View source for Religion:Muslim world

{{Short description|Muslim-majority countries, states, districts, or towns}}
[[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|350px|thumb|right|World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014)]]
The terms '''Muslim world''' and '''Islamic world''' commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the [[Religion:Ummah|Ummah]]. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world|title=Islamic world|first1=Marilyn R.|last1=Waldman|first2=Malika|last2=Zeghal|year=2009|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202012901/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> or to societies in which Islam is practiced.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Preface|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor-first=John L.|editor-last=Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|quote=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (OEIW) deals with all aspects of Islam—the world's second largest and fastest-growing religion—and the societies in which it exists, including their religion, politics, economics, everyday life, culture, and thought|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135}}</ref><ref name="BEWH">{{cite encyclopedia|first=Asma|last=Afsaruddin|encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History|edition=2nd|editor-first=William H.|editor-last=McNeill|title=Islamic World|volume=1|publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group|year=2016|quote=The Islamic world is generally defined contemporaneously as consisting of nation-states whose population contains a majority of Muslims. [...] in the contemporary era, the term ''Islamic world'' now includes not only the traditional heartlands of Islam, but also Europe and North America, both of which have sizeable minority Muslim populations|doi=10.1093/acref/9780190622718.001.0001|isbn=9781933782652}}</ref> In a modern [[Earth:Geopolitics|geopolitical]] sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/|magazine=Foreign Policy|title=What Muslim World?|author=Scott Carpenter, Soner Cagaptay|date=2 June 2009|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326231548/https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/|archive-date=26 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BEWH" /> The term '''Muslim-majority countries''' is an alternative often used for the latter sense.<ref name="Jones">{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Gavin W. |date=2005 |title=Islam, the State and Population |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6v38-ZDJYUMC&pg=PA11 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |pages=11–14 |isbn=9781850654933 |access-date=19 September 2017 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620163440/https://books.google.com/books?id=6v38-ZDJYUMC&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Religion:History of Islam|history of the Muslim world]] spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during the Islamic Golden Age. All [[Religion:Muslims|Muslims]] look for guidance to the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]] and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]], but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious [[Religion:Islamic schools and branches|schools of thought]] and sects within Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Islam|url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam|access-date=22 July 2020|website=HISTORY|language=en|archive-date=3 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503051151/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam|url-status=live}}</ref> The Islamic conquests, which culminated in the Arab empire being established across three continents ([[Earth:Asia|Asia]], [[Earth:Africa|Africa]], and [[Earth:Europe|Europe]]), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G6bfDQAAQBAJ&dq=enriched+the+Muslim+world+beyond+imagination,+achieving+the+economic+preconditions+for+the+emergence+of+this+institution+owing+to+the+emphasis+attached+to+Islamic+teachings+on+the+importance+of+righteous&pg=PA195|title=Handbook of Empirical Research on Islam and Economic Life|first=M. Kabir|last=Hassan|date=30 December 2016|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=9781784710736 |via=Google Books}}</ref> In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European [[Social:Colonialism|colonial domination]]. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Ira M. | last=Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) | year = 2014| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 | pages=829–834}}</ref>

{{as of|2013}}, the combined [[Finance:List of countries by GDP (nominal)|GDP (nominal)]] of 60 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7&nbsp;trillion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1035026|title=Economies of the ummah|access-date=16 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216224140/https://www.dawn.com/news/1035026|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> {{as of|2016}}, they contributed 8% of the world's total.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1186109/trailing-behind-muslim-states-make-thin-contribution-global-economy/|title=Muslim countries make thin contribution to global economy|date=22 September 2016|access-date=16 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813011442/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1186109/trailing-behind-muslim-states-make-thin-contribution-global-economy/|archive-date=13 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, the Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP. As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |first1=Michael|last1=Lipka|first2=Conrad|last2=Hackett|publisher=Pew Research Center |date=6 April 2017 |access-date=14 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823093024/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |archive-date=23 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2023 population of Muslims worldwide already exceeds 2 billion.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://munsifdaily.com/muslim-population-in-the-world-exceeds-2-billion-islam-second-largest-religion/ | title=Muslim population in the world exceeds 2 billion; Islam second largest religion | date=11 April 2023 }}</ref>  By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa ([[Finance:MENA#Religion|MENA]]),<ref name="pewmena">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx |title=Region: Middle East-North Africa |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309233947/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx |archive-date=9 March 2013 |url-status=live  |date=27 January 2011}}</ref> 89% in Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|website=Pew|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924113632/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> 40% in Southeast Asia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html|title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|language=en|access-date=14 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320170459/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html|archive-date=20 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> 31% in South Asia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/|title=Region: Asia-Pacific|date=27 January 2011|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010061404/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html|title=The moment American Muslims were waiting for|last=Burke|first=Daniel|website=CNN |date=29 July 2016|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312235900/http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html|archive-date=12 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> 30% in [[Place:Sub-Saharan Africa#Religion|Sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name="pewssa">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx |title=Region: Sub-Saharan Africa |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309234009/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx |archive-date=9 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> 25% in Asia, 1.4% in Oceania,<ref name="pewaspa">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia.aspx |title=Region: Asia-Pacific |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309233927/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia.aspx |archive-date=9 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Muslim population in Oceania: 1950-2020. (n.d.). https://microdata.pacificdata.org/index.php/citations/390#:~:text=Muslims%20in%20Oceania%20Oceania%20consists,total%20population%20of%20the%20continent.</ref> 6% in Europe,<ref name="peweur">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx |title=Region: Europe |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407080033/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and 1% in the Americas.<ref name="pewame">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-americas.aspx |title=Region: Americas |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407082305/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-americas.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Number of Muslims ahead of Catholics, says Vatican|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/31/religion|website=The Guardian|first=Tom|last=Kington|date=31 March 2008|access-date=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902042814/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/31/religion|archive-date=2 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim Population|url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/|publisher=IslamicPopulation.com|access-date=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525045557/http://www.muslimpopulation.com/index.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Field Listing Religions|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html|access-date=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604221011/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html|archive-date=4 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Most Muslims are of one of two [[Religion:Islamic schools and branches|denominations]]: Sunni Islam (87-90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb">* {{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=Pew Research Center |quote=Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims. |date=7 October 2009 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225005131/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&dq=Sunni+Islam&pg=PA3 Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516213612/https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3&dq=Sunni+Islam#v=onepage&q=Sunni%20Islam |date=16 May 2020 }} "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5&nbsp;billion Muslims. |access-date=20 December 2012 |archive-date=12 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012090751/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |access-date=25 August 2010 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 85% of the world's Muslim population... |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211645/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html%20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Religion:Shia Islam|Shia]] (10-13%).<ref name="Shia">See
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii |title=Shiʿi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |date=4 October 2019 |access-date=30 September 2019 |quote=In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi. |archive-date=20 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=7 October 2009 |access-date=24 September 2013 |work=Pew Research Center |quote=The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 15% of the world's Muslim population. |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225005131/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |title=Shia |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |quote=Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 150 million followers who comprise around 10% of all Muslims worldwide... |access-date=5 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070956/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |archive-date=15 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |first=Jalil |last=Roshandel |title=Iran, Israel and the United States |publisher=Praeger Security International |year=2011 |page=15 |isbn=9780313386985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVcmKRyID2EC&pg=PA15 |quote=The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 85 percent of the Islamic population; the other 10 to 15 percent is Shia. |access-date=8 March 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803113257/https://books.google.com/books?id=nVcmKRyID2EC&pg=PA15 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, other denominations exist in pockets, such as [[Religion:Ibadi Islam|Ibadi]] (primarily in Oman). Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable [[Religion:Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools and branches]] are known as non-denominational Muslims.<ref name="theod">{{cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |newspaper=New Europe |location=Brussels |access-date=20 October 2015 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Longton">{{cite news|last1=Longton|first1=Gary Gurr|title=Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims|url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Isis-Jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html|access-date=21 October 2015|publisher=The Sentinel|date=2014|quote=THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326065118/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/isis-jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html|archive-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="Kirkham">{{cite news|last1=Kirkham|first1=Bri|title=Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive|url=http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive|access-date=21 October 2015|date=2015|quote=Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a '''non-denominational Muslim''', and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125113410/http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive|archive-date=25 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="Pollack">{{cite book|last1=Pollack|first1=Kenneth|title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |publisher=Simon and Schuster|date=2014 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unthinkableiranb0000poll/page/29 29] |isbn=9781476733920|url=https://archive.org/details/unthinkableiranb0000poll |url-access=registration|quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more '''nondenominational Muslims'''}}</ref> About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country;<ref name=pew2015countries>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|title=10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050|date=2015-04-02|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=4 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504075835/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% of Muslims live in South Asia,<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}}|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193] |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today|last1=Pechilis|first1=Karen|last2=Raj|first2=Selva J.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415448512 |language=en}}</ref> the largest population of Muslims in the world;<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/how-south-asia-will-save-global-islam/|title=How South Asia Will Save Global Islam|last=Diplomat|first=Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The|newspaper=The Diplomat|access-date=7 February 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327102711/https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/how-south-asia-will-save-global-islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}% in the Middle East–North Africa,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population10/|title=Middle East-North Africa Overview|date=7 October 2009|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=18 January 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=28 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128210559/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population10/|url-status=live}}</ref> where it is the dominant religion;<ref name="pewmuslim22">{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx|title=Region: Middle East-North Africa|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=22 December 2011|date=27 January 2011|archive-date=25 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725215915/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and [[Place:West Africa#Religion|West Africa]] (primarily in Nigeria).<ref name="pewmuslim32">{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx|title=Region: Sub-Saharan Africa|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=22 December 2011|date=27 January 2011|archive-date=28 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728160720/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-ii |title=CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |last=Rowland |first=Richard H. |volume=2 |pages=161–164 |language=en |access-date=25 May 2017 |archive-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916105914/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-ii |url-status=live }}</ref> the majority in the [[Earth:Caucasus#Demographics|Caucasus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/|title=Middle East :: Azerbaijan — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=1 December 2019|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127171042/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://eurasianet.org/the-many-languages-of-islam-in-the-caucasus|title=The Many Languages of Islam in the Caucasus|website=Eurasianet|language=en|access-date=1 December 2019|archive-date=21 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721131035/https://eurasianet.org/the-many-languages-of-islam-in-the-caucasus|url-status=live}}</ref> and widespread in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yusuf|first=Imtiyaz|title=The Middle East and Muslim Southeast Asia: Implications of the Arab Spring|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html|journal=Oxford Islamic Studies|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320170459/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html|archive-date=20 March 2017}}</ref> India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/world/india-invited-as-guest-of-honour-to-oic-meet-sushma-swaraj-to-attend/article26349752.ece |title=India invited as 'Guest of Honour' to OIC meet, Sushma Swaraj to attend |website=@businessline |date=23 February 2019 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316053117/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/world/india-invited-as-guest-of-honour-to-oic-meet-sushma-swaraj-to-attend/article26349752.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, and Egypt are home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, Russia, India, China, and Europe.<ref>{{Citation|title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population|date=21 April 2018|url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230|work=The National|language=en|access-date=13 January 2019|archive-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210257/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim122">{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/|title=Muslim Population by Country|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx|archive-date=9 February 2011|access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/indepth/features/islam-russia-180307094248743.html&ved=2ahUKEwjnwtPN1OXfAhXNSxUIHQhBA4gQFjAMegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw27U7hQK-1THu2LP_Be0os7&ampcf=1&cshid=1547207388328|title=Islam in Russia|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=25 January 2022|archive-date=11 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175543/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/indepth/features/islam-russia-180307094248743.html%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjnwtPN1OXfAhXNSxUIHQhBA4gQFjAMegQIBhAB%26usg%3DAOvVaw27U7hQK-1THu2LP_Be0os7%26ampcf%3D1%26cshid%3D1547207388328|url-status=dead}}</ref> Islam is the [[Religion:Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion in the world]] partially due to their high birth rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |access-date=2023-02-02 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/main-factors-driving-population-growth/|title=Main Factors Driving Population Growth|date=2 April 2015|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=23 October 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201205139/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/main-factors-driving-population-growth/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/|title=The world's fastest-growing religion is ...|last1=Burke|first1=Daniel|date=4 April 2015|access-date=18 April 2015|agency=CNN|archive-date=15 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515234633/https://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman2">{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god|title=No God But God|author=Lippman, Thomas W.|date=7 April 2008|publisher=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=24 September 2013|quote=Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] and [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]], incorporating some of the teachings of those religions, while modifying some and rejecting others.|archive-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505105234/https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god|url-status=live}}</ref> China has the third largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, while Russia has the fifth largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa, while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia.
{{Islam}}

