/post/74830788716] and [https://www.google.com/maps/place/Motahhari+-+Modarres+Exit,+Tehran,+Iran/@35.724081,51.424456,3a,75y,90t/data=!3m5!1e2!3m3!1s89306537!2e1!3e10!4m2!3m1!1s0x3f8e015c2dbdb1c7:0x86a5a3f81513f9a2].</ref> depictions of Muhammad were rare, and if given, usually with his face veiled.<ref name="Arnold">{{Cite book|publisher = Gorgias Press LLC|isbn = 978-1-931956-91-8|last = Arnold|first = Thomas W.|title = Painting in Islam, a Study of the Place of Pictorial Art in Muslim Culture|orig-year = First published in 1928 |date = 2002–2011|pages = 91–9}}</ref><ref name="Plas1987">{{cite book|author=Dirk van der Plas|title=Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ops3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA124|access-date=14 November 2011|year=1987|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-08655-5|page=124}}</ref>

Most modern Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited<ref name=Larsson>{{cite book|last=Larsson|first=Göran|title=Muslims and the New Media|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-1-4094-2750-6|page=51}}</ref> and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.<ref name=BergenMuhammad>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120131123426/http://www.hf.uib.no/religion/popularikonografi/devotion04.html Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – The prophet Muhammad], University of Bergen</ref> One concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, but also creating an image might lead the artist to claim the ability to create, an ability only ascribed to God.<ref name=Eaton>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Charles Le Gai|title=Islam and the destiny of man|year=1985|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-161-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamdestinyofma0000eato_r5o7/page/207 207]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamdestinyofma0000eato_r5o7}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Taifroad.jpg|A view of Taif with a road at the foreground and mountains at the background. Muhammad went there to preach Islam
File:Al-Masjid al-Nabawi 03.jpg|Masjid an-Nabawi
File:Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi from inside.jpg|Inside view of Masjid an-Nabawi
File:Dome of Prophet's Mosque - Medina.jpg|The Green Dome built over Muhammad's tomb
File:Raouda.JPG|Part of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi where Muhammad's tomb is situated
File:Madinah Haram at sunset (2560580351).jpg|Masjid an-Nabawi at sunset
File:Muhammad Bahrain letter facsimile.png|Facsimile of a letter sent by Muhammad to the Munzir Bin Sawa Al-Tamimi, governor of Bahrain
File:Muhammad-Letter-To-Heraclius.jpg|Muhammad's letter To Heraclius
</gallery>

== See also ==
* Children of Muhammad
* List of biographies of Muhammad
* Islamic mythology
* [[Religion:Muhammad and the Bible|Muhammad and the Bible]]
** Mahammaddim
* Muhammad in the Quran
* Relics of Muhammad
* Stories of The Prophets

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=n}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Muhammad |title=Introduction to the Study of The Holy Qur'an |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_j9ayrVpHMC&pg=PT113 |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-934271-21-6 }}
*{{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Clinton|title= In search of Muhammad|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|location=London|year=1998|isbn=978-0-304-70401-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182}}
*{{cite book|last=Esposito|first=John|title=Islam: The Straight Path|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-511233-7|url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat00espo_0}}
*{{cite book |last=Guillaume |title=The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Isḥāq's sīrat |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume/The_Life_Of_Mohammed_Guillaume#page/n23/mode/2up |year=1955 |location=London |isbn=978-0-19-577828-1 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ghali |first=Muhammad M |title=The History of Muhammad: The Prophet and Messenger |year=2004 |publisher=Al-Falah Foundation |location=[[Place:Cairo|Cairo]] |url=http://www.enjoyislam.com/books/islamic_books/the-history-of-muhammad-the-prophet-and-messenger.pdf }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ggp8OFBIzssC&pg=PA5 alternate URL]
*{{cite book |last=Haykal |first=Muhammad Husayn |title=The Life of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=495 |year=2008 |publisher=Islamic Book Trust |location=Selangor |isbn=978-983-9154-17-7 |page=495}}
*{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |title= History of the Arabs |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13564|year=1946 |publisher=Macmillan and Co |location=London }}
*{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Majid Ali |title=Muhammad the Final Messenger |year=1998 |publisher=Islamic Book Service |location=India |isbn=978-81-85738-25-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Zafrullah |title=Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=baw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 |year=1980 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0-7100-0610-3 }}
*{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/58 58]}}
*{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A.  |title= Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/17 17] |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indiana |isbn= 978-0-253-21627-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama |year=2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 }}
*{{cite book |last=Al Mubarakpuri |first=Safi ur Rahman |title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) |year=2002 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Muir|first=William|title=The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline and Fall, from Original Sources|publisher=University of Michigan; Religious Tract Society|year=1892|isbn=9781417948895}}
*{{cite book |author=Shibli Nomani|title=Sirat-un-Nabi |location=Lahore |title-link=Sirat-un-Nabi }}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |title= Muhammad at Medina. |year=1956 |publisher=Oxford University Press  |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1 }}

{{Prophets in the Qur'an}}
{{Qur'anic people}}
{{Islam topics}}
{{Adam to Muhammad}}


{{Sourceattribution|Muhammad in Islam}}