== Terminology ==
The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic [[Social:Propaganda|propaganda]]. ''The Times'' described [[Religion:Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamism]] as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign, Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".<ref name="India, 1912">''Pan-Islamism In India,'' FROM A CORRESPONDENT IN INDIA, Tuesday, 3 September 1912, The Times, Issue: 39994</ref>

In a modern [[Earth:Geopolitics|geopolitical]] sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/|publisher=Foreign Policy|title=What Muslim World?|author=Scott Carpenter, Soner Cagaptay|date=2 June 2009|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-date=26 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326231548/https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=BEWH/> Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]'s citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.<ref name="Radical">{{Cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Maajid |date=2012 |title=Radical: My Journey out of Islamist Extremism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIjms8hwoW8C |publisher=WH Allen |page=XXII–XIII |isbn=9781448131617 |access-date=19 September 2017 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425132015/https://books.google.com/books?id=FIjms8hwoW8C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hitchens"/><ref name="Geling">{{Cite news |url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/ook-na-1400-jaar-kan-de-islam-heus-verdwijnen~bc232725/ |title=Ook na 1400 jaar kan de islam heus verdwijnen |author=Gert Jan Geling |work=Trouw |date=12 January 2017 |access-date=3 October 2017 |language=nl |quote="Many people, including myself, are often guilty of using terms such as 'Muslim countries', or the 'Islamic world', as if Islam has always been there, and always will be. And that is completely unclear. (...) If the current trend [of apostasy] continues, at some point a large section of the population may no longer be religious. How 'Islamic' would that still make the 'Islamic world'?}}</ref> Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.<ref name="Jones"/>

==History==
[[File:TabulaRogeriana upside-down.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced ancient world maps. Al-Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands. Note: the map is here shown upside-down from the original to match current North/Up, South/Down map design]]

The [[Religion:History of Islam|history of the Islamic faith]] as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 [[Common Era|CE]], when the Islamic prophet [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]], a native of [[Place:Mecca|Mecca]], is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message.<ref name="Watt2003">{{cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC |year=2003 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 5] |access-date=23 July 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806062823/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC |url-status=live }}</ref> In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (now [[Place:Medina|Medina]]), where he was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership.<ref name="Watt2003"/> This migration, called the [[Religion:Hegira|Hijra]], marks the first year of the [[Engineering:Islamic calendar|Islamic calendar]]. By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes in the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="Watt2003"/>

After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or [[Religion:Rashidun|Rashidun]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} The conquests of the [[Place:Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphate]] helped to [[Social:Spread of Islam|spread Islam]] beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the [[Place:Near East|Near East]], North Africa, southern Italy, and the [[Place:Iberian Peninsula|Iberian Peninsula]], to the Pyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] in [[Earth:Asia Minor|Asia Minor]] during the Arab–Byzantine wars, however. The succeeding [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]] attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and [[Religion:Shia Islam|Shia sects]] since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved.<ref>Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "islam. §7. Sektevorming". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.</ref> The following First, Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.<ref>Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Omajjaden §1. De Spaanse tak". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.</ref> [[History:Ghaznavids|Ghaznavids]]' rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the [[Place:Bengal|Bengal]], where Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of [[Religion:Dawah|dawah]] and number of converts to [[Religion:Islam|Islam]].<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227–228</ref><ref>Majumdar, R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Qutb ud-Din Aibak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the [[History:Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Srivastava|first=Ashirvadi Lal|title=The Sultanate Of Delhi 711–1526 AD|url=https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1929|publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company}}</ref> a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana.{{cn|date=June 2022}}
Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Gao Empire, Seljukids, largest contiguous Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries) of [[Place:Sahel|Sahel]], [[Place:West Africa|West Africa]], southern [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]] and western [[Place:Central Africa|Central Africa]] which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu, Djenne, Oualata and Gao, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, {{wipe|Pakistan}} e.t.c), Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]], Massina Empire, Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria, Toucouleur Empire, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as [[Religion:Islam and secularism|secularism]], [[Social:Nationalism|nationalism]] (especially Arab nationalism and [[Social:Pan-Arabism|Pan-Arabism]], as opposed to [[Religion:Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamism]]), [[Religion:Islamic socialism|socialism]] (see also [[Social:Arab socialism|Arab socialism]] and socialism in Iran), democracy (see [[Religion:Islamic democracy|Islamic democracy]]), [[Philosophy:Republicanism|republicanism]] (see also Islamic republic), liberalism and progressivism, [[Religion:Islamic feminism|feminism]], [[Finance:Capitalism and Islam|capitalism]] and more.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

===Gunpowder empires===

Scholars often use the term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid, [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and Mughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially [[Engineering:Cannon|cannon]] and small arms, to create their empires.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html |title=The Gunpowder Empires |first=Charles T |last=Evans |publisher=Northern Virginia Community College |access-date=28 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526092248/http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html |archive-date=26 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wps.ablongman.com/long_brummett_cpp_11/35/9191/2353138.cw/index.html |title=The Islamic Gunpowder Empires, 1300–1650 |website=Civilization Past & Present |publisher=Pearson Education |access-date=28 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724011854/http://wps.ablongman.com/long_brummett_cpp_11/35/9191/2353138.cw/index.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> During the 17th–18th centuries, when the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] was ruled by Mughal Empire's sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through [[Religion:Sharia|sharia]] and [[Finance:Islamic economics|Islamic economics]],<ref>''Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order'', Michael Adas, Temple University Press (Philadelphia, PA), 1993.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chapra|first1=Muhammad Umer|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=9781783475728|pages=62–63|language=en}}</ref> India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', OECD Publishing, {{ISBN|9264104143}}, pages 259–261</ref>

<gallery>
File:Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg|Safavid Empire's [[Organization:Zamburak|Zamburak]].
File:Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during the attack on Ranthambhor Fort.jpg|Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Mughal Emperor [[Biography:Akbar|Akbar]]'s Siege of Ranthambore Fort in 1568.<ref>{{cite web|last=Unknown|url=http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm|title=Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort|date=1590–95|website=the Akbarnama|access-date=19 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519132308/http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm|archive-date=19 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
File:The capture of Orchha by imperial forces (October 1635).jpg|The Mughal Army under the command of Islamist Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.
File:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg|Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522.
File:The Dutch War in Sumatra, Guns captured at Acheen lying at Rotterdam.jpg|Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate (in modern Indonesia).
</gallery>

===Great Divergence===
{{Main|Finance:Great Divergence}}
{{quote box|width=25%|quote="Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."|source='''Ibrahim Muteferrika''', ''Rational basis for the Politics of Nations'' (1731)<ref name="6KillerApps">{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/niall_ferguson_the_6_killer_apps_of_prosperity.html|title=The 6 killer apps of prosperity|access-date=5 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213061645/http://www.ted.com/talks/niall_ferguson_the_6_killer_apps_of_prosperity.html|archive-date=13 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah, Tipu Sultan's [[History:Kingdom of Mysore|Kingdom of Mysore]], the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and many smaller states in the pre-modern [[Social:Greater Middle East|Greater Middle East]], and initiated a period known as '[[Social:Colonialism|colonialism]]'.<ref name="6KillerApps" />

<gallery>
File:Shah Alam II, Mughal emperor of india, reviewing the East India Companys troops.jpg|Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II negotiates with the East India Company after being defeated during the Battle of Buxar.
File:Clive.jpg|East India Company's Robert Clive meeting the Nawabs of Bengal before the Battle of Plassey.
File:January Suchodolski - Ochakiv siege.jpg|Siege of Ochakov (1788), an armed conflict between the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and the Russian Tsardom.
File:Сражение под Елисаветполем.jpeg|Combat during the Russo-Persian Wars.
File:Bataille du mont-thabor.jpg|French campaign in Egypt and Syria against the Mamluks and Ottomans.
</gallery>

===Colonialism===
[[File:World 1914 empires colonies territory.PNG|thumb|upright=1.25|right|Map of colonial powers throughout the world in the year 1914 (note colonial powers in the pre-modern Muslim world).]]

Beginning with the 15th century, [[Social:Colonialism|colonialism]] by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.<ref name="auto">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world/Islamic-history-from-1683-to-the-present-reform-dependency-and-recovery|title=Islamic world|access-date=23 January 2019|archive-date=23 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123224527/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world/Islamic-history-from-1683-to-the-present-reform-dependency-and-recovery|url-status=live}}</ref>

A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of [[Religion:Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamism]]; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.<ref name="ColonialismLegacies">{{cite book|editor1-last=Levy|editor1-first=Jacob T.|title=Colonialism and Its Legacies|date=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Group|location=Lanham|others=(Contributors: Alfred T, Chakabarty D, Dussel E, Eze E, Hsueh V, Kohn M, Bhanu Mehta P, Muthu S, Parekh B, Pitts J, Schutte O, Souza J, Young IM) |isbn=9780739142943}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>

The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.<!---This unsourced claim is questionable in many aspects. Could we describe the brief occupation of Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, etc. by Britain and France as 'colonial'? They were League of Nations mandate territories that were gradually granted autonomy and independence within 40 years. Moreover, shouldn't we classify the pre-European centuries-long occupation of these regions by the Ottoman Empire as 'colonial', too? In fact, that would be more justified than in the Franco-British period. And what to think of Uyghuria and other Central Asian Muslim-majority areas that were conquered/occupied in the 19th and early 20th century by power such as Tsarist Russia and Qing China?--->

<gallery>
File:Défense de Mazagran.jpg|The French conquest of Algeria, from 1830 to 1903
File:MARIANO FORTUNY - La Batalla de Tetuán (Museo Nacional de Arte de Cataluña, 1862-64. Óleo sobre lienzo, 300 x 972 cm).jpg|The Hispano-Moroccan War between Spain and Morocco, from 1859 to 1860
File:Libia-1911-Tripoli-conquista-bandiera-verde-del-profeta.jpg|The Italo-Turkish War between [[History:Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] and the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] from 1911 to 1912
File:Reprise Buda 1686.jpg|The Christian reconquest of Buda, Ottoman Hungary, 1686, painted by Frans Geffels
File:Vernet-Combat de Somah.jpg|French conquest of Algeria (1830–1857)
File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896–1899
File:1 5 Campaña Africa 1909.jpg|The Melilla War between Spain and Rif Berbers of Morocco in 1909
</gallery>

===Postcolonial era===

In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.<ref name="auto"/> The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing [[Religion:Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamism]] as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign; Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions".<ref name="India, 1912"/>

A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman [[Biography:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey, a [[Philosophy:Modernity|modern]], secular democracy<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Cuthell |first=David Cameron Jr. |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |location=New York City |publisher=Facts On File |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=24 June 2021 |archive-date=27 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227182639/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA56 |url-status=live }}</ref> (see Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate).<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> The secular values of [[Social:Kemalism|Kemalist]] Turkey, which [[Religion:Separation of church and state|separated religion from the state]] with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924,<ref name="ÁgostonMasters2009"/> have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence.|date=June 2021}}

In the 21st century, after the [[Religion:September 11 attacks|September 11 attacks]] (2001) coordinated by the [[Religion:Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] [[Religion:Islamism|Islamist]]<ref name="commins172">{{cite book |last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |location=London and New York City |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2009 |page=172}}</ref> [[Religion:Islamic terrorism|terrorist group]]<ref name="Dalacoura 2012">{{cite book |author-last=Dalacoura |author-first=Katerina |year=2012 |chapter=Transnational Islamist Terrorism: Al Qaeda |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlTKrMFyawoC&pg=PA40 |title=Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East |location=Cambridge |publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |pages=40–65 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511977367.003 |isbn=9780511977367 |lccn=2010047275 |s2cid=128049972 |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712115559/https://books.google.com/books?id=PlTKrMFyawoC&pg=PA40 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Religion:Al-Qaeda|Al-Qaeda]]<ref name="Dalacoura 2012"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |location=New York City |publisher=Knopf |page=79 |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-375-41486-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks |last=Moghadam |first=Assaf |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8018-9055-0 |page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/sala.html |title=Special Reports – The Salafist Movement: Al Qaeda's New Front |last=Livesey |first=Bruce |date=25 January 2005 |website=PBS Frontline |publisher=WGBH educational foundation |access-date=18 October 2011 |archive-date=28 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202818/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/sala.html |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=US Counter-Terrorism Strategy and al-Qaeda: Signalling and the Terrorist World-View |last1=Geltzer |first1=Joshua A. |year=2011 |location=London and New York City |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415664523 |edition=Reprint |page=83}}</ref> against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles. Muhammad Atta, one of the [[History:Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|11 September hijackers]], reportedly quoted from the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]] to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to the ''ummah'', the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of ''[[Religion:Jahiliyyah|jahiliyyah]]''.<ref name=jahlil>{{cite book |last1=Owen |first1=John M. |last2=Owen |first2=J. Judd |title=Religion, the Enlightenment, and the New Global Order |date=2010 |page=12 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231526623 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSlFAAAAQBAJ&q=western+world+enlightenment&pg=PT24 |access-date=10 March 2021 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063925/https://books.google.com/books?id=eSlFAAAAQBAJ&q=western+world+enlightenment&pg=PT24 |url-status=live }}</ref>

By Sayyid Qutb's definition of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]], the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modern ''jahliliyyah''. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character"
was needed "to abolish the negative influences of ''jahili'' life."<ref name=jahlil/>

==Islam by country==
{{Further|Religion:Political aspects of Islam|Religion:Islam and secularism}}

As the Muslim world came into contact with [[Philosophy:Secularism|secular]] ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web| title =93 years pass since establishment of first democratic republic in the east – Azerbaijan Democratic Republic | publisher = Azerbaijan Press Agency| url = http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=148210| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111121170317/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=148210| url-status = dead| archive-date = 21 November 2011| access-date =28 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="kazemzadeh">{{cite book
 | last = Kazemzadeh
 | title = The Struggle for Transcaucasia: 1917–1921
 | publisher = The New York Philosophical Library
 | year= 1951
 | isbn = 978-0-8305-0076-5
 | pages = 124, 222, 229, 269–70}}</ref><ref name="Swietochowski2">{{cite book
 |last         = Swietochowski
 |first        = Tadeusz
 |title        = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905–1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community
 |url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC&pg=129
 |publisher    = Cambridge University Press
 |year         = 2004
 |isbn         = 978-0-521-52245-8
 |page         = 129
 |access-date  = 17 January 2018
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131539/https://books.google.nl/books?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC&pg=129
 |archive-date = 17 January 2018
|url-status   = live
 |df           = dmy-all
}}</ref> Turkey has been governed as a [[Philosophy:Secular state|secular state]] since the reforms of [[Biography:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWEePOkKpkoC&q=false&pg=PA116|title=The Gülen Movement: A Sociological Analysis of a Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate Islam|first=Helen Rose|last=Ebaugh|date=1 December 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402098949|via=Google Books|access-date=23 February 2021|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063925/https://books.google.com/books?id=MWEePOkKpkoC&q=false&pg=PA116|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the [[Religion:Ayatollah|Ayatollah]], [[Biography:Ruhollah Khomeini|Ruhollah Khomeini]].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), p. 84{{cnf|date=October 2013}}
* Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–07, 845{{cnf|date=October 2013}}
* Lewis (2003), p. 100{{cnf|date=October 2013}}</ref><ref>1906 Constitution of Imperial Iran: Article 1 – "The official religion of Persia is Islám, according to the orthodox Já'farí doctrine of the Ithna 'Ashariyya (Church of the Twelve Imáms), which faith 1 the Sháh of Persia must profess and promote."</ref>

Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by [[Religion:Sharia|Sharia]] law.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Islam: Governing Under Sharia|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/islam-governing-under-sharia|access-date=2021-09-10|website=Council on Foreign Relations|language=en|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910173721/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/islam-governing-under-sharia|url-status=live}}</ref> In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, called schools of jurisprudence. The [[Religion:Amman Message|Amman Message]], which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two [[Religion:Shia Islam|Shia]] schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amman Message|url=http://ammanmessage.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=15&Itemid=29&limit=1&limitstart=1|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=9 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809142714/http://ammanmessage.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=15&Itemid=29&limit=1&limitstart=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Government and religion===

====Islamic states====
[[Religion:Islamic state|Islamic state]]s have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* {{flag|Afghanistan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas">{{cite web|title=Islamic Countries Of The World|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/islamic-countries-in-the-world.html|work=WorldAtlas|date=21 February 2018|language=en|access-date=29 July 2020|archive-date=27 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927155512/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/islamic-countries-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Afghanistan_2004|title=Constitution of Afghanistan 2004|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223213703/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Afghanistan_2004|archive-date=23 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Iran}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/government/constitution-1.html|title=Islamic Republic of Iran Constitution|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225010032/http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-1.html|archive-date=25 February 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Mauritania}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritania_2012.pdf|title=Mauritania's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073610/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritania_2012.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Pakistan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/|title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan|access-date=27 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709113418/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/|archive-date=9 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sa00000_.html|title=Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|access-date=6 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226203908/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sa00000_.html|archive-date=26 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Yemen}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_2001.pdf?lang=en|title=Yemen's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2001|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127144814/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_2001.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Div col end}}

====State religion====
The following Muslim-majority [[Earth:State (polity)|states]] have endorsed Islam as their [[Religion:State religion|state religion]], and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion:
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* {{flag|Algeria}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/local_algeria.pdf|title=Of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073600/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/local_algeria.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Bahrain}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Kingdom_of_Bahrain_(2002)#Article_2_.5BState_Religion.2C_Shari.27a.2C_Official_Language.5D|title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain (2002)|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223212553/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Kingdom_of_Bahrain_(2002)#Article_2_.5BState_Religion.2C_Shari.27a.2C_Official_Language.5D|archive-date=23 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Bangladesh}}<ref name="bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd">{{Cite web |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24549.html |title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh &#124; 2A. The state religion |website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd}}</ref>
* {{flag|Comoros}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009.pdf|title=Comoros's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2009|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073557/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Djibouti}}<ref>{{cite act|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Djibouti_2010|title=Djibouti's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2010|access-date=2023-09-14|article-type=Article|article=1|year=1992|type=Constitution}}</ref>
* {{flag|Egypt}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf|title=Egypt's Constitution of 2014|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073608/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Iraq}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf|title=Constitution of Iraq|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128152712/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf|archive-date=28 November 2016}}</ref>
* {{flag|Jordan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan/ "Jordan country report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603094219/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan/ |date=3 June 2021 }}, ''The World Factbook'', U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 24 August 2012</ref>
* {{flag|Kuwait}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref name=irfr2002>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2002/14005.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report |website=US State Department |year=2002 |access-date=24 June 2017 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108071813/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2002/14005.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flag|Libya}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Libya_2012.pdf?lang=en|title=Libya's Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204715/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Libya_2012.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Malaysia}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/malaysia.pdf|title=Constitution of Malaysia|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514094615/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/malaysia.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Maldives}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/Documents/ConstitutionOfMaldives.pdf |title=Constitution of the Republic of Maldives 2008 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519142814/http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/Documents/ConstitutionOfMaldives.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{flag|Morocco}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011.pdf?lang=en|title=Morocco's Constitution of 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204730/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Palestine}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2009)008-e |title=BASIC LAW - OF THE PALESTINIAN NATIONAL AUTHORITY |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030081752/https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL(2009)008-e |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{flag|Qatar}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Qatar_2003.pdf|title=Qatar's Constitution of 2003|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127143256/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Qatar_2003.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> 
* {{flag|Somalia}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Somalia_2012?lang=en|title=Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204711/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Somalia_2012?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Syria}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/syria/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Syria|date=2 June 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Tunisia}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2014.pdf?lang=en|title=Tunisia's Constitution of 2014|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204656/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2014.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Arab_Emirates_2009.pdf?lang=en|title=United Arab Emirates's Constitution of 1971 with Amendments through 2009|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029092800/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Arab_Emirates_2009.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=29 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Div col end}}

====Secular states====
[[Philosophy:Secular state|Secular state]]s in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.

{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* {{flag|Albania}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/al00000_.html#A007_|title=Albania – Constitution|publisher=ICL|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924115436/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/al00000_.html#A007_|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref name="Article 7.1 of Constitution">{{cite web |url=http://azerbaijan.az/portal/General/Constitution/doc/constitution_e.pdf |title=Article 7.1 of Constitution |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026135534/http://azerbaijan.az/portal/General/Constitution/doc/constitution_e.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}<ref name="USDS B&H 2021">{{cite web | title=United States Department of State | website=United States Department of State | date=12 May 2021 | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ | access-date=10 Feb 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Burkina Faso}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%20FasoC%20%28englishsummary%29%28rev%29.doc|title=Article 31 of Constitution|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009112408/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%20FasoC%20%28englishsummary%29%28rev%29.doc|archive-date=9 October 2006}}</ref>
* {{flag|Chad}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%20%28english%20summary%29%28rev%29.doc|title=Article 1 of Constitution|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009114533/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%20%28english%20summary%29%28rev%29.doc|archive-date=9 October 2006}}</ref>
* {{flag|Gambia}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Gambia (The) 1996(rev.2004)|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Gambia_2004|website=constituteproject.org|access-date=14 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: The Gambia|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/gambia|year=2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Guinea}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/cafrad/unpan002994.pdf Article 1 of Constitution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040913180737/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/cafrad/unpan002994.pdf |date=13 September 2004}}</ref>
* {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}<ref name="Article 1 of Constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc|title=Article 1 of Constitution|access-date=5 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105121916/http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc|archive-date=5 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Indonesia}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia Risks Factors in Terrorism|url=https://pssat.ugm.ac.id/indonesia-risks-factors-in-terrorism/ |website=pssat.ugm.ac.id|access-date=24 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>(except Aceh province)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Indonesia|year=2022|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
* {{flag|Kazakhstan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref name="akorda.kz">{{cite web |url=http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/konstituciya |title=The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan |website=Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan |access-date=24 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924011326/http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/konstituciya |archive-date=24 September 2014 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Kosovo}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>[http://www.kushtetutakosoves.info/?cid=2,247 Republic of Kosovo constitution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121073327/http://www.kushtetutakosoves.info/?cid=2%2C247 |date=21 November 2013}}, Republic of Kosovo constitution,</ref>
* {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/Kyrgyzstan%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Kyrghyz%20Republic.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204064819/http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/Kyrgyzstan%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Kyrghyz%20Republic.asp|url-status=dead|title=Article 1 of Constitution|archive-date=4 February 2007}}</ref>
* {{flag|Mali}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912141413/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Preamble of Constitution|archive-date=12 September 2012}}</ref>
* {{flag|Niger}}<ref name="USDS Niger">{{cite web | title=Niger | website=United States Department of State | date=1 Dec 2020 | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/niger/ | access-date=10 Feb 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Nigeria}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/>
* {{flag|Senegal}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90117.htm|title=Senegal|website=U.S. Department of State|date=14 September 2007|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=19 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219072456/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90117.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sierra Leone}}<ref name="TimothyJ">{{cite book|author=Timothy J. Demy Ph.D., Jeffrey M. Shaw Ph.D.|title=Religion and Contemporary Politics: A Global Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vt-vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|year=2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-3933-7|pages=180}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sudan}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/africa/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state-1.1599359147751|title=Sudan ends 30 years of Islamic law by separating religion, state|website=gulfnews.com|date=6 September 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=6 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906183606/https://gulfnews.com/world/africa/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state-1.1599359147751|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Tajikistan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_2003.pdf?lang=en|title=Tajikistan's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 2003|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102213123/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_2003.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=2 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Turkey}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref name="Article 2 of Constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa.htm|title=Article 2 of Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041755/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa.htm|archive-date=1 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Turkmenistan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm|title=Constitution of Turkmenistan|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414030847/http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm|archive-date=14 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flag|Uzbekistan}}<ref name="WorldAtlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uzbekistan_2011.pdf?lang=en|title=Uzbekistan's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204735/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uzbekistan_2011.pdf?lang=en|archive-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Div col end}}

====Others====
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}

* {{flag|Lebanon}}<ref>{{cite web|title=2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lebanon|publisher=US Department of State|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lebanon/|year=2019|quote=The constitution also states there shall be a “just and equitable balance” in the apportionment of cabinet and high-level civil service positions among the major religious groups, a provision amended by the Taif Agreement, which ended the country’s civil war and mandated proportional representation between Christians and Muslims in parliament, the cabinet, and other senior government positions.}}</ref>
{{Div col end}}

====Muslim-minority states====
According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/22/what-is-each-countrys-second-largest-religious-group/|title=What is each country's second-largest religious group?|access-date=22 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622195834/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/22/what-is-each-countrys-second-largest-religious-group/|archive-date=22 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim5">{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx |title=Muslim-Majority Countries |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=22 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120125729/http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx |archive-date=20 November 2011 |url-status=live  |date=27 January 2011}}</ref> Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are a minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations:<ref>{{cite web |title=MAPPING THE GLOBAL MUSLIM POPULATION |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation-1.pdf |website=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326041807/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation-1.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-26 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|IND}}: 200 million Muslims (14.6%)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/muslim-population-in-india.html | title=Muslim Population in India - Total Muslims in India }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|ETH}}: 34.7 million Muslims (31.3%)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ | title=Ethiopia | date=21 February 2023 }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|CHN}}: 25–40 million Muslims (2–3%)<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/apr/11/china-hi-tech-war-on-muslim-minority-xinjiang-uighurs-surveillance-face-recognition | title=China's hi-tech war on its Muslim minority | newspaper=The Guardian | date=11 April 2019 | last1=Byler | first1=Darren }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|TAN}}: 19.4 million Muslims (35.2%)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tanzania/ | title=Tanzania | date=21 February 2023 }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|RUS}}: 14–20 million Muslims (10–14%)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/05/russia-will-be-one-third-muslim-in-15-years-chief-mufti-predicts-a64706 | title=Russia Will be One-Third Muslim in 15 Years, Chief Mufti Predicts | date=5 March 2019 }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|CIV}}: 12 million Muslims (42%)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/cote-divoire/ | title=Technical Difficulties }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|DRC}}: 10 million Muslims (15%)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theislamicinformation.com/news/the-muslims-of-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo-victims-of-poverty-ignorance-and-christianization/ | title=The Muslims of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Victims of poverty, ignorance and Christianization | date=17 January 2022 }}</ref>
*{{flagcountry|PHL}}: 8–9 million Muslims (9–10%)

===Politics===
[[File:Benazir bhutto 1988.jpg|thumb|Benazir Bhutto, the former prime minister of Pakistan became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim-majority country.<ref>"Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, ''India Today'', 7 January 2008</ref>]]

During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and [[Social:Globalization|globalization]] have changed the influence of Islam on the world in [[History:Contemporary history|contemporary history]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture/ACELayout|title=A Wake-Up Call: Milestones of Islamic History – IslamOnline.net – Art & Culture|date=17 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217233807/http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture/ACELayout|archive-date=17 February 2011}}</ref>

====Islamism====
{{excerpt|Islamism|only=paragraphs}}

==Demographics==
More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim.<ref name="pewexsum">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/|title=Executive Summary|date=27 January 2011|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=3 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810121737/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/|archive-date=10 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CIA Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA Factbook|access-date=8 December 2010|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223185143/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim1">{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/ |title=Muslim Population by Country |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim7">{{citation|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-preface.aspx|title=Preface|work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725164259/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-preface.aspx|archive-date=25 July 2013|url-status=live|date=27 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim4">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population|title=Executive Summary|publisher=Pew Research Center|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|access-date=22 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805044735/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|archive-date=5 August 2013|url-status=live|date=27 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="pewchristian">{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/total-population-percentage.php|title=Christian Population as Percentages of Total Population by Country|publisher=Pew Research Center|website=Global Christianity|access-date=22 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107191939/http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/total-population-percentage.php|archive-date=7 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Turmoil in the world of Islam">{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140614/commentary-op-ed/article/turmoil-world-islam|title=Turmoil in the world of Islam|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715041152/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140614/commentary-op-ed/article/turmoil-world-islam|archive-date=15 July 2014|url-status=live|date=14 June 2014}}</ref> Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1.8&nbsp;billion.<ref name="pewexsum" /> Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,<ref name="pewmaj">{{cite web | url = http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx | title = Muslim-Majority Countries | date = 27 January 2011 | website = The Future of the Global Muslim Population | publisher = Pew Research Center | access-date = 5 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111120125729/http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx | archive-date = 20 November 2011 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|author=Analysis  |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |title=Global religious landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of [[Place:Karachi|Karachi]] has the largest Muslim population in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cityscapes of Violence in Karachi: Publics and Counterpublics|first=Nichola|last= Khan|year= 2016| isbn= 9780190869786|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote= ... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ... }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Global Happiness: A Guide to the Most Contented (and Discontented) Places around the Globe: A Guide to the Most Contented (and Discontented) Places around the Globe|first=Roman|last= Adrian Cybriwsky|year= 2015| isbn= 9781440835575| page = 179|publisher=ABC-CLIO|quote= Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan, the second-largest city in the world when "city" is defined by official municipal limits, the largest city in the Muslim world, and the world's seventh-largest metropolitan area. }}</ref> 

===Geography===
[[File:Jakarta Indonesia Kindergarten-children-visiting-National-Museum-01.jpg|thumb|Indonesia is currently the most populous Muslim-majority country.]]
Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.<ref name="Radical"/><ref name="Hitchens">{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZZ96SArpuc |title=Hitchens '07: Danish Muhammad Cartoons |first=Christopher |last=Hitchens |website=Christopher Hitchens and Tim Rutten in discussion |date=2007 |access-date=19 September 2017 |quote=21 ambassadors from Muslim – so-called "Muslim states". How do they dare to call themselves "Muslim"? In what sense is Egypt a "Muslim" country? You can't denominate a country as religious. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422013405/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZZ96SArpuc |archive-date=22 April 2016 |url-status=live }} {{rp|at=4:35}}</ref><ref name="Jones" /> The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.<ref name="Radical" /><ref name="Jones" /> 

In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).<ref name="auto1"/> Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, North Macedonia, and Tanzania.<ref name="Jones" />

===Religion===
==== Islam ====
The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the [[Religion:Imam|imam]]. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍ[[Religion:Shura|Shura]] (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm |title=Comparison Chart of Sunni and Shia Islam |publisher=ReligionFacts |access-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429101140/http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm |archive-date=29 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.<ref>{{cite web |author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |date=7 October 2009 |access-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024200810/http://www.pewforum.org/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=24 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/|title=The World Factbook|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016095425/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/|url-status=live}}</ref> Azerbaijan – 65%,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf |title=Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Presidential Library – Religion |access-date=19 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123084541/http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Iraq – 60%,<ref>John Esposito, ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'', Oxford University Press 2003</ref> Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,<ref name="islamicweb.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicweb.com/beliefs/cults/shia_population.htm|title=The population of Shia: How many Shia are there in the world?|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729105602/http://www.islamicweb.com/beliefs/cults/shia_population.htm|archive-date=29 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey – 10%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html|title=Shi'a|website=ucsm.ac.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110113402/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html|archive-date=10 January 2011}}</ref><ref>"Pew Forum on Religious & Public life". http://www.pewforum.org/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104072449/http://pewforum.org/ |date=4 January 2012}}</ref> Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Pakistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Pakistan |date=February 2005 |website=Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan |quote=Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 97 percent are Sunni and 3 percent Shia. |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=1 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050717171649/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Pakistan.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/|title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|date=9 August 2012|website=Pew Research Center|access-date=26 December 2016|quote=On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223063505/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/|archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |title=Religions: Muslim 95% (Sunni 75%, Shia 20%), other (includes Christian and Hindu) 5% |access-date=24 August 2010 |website=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=The World Factbook on Pakistan |year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528170605/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |archive-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="PRC">{{Cite book |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Tracy |date=October 2009 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214172939/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |archive-date=14 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1 |title=Pakistan, Islam in |access-date=29 August 2010 |website=Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies |quote=Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10 and 15 percent are Shias, mostly Twelvers. |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618023219/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1 |archive-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="State">{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |title=Pakistan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008 |quote=''The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 15 percent.'' |website=United States Department of State |access-date=28 August 2010 |date=19 September 2008 |archive-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530192532/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsweekpakistan.com/the-trouble-with-madrassahs/|title=The Trouble With Madrassahs|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801154632/http://newsweekpakistan.com/the-trouble-with-madrassahs/|archive-date=1 August 2017|url-status=live|date=16 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/05/early-warning-signs-of-shia-genocide-in-pakistan/|title=Early Warning Signs of Shia Genocide in Pakistan|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801165525/https://thediplomat.com/2014/05/early-warning-signs-of-shia-genocide-in-pakistan/|archive-date=1 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-attack-idUSBRE96P0NE20130726 |title=Suicide bombs kill 39 near Shi'ite mosques in Pakistan |first1=Javed |last1=Hussain |first2=Jibran |last2=Ahmad |work={{wipe|Reuters}} |date=26 July 2013 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924183356/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/26/us-pakistan-attack-idUSBRE96P0NE20130726 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> and India – 10%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://shianumbers.com/shia-muslims-population.html |title=Shiite Islam |publisher=Shianumbers.com |access-date=23 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305072539/http://shianumbers.com/shia-muslims-population.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Non-denominational Muslims make up a majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others): Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] (45%), {{wipe|Russia}} (45%), and Nigeria (42%).<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=August 9, 2012|work=The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=4 September 2013}}</ref> They are found primarily in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]].<ref name="Pew" /> Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population.<ref name="Pew" /> Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.<ref name="Pew" />

The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cBtatnS05EC&q=false&pg=PT112|title=An Introduction to Islam in the 21st Century|first1=Aminah Beverly|last1=McCloud|first2=Scott W.|last2=Hibbard|first3=Laith|last3=Saud|date=2 January 2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118273913|via=Google Books|access-date=23 February 2021|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063926/https://books.google.com/books?id=-cBtatnS05EC&q=false&pg=PT112|url-status=live}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Muslims perform the Eid Al-Adha prayer at Eyup Sultan Mosque 2019-08-11 21.jpg|Turkish Muslims at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on [[Religion:Eid al-Adha|Eid al-Adha]]
File:عزاداری شیعیان در ماه محرم 02.jpg|Shi'a Muslims in [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] commemorate [[Religion:Ashura|Ashura]]
File:Saying Juma Namaz (Friday prayer for Muslims), Dhaka, Bangladesh NK.JPG|Friday prayer for Sunni Muslims in [[Place:Dhaka|Dhaka]], Bangladesh
</gallery>

===== Islamic schools and branches =====
{{Main|Religion:Islamic schools and branches}}
[[File:Madhhab Map2a.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Islamic schools of law across the Muslim world]]
The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and Kharijites. Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools (''[[Religion:Madhhab|madhhab]]'') reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (''[[Religion:Fiqh|fiqh]]'').

The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Intisar A. |last=Rabb |title=Fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |year=2009 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135 }}</ref>

The major Shi'a branches are [[Religion:Twelver|Twelver]] (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). [[Religion:Isma'ilism|Isma'ilism]] later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis.<ref name="Öz1">Öz, Mustafa, ''Mezhepler Tarihi ve Terimleri Sözlüğü (The History of madh'habs and its terminology dictionary),'' Ensar Publications, Istanbul, 2011.</ref> It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives| first=Dona|last= J. Stewart|year=2008| isbn=9781135980795| page = 33|publisher=Routledge|quote= Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=9780030525964 |page=114 |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..}}</ref> Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as Alawites, Shaykism<ref name="Meymun">"Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī [[Religion:Aqidah|aqidah]]" of "Maymūn ibn [[Biography:Al-Tabarani|Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī]] [[Religion:Fiqh|fiqh]]" (Sūlaiman Affandy, ''Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah – [[Family tree]] of the Nusayri Tariqat,'' pp. 14–15, [[Place:Beirut|Beirut]], 1873.)</ref> and Alevism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cemvakfi.org.tr/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110124358/http://www.cemvakfi.org.tr/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/|url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2012 |title=Alevi İslam Din Hizmetleri Başkanlığı|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="Shi'ism">{{Cite book |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-1888-0 |last=Halm |first=Heinz |title=Shi'ism |date=21 July 2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/shiism0000halm/page/154 154] |title-link=Shi'ism }}</ref>

Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis.

Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-[[Religion:Usuli|Usuli]], Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi,<ref>[http://www.aleviislamdinhizmetleri.com/basinda_biz.asp?id=5 Alevi-Islam Religious Services – The message of İzzettin Doğan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081230/http://www.aleviislamdinhizmetleri.com/basinda_biz.asp?id=5 |date=4 March 2016}}, Zafer Mah. Ahmet Yesevi Cad. No: 290, Yenibosna / Istanbul, Turkey.</ref> Zaydi, Ibadi, Zahiri, Alawite,{{cn|date=February 2023}} [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently.

<gallery>
File:Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque (8625532075).jpg|A Sufi [[Religion:Dervish|dervish]] drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in Omdurman, Sudan
File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Nebi Shueib Festival.jpg|[[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin
File:Ghardaia01.jpg|Ibadis living in the M'zab valley in Algerian Sahara
File:Sanaa street.jpg|Zaydi Imams ruled in Yemen until 1962
File:Hunza Valley Karimabad.jpg|Most of the inhabitants of the Hunza Valley in Pakistan are Ismaili Muslims
</gallery>

<gallery>
File:Khataman Al-Qur'an anak-anak.jpg|Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.
File:Beggars stalking a car in Abuja.jpg|Muslim beggars stalk a car in Nigeria.
File:Grozny, Russia, Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque, Interiors, Praying.jpg|People pray together in the mosque in Russia.
File:Muslim food street market, Xi'an, China - panoramio (2).jpg|People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.
</gallery>

==== Other religions ====
There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes, [[Religion:Christianity|Christians]], [[Religion:Judaism|Jews]], [[Religion:Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhists]], Bahai's, Druzes, Yazidis, [[Unsolved:Mandaeism|Mandaeans]], [[Unsolved:Yarsanism|Yarsanis]] and [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]].
[[File:Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Armenian Church.jpg|thumb|Church and Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.]]
The Muslim world is home to some of the world's most ancient Christian communities,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first=Philip |last=Jenkins|year= 2020| isbn=9781538124185| page =XLVIII|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref> and some of the most important cities of the Christian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople).<ref>{{cite book|title=The World's Christians: Who they are, Where they are, and How they got there| first1=Douglas |last1=Jacobsen|year= 2011| isbn=9781444397291|page =423|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of [[Religion:Islam|Islam]],<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p. 4</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC|isbn=978-0-226-07080-3|page=164|year=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref> and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the [[Finance:Middle East and North Africa|Middle East and North Africa]] and other areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pacini|first=Andrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0|pages=38, 55|access-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=10 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East|first=Kail|last= C. Ellis|year= 2017| isbn=9781351510721| page =173|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries: Arab Christians in the Levant|first=Michael |last=Curtis|year= 2018| isbn=9781351510721| page =11|publisher=Springer|quote=Christian contributions to art, culture, and literature in the Arab-Islamic world; Christian contributions education and social advancement in the region.}}</ref> Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 million [[Religion:Christians|Christians]] lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801204254/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|archive-date=1 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|title=Copts in Egypt: A Christian Minority Under Siege: Papers Presented at the First International Coptic Symposium, Zurich, September 23-25, 2004| first1=Adly|last1= A. Youssef |first2=Martyn |last2=Thomas |year= 2006| isbn= 9783857100406| page =85|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|quote=There are some 30 million Christians who live in countries with Muslim majorities. The largest number live in Indonesia, some 15 million ...}}</ref> Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ojo|first=Matthews A.|date=July 1995|title=The Charismatic Movement in Nigeria Today|journal=International Bulletin of Missionary Research|volume=19|issue=3|pages=114–118|doi=10.1177/239693939501900306|s2cid=149246793|issn=0272-6122}}</ref>

In 2018, the Jewish Agency estimated that around 27,000 [[Religion:Jews|Jews]] live in Arab and Muslim countries.<ref>{{cite web|first =Toi|last =Staff|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/this-rosh-hashanah-there-are-14-7-million-jews-in-the-world/|title=Ahead of Rosh Hashanah, figures show 14.7 million Jews around the globe|date =8 September 2018|publisher=Times of Israel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/global-jewish-population-reaches-147-million-566880|title=Global Jewish population reaches 14.7 million|date =9 September 2018|publisher=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> Jewish communities have existed across the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] and [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]] since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/VideoLibrary/Pages/Jewish-refugees-from-Arab-lands.aspx |title=VI- November 30: Commemorating the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands}}</ref> with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500);<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishagency.org/jewish-population-5782/|title=Jewish Population Rises to 15.2 million Worldwide|date =15 September 2021|publisher=Jewish agency}}</ref> both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kinship and Consent: Jewish Political Tradition and Its Contemporary Uses| first1=Daniel|last1= L. Elazar |year= 2020| isbn=  9781000677782| page =|publisher=Routledge|quote=Today Turkish Jewry remains the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world.}}</ref> Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Jerry M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bdAdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|title=The Rebirth of the Middle East|date=2009-09-28|publisher=Hamilton Books|isbn=978-0-7618-4846-2|language=en}}</ref> The number of [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]] worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the [[Place:Levant|Levant]] (primarily in Syria and Lebanon).<ref>{{cite book|title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics| first=Colbert|last=  C. Held|year= 2008| isbn= 9780429962004| page =109|publisher=Routledge|quote= Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.}}</ref>

In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeable Hindu minorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largest Buddhist population in the Muslim world.<ref name="auto1"/> [[Religion:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] are the oldest remaining religious community in [[Religion:Iran|Iran]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zoroastrianism i. History to the Arab Conquest – Encyclopaedia Iranica |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review |access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref> 

<gallery>
File:Saint Mark Church, Heliopolis.jpg|Egypt has one of the [[Religion:Copts|largest Christian population]] in the Muslim world<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslims in Global Politics: Identities, Interests, and Human Rights| first=Mahmood |last=Monshipouri |year= 2011| isbn=9780812202830| page =73|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}</ref>
File:Shiva temples Dhakeshwari Mandir 2 by Ragib Hasan.jpg|Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world
File:Yüksekkaldırım Ashkenazi Synagogue.jpg|Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world<ref>{{cite book|title=Kinship and Consent: Jewish Political Tradition and Its Contemporary Uses| first1=Daniel|last1= L. Elazar |year= 2020| isbn=  9781000677782| page =|publisher=Routledge|quote=Today Turkish Jewry remains the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world.}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Literacy and education===
The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and other parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such as [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]], [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] and [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]] have a high rate of citable scientific publications.<ref>{{cite web|last1=SCI|title=Scimago Journal & Country Rank|url=http://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php|website=Scimago Journal|access-date=1 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031091400/http://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php|archive-date=31 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.science-metrix.com/30years-Paper.pdf |title=Science-Matrix: 30 Years in Science – Secular Movements in Knowledge Creation |publisher=Science-matrix.com |access-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913172105/http://www.science-metrix.com/30years-Paper.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nearly 40% of Muslim world's population unable read or write: IINA Report|url=http://www.iinanews.com/page/public/report.aspx?id=10377#.Vm81VPkrLIU|access-date=14 December 2015|agency=International Islamic News Agency|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120828/http://www.iinanews.com/page/public/report.aspx?id=10377#.Vm81VPkrLIU|archive-date=22 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/Egypt/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124742/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/Egypt/literacy-rate|archive-date=6 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/pakistan/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124614/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/pakistan/literacy-rate|archive-date=6 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,<ref>{{cite web|title=Iran Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iran/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710133100/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iran/literacy-rate|archive-date=10 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Iraq Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iraq/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161649/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iraq/literacy-rate|archive-date=6 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indonesia/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161654/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indonesia/literacy-rate|archive-date=6 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% having [[Social:Academic degree|graduate]] and post-graduate degrees.<ref name="Pew2016">{{cite web |date=19 December 2011 |title=Religion and Education Around the World |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222152619/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5), Kuwait (11.0) and Kazakhstan (10.7).<ref name="Pew2016" /> In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).<ref name="Pew2016" /> In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).<ref name="Pew2016" /> The study found that [[Religion:Muslims|Muslims]] have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.<ref name="Pew2016" />

<gallery>
File:Schoolgirls in Bamozai.JPG|Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan.
File:Niger_primary_school_MCC3500.jpg|A primary classroom in Niger.
File:Girls lining up for class - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class, 2009.
File:Medical students before exam in saloon of moulages 1.JPG|Medical students of [[Biology:Anatomy|anatomy]], before an exam in moulage, Iran
</gallery>

===Refugees===
[[File:Rohingya Refugees Camp in 2019.29.jpg|thumb|Muslim Rohingya refugees in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh.]]

According to the UNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria.<ref>{{Cite news|title=OIC to hold conference on refugees in Muslim world in Turkmenistan |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-278419-oic-to-hold-conference-on-refugees-in-muslim-world-in-turkmenistan.html |publisher=Zaman |date=24 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503181729/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-278419-oic-to-hold-conference-on-refugees-in-muslim-world-in-turkmenistan.html |archive-date=3 May 2012}}</ref> In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2013/07/un-calls-syrian-refugee-crisis-worst-since-rwandan-genocide/ |title=UN Calls Syrian Refugee Crisis Worst Since Rwandan Genocide |work=ABC News |date=17 July 2013 |access-date=10 August 2013 |archive-date=27 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021603/http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2013/07/un-calls-syrian-refugee-crisis-worst-since-rwandan-genocide/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-widows/rohingya-widows-find-safe-haven-in-bangladesh-camp-idUSKBN1E136I |title=Rohingya widows find safe haven in Bangladesh camp |date=7 December 2017 |website=Reuters |access-date=16 January 2018 |archive-date=4 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104195323/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-widows/rohingya-widows-find-safe-haven-in-bangladesh-camp-idUSKBN1E136I |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Culture==
Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> According to M. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some [[Religion:Islamic advice literature|prescriptive literature]] and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Knight|first=Michael Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ih13CgAAQBAJ&q=Magic+In+Islam|title=Magic In Islam|date=24 May 2016|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-101-98349-2|pages=Chapter 1|language=en|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=22 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222071549/https://books.google.com/books?id=ih13CgAAQBAJ&q=Magic+In+Islam|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Classical culture===

<gallery>
File:Mahmud in robe from the caliph.jpg|Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni&nbsp;receiving a richly decorated robe of honor from the caliph&nbsp;al-Qadir&nbsp;in 1000. Miniature from the Rashid al-Din's&nbsp;Jami' al-tawarikh
File:1541-Battle in the war between Shah Isma'il and the King of Shirvan-Shahnama-i-Isma'il.jpg|Battle between Ismail of the Safaviyya and the ruler of [[Place:Shirvan|Shirvan]], Farrukh Yassar
File:Shah Abbas I and Vali Muhammad Khan.jpg|Shah of Safavid Empire Abbas I meet with Vali Muhammad Khan
File:Mir Sayyid Ali - Portrait of a Young Indian Scholar.jpg|Mir Sayyid Ali, a scholar writing a commentary on the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]], during the reign of the Mughal Emperor [[Biography:Shah Jahan|Shah Jahan]]
File:Ottoman Dynasty, Portrait of a Painter, Reign of Mehmet II (1444-1481).jpg|Portrait of a painter during the reign of [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Religion:Sultan|Sultan]] Mehmet II
File:6 Dust Muhammad. Portrait of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali. ca. 1556 Aga Khan Collection.jpg|A Persian miniature of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali, a scholar
File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg|Ilkhanate Empire ruler, Ghazan, studying the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]]
File:Laila and Majnun in School, New-York.jpg|Layla and Majnun studying together, from a Persian miniature painting
</gallery>

The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history during which science, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.<ref name=Saliba>[[Biography:George Saliba|George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', pp. 245, 250, 256–7. New York University Press, {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}.</ref><ref name=King>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/353360 | last1 = King | first1 = David A. | year = 1983 | title = The Astronomy of the Mamluks | journal = Isis | volume = 74 | issue = 4 | pages = 531–555 | s2cid = 144315162 }}</ref> The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of the [[Organization:House of Wisdom|House of Wisdom]] in [[Place:Baghdad|Baghdad]], where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,<ref>Medieval India, NCERT, {{ISBN|81-7450-395-1}}</ref><ref>Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}}</ref> and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to [[Social:Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]] and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.<ref name="Tahir Abbas">{{cite book|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=JdC90uc8PfQC |page=9}} |access-date=26 August 2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-95960-8|page=9|date=1 March 2011}}</ref> The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, [[Place:Cairo|Cairo]], and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mOquCzBX3xcC&q=golden+age+of+islam+university&pg=PR7 |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |first=George |last=Saliba |date=July 1995|publisher=NYU Press |access-date=24 October 2012|isbn=9780814780237}}</ref> During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient {{wipe|Ancient Greece}}, [[History:Ancient Rome|Roman]], Persian, Chinese, Vedic, etc.

Egyptian, and [[History:Phoenicia|Phoenicia]]n civilizations.<ref name="Vartan">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}}</ref>

====Ceramics====
{{Further|Chemistry:Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world}}
[[File:Chess Set MET DP170393.jpg|thumb|A Seljuq, ''shatranj'' (chess) set, glazed fritware, 12th century.]]

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of [[Engineering:Ceramic glaze|ceramic glaze]] was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.<ref>Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". ''Muqarnas'' V 12 p.1</ref> [[Engineering:Tin-glazing|Tin-opacified glazing]] was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in [[Place:Basra|Basra]], dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of [[Chemistry:Fritware|fritware]], originating from 9th-century Iraq.<ref>Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". ''Muqarnas'' V 12 p. 5</ref> Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), [[Place:Damascus|Damascus]] (from 1100 to around 1600) and [[Place:Tabriz|Tabriz]] (from 1470 to 1550).<ref>Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". ''Muqarnas'' V 12 p. 7</ref>

====Literature====
{{Main|Religion:Islamic literature}}

<gallery>
File:Brooklyn Museum - Manuscript of the Hadiqat al-Su`ada (Garden of the Blessed) of Fuzuli - Muhammad bin Sulayman known as Fuzuli2.jpg|''Hadiqatus-suada'' by Oghuz Turkic poet Fuzûlî
File:Princess Parizade Bringing Home the Singing Tree.jpg|The story of ''Princess Parizade'' and the ''Magic Tree''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ATkQAAAAYAAJ&dq=princess+parizade&pg=PA543 The Thousand and One Nights; Or, The Arabian Night's Entertainments - David Claypoole Johnston - Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517214353/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATkQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA543&dq=princess+parizade#v=onepage&q=princess%20parizade&f=false |date=17 May 2020 }}. Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 23 September 2013.</ref>
File:Cassim (cropped).jpg|''Cassim in the Cave'' by Maxfield Parrish.
File:Vasnetsov samolet.jpg|The [[Engineering:Magic carpet|Magic carpet]].
</gallery>

The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is ''[[Religion:One Thousand and One Nights|One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (In Persian: ''hezār-o-yek šab'' > Arabic: ''ʔalf-layl-at-wa-l’-layla''= One thousand Night and (one) Night) or *''Arabian Nights'', a name invented by early Western translators, which is a compilation of [[Social:Folklore|folk tales]] from [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], Persian, and later Arabian [[Social:Fable|fable]]s. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype '''''Hezār Afsān''''' (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular [[Religion:Sanskrit literature|Indian elements]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Marzolph | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam | title = Arabian Nights | year = 2007 | publisher = Brill | volume = I | location = Leiden}}</ref> It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<ref name="arabianNights">Grant & Clute, p. 51</ref> All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called ''Arabian Nights'' stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in ''The Book of One Thousand and One Nights'' or not.<ref name="arabianNights" /> This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.<ref>L. Sprague de Camp, ''Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'', p. 10 {{ISBN|0-87054-076-9}}</ref> Imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">Grant & Clute, p 52</ref> Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in [[Social:Western culture|Western culture]], such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on [[Philosophy:Romance (love)|romance (love)]] is ''Layla and Majnun'', dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a [[Social:Tragedy|tragic]] story of undying love. Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh'', the national epic of [[Place:Greater Iran|Greater Iran]], is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. ''Amir Arsalan'' was also a popular mythical Persian story.

[[Biography:Ibn Tufayl|Ibn Tufayl]] (Abubacer) and [[Biography:Ibn al-Nafis|Ibn al-Nafis]] were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') as a response to [[Biography:Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[Religion:The Incoherence of the Philosophers|The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel ''[[Biography:Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' as a response to Ibn Tufail's ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were [[Social:Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] [[Social:Feral child|feral child]]ren living in seclusion on a [[Desert island|desert island]], both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.<ref>Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |date=6 February 2008}}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |date=4 April 2015}}", pp. 95–101, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', University of Notre Dame.</ref>

''Theologus Autodidactus'',<ref>Muhammad b. Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yFAR_G7HM3QC Philosophus autodidactus, sive Epistola Abi Jaafar ebn Tophail de Hai ebn Yokdhan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004180638/https://books.google.com/books?id=yFAR_G7HM3QC |date=4 October 2015 }}: in qua ostenditur, quomodo ex inferiorum contemplatione ad superiorum notitiam ratio humana ascendere possit. E Theatro Sheldoniano, excudebat Joannes Owens, 1700.</ref><ref>[[Biography:Ibn al-Nafis|Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi]]. The Theologus autodidactus of Ibn al-Nafīs. Clarendon P., 1968</ref> written by the Arabian [[History:Polymath|polymath]] Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFCuoqykV9QC&q=ibn+al+nafis+first+science+fiction+novel&pg=PA236|title=The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature|first=Gregory|last=Claeys|date=5 August 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139828420|via=Google Books}}</ref> It deals with various science fiction elements such as [[Biology:Abiogenesis|spontaneous generation]], futurology, the [[Unsolved:Eschatology|end of the world and doomsday]], [[Unsolved:Resurrection|resurrection]], and the [[Philosophy:Afterlife|afterlife]]. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, [[Religion:Cosmology in medieval Islam|cosmology]] and [[Earth:Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|geology]] known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and [[Religion:Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosophy]].<ref name=Roubi>Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |date=6 February 2008}}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations might have later inspired Daniel Defoe to write ''Robinson Crusoe'', regarded as the first novel in English.<ref>Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), ''Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature'', Al-Rashid House for Publication.</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), ''New Encyclopaedia of Islam'', p. 202, Rowman Altamira, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}.</ref><ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357–77 [369].</ref><ref name=Wainwright>Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117163157/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html |date=17 January 2008}}, ''{{wipe|The Guardian}}'', 22 March 2003.</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]] from earlier ages, inspired [[Biography:Robert Boyle|Robert Boyle]] to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, ''The Aspiring Naturalist''.<ref name=Toomer-222 />

[[Biography:Dante Alighieri|Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Unsolved:Divine Comedy|Divine Comedy]]'',<ref>The Inferno. Dante Alighieri. Bickers and Son, 1874.</ref> derived features of and episodes about ''[[Religion:Hell|Bolgia]]''<ref>See Inferno (Dante); [[Unsolved:Inferno (Dante)#Eighth Circle (Fraud)|Eighth Circle (Fraud)]]</ref> from Arabic works on [[Religion:Islamic eschatology|Islamic eschatology]]:<ref>Miguel Asín Palacios, Julián Ribera, Real Academia Española. La Escatologia Musulmana en la Divina Comedia. E. Maestre, 1819.</ref><ref>See also: Miguel Asín Palacios.</ref> the ''[[Religion:Hadith|Hadith]]'' and the ''Kitab al-Miraj'' (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before<ref name="Heullant">I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in ''Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet'', Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection ''Lettres Gothiques'', Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.</ref> as ''Liber scalae Machometi''<ref>Tr. ''The Book of Muhammad's Ladder''</ref>) concerning the [[Religion:Isra and Mi'raj|ascension to Heaven]] of Muhammad,<ref>Transliterated as ''Maometto''.</ref> and the spiritual writings of [[Biography:Ibn Arabi|Ibn Arabi]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YY5NAAAAYAAJ The Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922105223/https://books.google.com/books?id=YY5NAAAAYAAJ |date=22 September 2015 }}: May–Dec. 1919, Volume 1. The National Weekly Corp., 1919. p. 128.</ref> The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's ''The Battle of Alcazar'' and Shakespeare's ''The Merchant of Venice'', ''Titus Andronicus'' and ''Othello'', which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to [[History:Elizabethan era|Elizabethan England]] at the beginning of the 17th century.<ref>Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), ''Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor'', Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe (cf. Mayor of London (2006), [http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf Muslims in London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626154647/http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf |date=26 June 2008}}, pp. 14–15, Greater London Authority)</ref>

====Philosophy====
{{Further|Philosophy:Logic in Islamic philosophy|Religion:Kalam}}
[[File:BAE09705.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Biography:Averroes|Ibn Rushd (Averroes)]], Muslim polymath from Al-Andalus.]]

One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."<ref name="RoutledgeEoP">[http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 "Islamic Philosophy"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606082214/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/islamic-philosophy;jsessionid=B31B033F077DD5E68E09CC9D35C02105 |date=6 June 2022}}, ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1998)</ref> Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.<ref name="RoutledgeEoP" /> The Persian scholar [[Biography:Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook ''The Canon of Medicine'' was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote ''The Book of Healing'', an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the [[Philosophy:Averroism|Averroism]] school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of [[Philosophy:Secularism|secular thought]] in Europe.<ref name=Fakhry>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. {{ISBN|1-85168-269-4}}.</ref> He also developed the concept of "[[Philosophy:Existence precedes essence|existence precedes essence]]".<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}}</ref>

Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.<ref>{{cite book|last=Saliba |first=George |date=1994 |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |pages=245, 250, 256–257 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=0-8147-8023-7}}</ref> He was also a critic of [[Philosophy:Organon|Aristotelian logic]] and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of [[Philosophy:Empiricism|empiricism]] and [[Philosophy:Tabula rasa|tabula rasa]], and distinguished between [[Philosophy:Essence|essence]] and [[Philosophy:Existence|existence]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on [[Philosophy:Modern philosophy|modern philosophy]] was [[Biography:Ibn Tufail|Ibn Tufail]]. His philosophical novel, ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'', translated into Latin as ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, [[Philosophy:Nature versus nurture|nature versus nurture]],<ref>Russell (1994), pp. 224–62,</ref> [[Condition of possibility|condition of possibility]], [[Philosophy:Materialism|materialism]],<ref>Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), ''The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān'', pp. 38–46, [[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill Publishers]], {{ISBN|90-04-09300-1}}.</ref> and [[Philosophy:Molyneux's problem|Molyneux's problem]].<ref>Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufail and Léon Gauthier (1981), ''Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan'', p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.</ref> European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include [[Biography:John Locke|John Locke]],<ref>Russell (1994), pp. 224–39</ref> Gottfried Leibniz,<ref name=Wainwright /> Melchisédech Thévenot, [[Biography:John Wallis|John Wallis]], [[Biography:Christiaan Huygens|Christiaan Huygens]],<ref>Russell (1994) p. 227</ref> George Keith, Robert Barclay, the [[Religion:Quakers|Quakers]],<ref>Russell (1994), p. 247</ref> and Samuel Hartlib.<ref name=Toomer-222>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 222, [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|0-19-820291-1}}.</ref>

Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when [[Biography:Mulla Sadra|Mulla Sadra]] founded his school of [[Religion:Transcendent theosophy|Transcendent theosophy]] and developed the concept of [[Philosophy:Existentialism|existentialism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy|first=Muhammad|last=Kamal|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5271-7|pages=9, 39|oclc=224496901}}</ref>

Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in [[Biology:Evolution|evolution]]ary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of [[Philosophy:Phenomenology|phenomenology]] and the [[Philosophy:Philosophy of science|philosophy of science]] and a critic of [[Physics:Aristotelian physics|Aristotelian natural philosophy]] and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); [[Biography:Al-Biruni|Al-Biruni]], a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of [[Philosophy:Illuminationism|Illuminationist philosophy]]; [[Biography:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of [[Philosophy:Inductive reasoning|inductive logic]]; and [[Biography:Ibn Khaldun|Ibn Khaldun]], a pioneer in the [[Philosophy:Philosophy of history|philosophy of history]].<ref name=Akhtar>S.R.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref>

====Sciences====
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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'''Sciences'''
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<gallery>
File:Tusi_manus.jpg|[[Biography:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s ''[[Astronomy:Astrolabe|Astrolabe]]''. (13th century)
File:Mansur1911.jpg|One of Mansur ibn Ilyas (Ak Koyunlu era) colored illustrations of human anatomy.
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Zahrawi1.png|Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's ''Kitab al-Tasrif''<br />Surgical instruments illustrations. (11th century)
File:Banu musa mechanical.jpg|A self-trimming lamp from [[Biography:Banū Mūsā|Banū Mūsā]]'s work ''On Mechanical Devices'' on [[Engineering:Automation|Automation]].
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Lunar phases al-Biruni.jpg|An illustration from [[Biography:Al-Biruni|al-Biruni]]'s astronomical works, explains the different phases of the [[Astronomy:Moon|moon]].
File:Al-jazari elephant clock.png|The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari.
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Khayyam-paper-1stpage.png|"Cubic equations and intersections of conic sections", of [[Biography:Omar Khayyam|Omar Khayyam]].
File:Lagari.jpg|[[Biography:Lagâri Hasan Çelebi|Lagâri Hasan Çelebi]]'s rocket flight depicted in a 17th-century engraving.
</gallery>
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Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than the Greeks.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020|reason=Not mentioned in the Al-Khalili BBC article.}} This led to an early [[Scientific method|scientific method]] being developed in the Muslim world, where progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on [[Physics:Optics|optics]] from ''circa'' 1000, in his ''[[Physics:Book of Optics|Book of Optics]]''. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the [[Philosophy:Visual perception#Early studies|intromission theory]] of light. [[Biography:Jim Al-Khalili|Jim Al-Khalili]] stated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".'<ref>{{cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |title=BBC News |date=4 January 2009 |access-date=11 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |archive-date=26 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.<ref>Plofker, Kim (2009), ''Mathematics in India: 500 BCE–1800 CE'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-12067-6}}.</ref> Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced [[Decagon|decagon]]al [[Physics:Quasicrystal|quasicrystal]] geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.<ref>Peter J. Lu, [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/03.01/99-tiles.html Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314012002/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/03.01/99-tiles.html |date=14 March 2007}}</ref>

Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of [[Biology:Anatomy|anatomy]] and [[Biology:Physiology|physiology]]: such as in the 15th-century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Biology:Nervous system|nervous]] and [[Biology:Circulatory system|circulatory system]]s; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of [[Biology:Pulmonary circulation|pulmonary circulation]]. Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine'' remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as ''Abulcasis'') contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of [[Biology:Pharmacology|pharmacology]] and [[Chemistry:Pharmacy|pharmacy]].<ref>Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136–38</ref>

In astronomy, Muḥammad ibn Jābir al-Ḥarrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the [[Physics:Precession|precession]] of the [[Astronomy:Axial tilt|Earth's axis]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} The corrections made to the [[Geocentric model|geocentric model]] by al-Battani, Averroes, [[Biography:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the [[Astronomy:Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican heliocentric]] model.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} [[Astronomy:Heliocentrism|Heliocentric]] theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al-Biruni, [[Biography:Al-Sijzi|Al-Sijzi]], [[Biography:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]], and [[Biography:Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi|Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} The [[Astronomy:Astrolabe|astrolabe]], though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, [[Biography:Al-Farabi|al-Farabi]], Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, [[Biography:Ibn al-Haytham|Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Biography:Al-Biruni|Al-Biruni]], [[Biography:Avicenna|Avicenna]], [[Biography:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], and [[Biography:Ibn Khaldun|Ibn Khaldun]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

====Technology====
[[File:Illustration of al-Hariri Maqamat spinning wheel.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Engineering:Spinning wheel|Spinning wheel]] is believed to have been invented in the medieval era (of what is now the Greater Middle East), it is considered to be an important device that contributed greatly to the advancement of the Industrial Revolution. (scene from Al-Maqamat, painted by al-Wasiti 1237)]]


In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.<ref name=Lucas /> The knowledge of [[Chemistry:Gunpowder|gunpowder]] was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,<ref>Arming the Periphery. Emrys Chew, 2012. p. 1823.</ref> where formulas for pure [[Chemistry:Potassium nitrate|potassium nitrate]]<ref>[[Biography:Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|Ahmad Y. al-Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226105129/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm |date=26 February 2008}}, ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref><ref name=Gunpowder>[[Biography:Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|Ahmad Y. al-Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226104140/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm |date=26 February 2008}}, ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> were developed.

Advances were made in [[Earth:Irrigation|irrigation]] and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as [[Biology:Almond|almond]]s and [[Biology:Citrus|citrus]] fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the India's Bengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. {{ISBN|978-81-8069-149-2}}. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.</ref>

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of [[Physics:Hydropower|hydropower]], and early industrial uses of [[Engineering:Tidal power|tidal power]] and wind power,<ref>[[Biography:Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|Ahmad Y. al-Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', pp. 34–35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[Organization:University of Aleppo|University of Aleppo]].</ref> fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[Engineering:Watermill|watermill]]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-[[Engineering:Water wheel|wheeled]] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, [[Engineering:Paper mill|paper mill]]s, [[Engineering:Rice huller|hullers]], [[Engineering:Sawmill|sawmill]]s, [[Engineering:Ship mill|ship mill]]s, stamp mills, [[Engineering:Steel mill|steel mill]]s, [[Engineering:Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], [[Engineering:Tide mill|tide mill]]s and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref name=Lucas>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), pp. 1–30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented [[Engineering:Crankshaft|crankshaft]]s and water turbines, employed [[Physics:Gear|gear]]s in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan>[[Biography:Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|Ahmad Y. al-Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm |date=18 February 2008}}</ref> Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in [[History:Ancient history|ancient times]] to be [[Engineering:Mechanization|mechanized]] and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the [[History:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]], particularly from the [[Finance:Proto-industrialization|proto-industrialised]] Mughal Bengal and Tipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of the East India Company.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), pp. 1–30.</ref>

===Arts===
The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.<ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p. 3{{Clarify|date=November 2010|reason=Need full name and work cited}}</ref><ref>"Islamic Art and Architecture", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)</ref>

====Architecture====
{{excerpt|Islamic architecture|only=paragraphs}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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'''Islamic architecture'''
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<gallery>
File:Dome of Rock, Temple Mount, Jerusalem.jpg|Dome of the Rock in [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]
File:Taj Mahal 2, Agra, India.jpg|Taj Mahal in [[Place:Agra|Agra]] city of India was constructed during the Mughal Empire
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|Menara Kudus Mosque in Kudus, Indonesia with pre-Islamic Javanese style architecture
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul Turkey retouched.jpg|Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey
File:SultanSalahuddinMosque1.jpg|Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque in Selangor, Malaysia
File:Spain Andalusia Cordoba BW 2015-10-27 13-54-14.jpg|Great Mosque of Córdoba in Spain is a Moorish-style mosque.
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|The Charminar in [[Place:Hyderabad|Hyderabad]], India
File:Chinese-style minaret of the Great Mosque.jpg|"Tower of Introspection" (省心楼) at the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China
File:National Faisal Mosque Islamabad.jpg|The design of Faisal Mosque in [[Place:Islamabad|Islamabad]], {{wipe|Pakistan}} is inspired by Bedouin's tent.
</gallery>
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<gallery>
File:Moscow Cathedral Mosque (22079109675).jpg|Moscow Cathedral Mosque in [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]], Russia
File:Lagos Central Mosque.jpg|Lagos Central Mosque in [[Place:Lagos|Lagos]], Nigeria
File:Shah Mosque, Tehran.jpg|Shah Mosque in [[Place:Tehran|Tehran]], Iran
</gallery>
|}

====Aniconism====
{{Main|Religion:Aniconism in Islam}}
No Islamic visual images or depictions of [[Religion:God in Islam|God]] are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Muslims describe God by the [[Religion:Names of God in Islam|names and attributes]] that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "[[Religion:Basmala|In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful]]". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such [[Religion:Aniconism|aniconism]] and [[Religion:Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]]<ref name=MUSLIM-ICONOCLASM>{{cite web
 |title        = Muslim Iconoclasm
 |url          = http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_iconoclasm.htm
 |publisher    = Encyclopedia of the Orient
 |access-date   = 23 February 2007
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070314233303/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_iconoclasm.htm
 |archive-date = 14 March 2007
|url-status   = live
 |df           = dmy-all
}}</ref> can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.

====Arabesque====
{{Main|Engineering:Arabesque}}
Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in [[Place:Achaemenid Empire|Persia]] and under the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.<ref name="JAACMadden">Madden (1975), pp. 423–30</ref> Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic ''kufic'' and ''naskh'' scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of [[Religion:Minbar|minbar]]s, and so on.<ref name="JAACMadden" />

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, [[Fractal|fractal]] geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, [[Engineering:Pier (architecture)|piers]] and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.<ref>Tonna, Jo (1990). "The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture", Muqarnas BRILL, 7, pp. 182–97</ref> The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.<ref>Grabar, Oleg (2006), "Islamic art and beyond". Ashgate. Vol 2, p. 87</ref>

<gallery>
File:Interlaced-Triangles quasi-Arabesque Brunnian-link.svg|Example of an Arabesque
File:Brunnian-link-12crossings-nonBorromean-quasi-Arabesque.svg|Example of an Arabesque
File:Interlaced-Triangles Brunnian-link alternate.svg|Example of an Arabesque
</gallery>

====Girih====
{{excerpt|Girih|only=paragraphs}}

<gallery>
File:Girih tiles.svg|Girih tiles
File:Darbeimam subdivision rule.svg|The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel.
File:Girih compass straightedge example.svg|Girih pattern that can be drawn with compass and straight edge.
</gallery>

====Islamic calligraphy====
{{excerpt|Islamic calligraphy|only=paragraphs}}

<gallery>
File:Kufic Quran, sura 7, verses 86-87.jpg|Kufic script from an early Qur'an manuscript, 7th century. (Surah 7: 86–87)
File:Bismillah.svg|Bismallah calligraphy.
File:Seven sleepers islam.jpg|Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]].
File:Shiite Calligraphy symbolising Ali as Tiger of God.svg|Islamic calligraphy praising [[Biography:Ali|Ali]].
File:Planets by ibrahimabutouq.jpg|Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various [[Astronomy:Planet|planet]]s.
</gallery>

===Calendar===
Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is a solar calendar officially used in [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] and Afghanistan.

====Islamic lunar calendar====
{{excerpt|Islamic calendar|only=paragraphs}}

====Solar Hijri calendar====
{{excerpt|Solar Hijri calendar|only=paragraphs}}

== Women ==
According to ''Riada Asimovic Akyol'' while Muslim women's experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Akyol|first=Riada Asimovic|title=On Erdogan and Muslim mothers|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/11/28/on-erdogan-and-muslim-mothers/|access-date=29 September 2020|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063930/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/11/28/on-erdogan-and-muslim-mothers/|url-status=live}}</ref> the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries,<ref name=":1" /> the key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biological [[Philosophy:Essentialism|essentialism]] are still valued highly in Islam; hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequal gender roles are widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women).<ref name=":1" /> Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different from that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God.<ref name=":1" /> According to Asma Barlas patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality. Modernist discourse of liberal progressive movements like [[Religion:Islamic feminism|Islamic feminism]] have been revisiting [[Religion:Hermeneutics of feminism in Islam|hermeneutics of feminism in Islam]] in terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights.<ref name=":1" /> ''Riada Asimovic Akyol'' further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism.<ref name=":1" />

<gallery>
File:Kazakh wedding 3.jpg|A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosque
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een marabout gaat voor in het gebed tijdens een naamgevingsfeest TMnr 20018270.jpg|A group of [[Religion:Marabout|marabout]]s – West African religious leaders and teachers of the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]].
File:Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque jakarta.png|Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in [[Place:Jakarta|Jakarta]]
File:Chadian delegation.jpg|A tribal delegation in Chad
File:Asosiasi Pelajar Islam Mengaji 02.jpg|Minangkabau people (Padang, West Sumatra) reciting Al-Qur'an
File:Trio of Muslim Girls in Street - Srimangal - Sylhet Division - Bangladesh (12950725824).jpg|Muslim girls walking for school in Bangladesh
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Social:Arabization|Arabization]]
* [[Place:Arab world|Arab world]]
* [[Religion:Glossary of Islam|Glossary of Islam]]
* History of the Arabs
* [[Religion:History of Islam|History of Islam]]
* Index of Islam-related articles
* [[Biology:Outline of Islam|Outline of Islam]]
* [[Social:Spread of Islam|Spread of Islam]]
* Islam by country
* [[Religion:Islamic studies|Islamic studies]]
* Islam and other religions
* [[Religion:Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamism]]
* Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition
* [[Organization:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
* [[Religion:Sīrah|Sīrah]]
* List of largest cities in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries
* [[Organization:OPEC|OPEC]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |orig-year= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 978-2-88155-004-1 |year= 2000|oclc= 223231547}}
* Graham, Mark, ''How Islam Created the Modern World'' (2006)
* {{Cite book | last1= Grant | first1= John |  last2= Clute | first2=John | author-link2= John Clute | title= The Encyclopedia of Fantasy | chapter = Arabian fantasy | isbn= 978-0-312-19869-5| date= 15 March 1999| publisher= Macmillan }}
* {{Cite book | last= Kraemer | first= Joel L. | title= Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam | year = 1992 | publisher= Brill Publishers | isbn= 978-90-04-07259-6}}
* {{Cite book | last=Russell | first= G. A. | title= The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England | publisher= [[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill Publishers]] | year= 1994 | isbn= 978-90-04-09459-8}}
* {{Cite book | last=Tausch | first=Arno |  title=What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University | publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York| year=2009 | edition=1st | isbn=978-1-60692-731-1| title-link=World Values Survey}}
* {{Cite book | last=Tausch | first=Arno |  title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York|year=2015 | edition=1st | isbn=978-1-62948-899-8}} See [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world (PDF) The political algebra of global value change: General models and implications for the Muslim world]
*Livny, Avital. Trust and the Islamic Advantage: Religious-Based Movements in Turkey and the Muslim World. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2020.

==External links==
* [https://aeon.co/essays/the-idea-of-a-muslim-world-is-both-modern-and-misleading What is the Muslim world?], on ''Aeon''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040415033004/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/ The Islamic World to 1600] an online tutorial at the University of Calgary, Canada (archived 15 April 2004).
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104927939&ft=1&f=1004 Is There a Muslim World?], on NPR
* [https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459.html Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies]
* [https://ideas.repec.org/b/erv/ebooks/b001.html Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis of open international data]
* [http://www.indianoceanhistory.org/ Indian Ocean in World History, A free online educational resource]


[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Regions of Africa]]
[[Category:Regions of Asia]]

{{Sourceattribution|Muslim world}}