View source for Religion:Nativity of Jesus

{{short description|Birth of Jesus}}
 [[File:Adoration of the sheperds - Matthias Stomer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' by Dutch painter Matthias Stomer, 1632]]
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}
 
The '''nativity of Jesus''', '''nativity of Christ''', '''birth of Jesus''' or '''birth of Christ''' is documented in the biblical gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]] was born in [[Religion:Bethlehem|Bethlehem]], Judaea, that his mother, Mary, was engaged to a man named Joseph, who was [[Religion:Davidic line|descended from King David]] and was not his biological father, and that his birth was [[Religion:Virgin birth of Jesus|caused by divine intervention]]. Most scholars do not see the two canonical gospel [[Religion:Nativity of Jesus|nativity stories]] as historically factual<ref>Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Sanders discusses both birth narratives in detail, contrasts them, and judges them not historical on pp. 85–88.</ref><ref name="Birth Stories 1999 page 179">Marcus Borg, 'The Meaning of the Birth Stories' in Marcus Borg, N T Wright, ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'' (Harper One, 1999) page 179: "I (and most mainline scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual."</ref> since they present clashing accounts and irreconcilable [[Religion:Genealogy of Jesus|genealogies]]. The secular history of the time does not synchronize with the narratives of the birth and early childhood of Jesus in the two gospels.<ref <ref>{{Cite book |first1=John Dominic |last1=Crossan |first2=Richard J. |last2=Watts |author-link2=Richard J. Watts |title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus |date=October 1999 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=978-0-664-25842-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 11–12] |url=https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Vermes | first=Géza | author-link=Géza Vermes  | title=The Nativity: History and Legend | date=2006-11-02 | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd | isbn=978-0-14-102446-2 | page=64}}</ref><ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Biography:Karl Rahner|Karl Rahner]] 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 731</ref> Some view the question of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.

The nativity is the basis for the [[Religion:Christianity|Christian]] holiday of Christmas and plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Many Christians traditionally display small manger scenes depicting the nativity within or outside of their homes, or attend nativity plays or Christmas pageants focusing on the nativity cycle in the Bible. Elaborate nativity displays featuring life-sized statues are a tradition in many continental European countries during the Christmas season.

The artistic depiction of the nativity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century. Artistic depictions of the [[Religion:Nativity scene|nativity scene]] since the 13th century have emphasized the [[Philosophy:Humility|humility]] of Jesus and promoted a more tender image of him, a major change from the early "Lord and Master" image, mirroring changes in the common approaches taken by Christian pastoral ministry during the same era.

==Gospel accounts==
Only the Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer narratives regarding the birth of Jesus.{{sfn|Edwards|2020|p=101}} Both agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the reign of King Herod, that his mother was named Mary and that her husband Joseph was descended from King David (although they disagree on details of the line of descent), and both deny Joseph's biological parenthood while treating the birth, or rather the conception, as divinely effected.{{sfn|Robinson|2009|p=111}} 

Beyond this, they agree on very little.{{sfn|Robinson|2009|p=111}} Joseph dominates Matthew's and Mary dominates Luke's, although the suggestion that one derives from Joseph and the other from Mary is no more than a pious deduction.{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=35}} 
Matthew implies that Joseph already has his home in Bethlehem, while Luke states that he lived in Nazareth.{{sfn|Robinson|2009|p=111}}
In Matthew the angel speaks to Joseph, while Luke has [[Religion:Annunciation|one speaking to Mary]].{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=35}} Only Luke has the stories surrounding the birth of [[Biography:John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the [[Religion:Census of Quirinius|census of Quirinius]], the adoration of the shepherds and the presentation in the Temple on the eighth day; only Matthew has the wise men, the [[Unsolved:Star of Bethlehem|star of Bethlehem]], Herod's plot, the massacre of the innocents, and the flight into Egypt.{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=35}} The two itineraries are quite different. According to Matthew, the Holy Family begins in Bethlehem, moves to Egypt following the birth, and settles in Nazareth, while according to Luke they begin in Nazareth, journey to Bethlehem for the birth, and immediately return to Nazareth.{{sfn|Scholz|2009|p=112}}{{refn|group=note|name=second|A more complete account of the similarities and differences between the two can be found in Raymond E. Brown, "Birth of the Messiah", pp.34-35, and in Barbara Shellard, "New Light on Luke: Its Purpose, Sources and Literary Context", pp.79-81.}} The two accounts cannot be harmonised into a single coherent narrative or traced to the same [[Religion:Q source|Q source]], leading scholars to classify them as "special Matthew" (or simply the [[Religion:M source|M source]]) and "special Luke" (the [[Religion:L source|L source]]).{{sfn|Scholz|2009|p=112}}

{{clear}}

==Gospel of Matthew==
[[File:BambergApocalypse06LargeInitialE.JPG|thumb|upright|A page from the 11th-century [[Religion:Bamberg Apocalypse|Bamberg Apocalypse]] showing Matthew 1:21]]

===Annunciation to Joseph===
Mary the mother of Jesus was betrothed to Joseph, but was found to be pregnant through the [[Religion:Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]]. Joseph intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in a [[Biology:Dream#Abrahamic|dream]] that he should take her as his wife and name the child Jesus, "because it is he who will save his people from their sins". This would fulfil the prophecy that a virgin would give birth to a son, who would be known as [[Religion:Immanuel|Emmanuel]], meaning "God is with us". Joseph awoke, took Mary for his wife, did not have intercourse with her until she had given birth to a son, and gave him the name Jesus (Matthew 1:18–25).<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:18–25}}</ref>

These verses present a problem, for in the preceding Matthean [[Religion:Genealogy of Jesus|genealogy of Jesus]], Joseph has been shown to be the descendant of David (the angel addresses him as "son of David") and heir to the kingdom of Judah, but Matthew 1:16<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:16}}</ref> reveals that Jesus is not Joseph's son, and Matthew is careful never to refer to him in this way.{{sfn|France|2007|p=47}} The role of Joseph in naming the child indicates that he is being legally adopted, and thus becoming, like his now-legal father, "son of David."{{sfn|France|2007|p=48}}

===Adoration of the magi===
The birth took place in the town of Bethlehem in the region known as Judea to the Romans and Palestine to the Assyrians, in the time of King Herod (Herod the Great). Wise men from the East (the Magi) came to Jerusalem, asking where they could find the child born [[Religion:Jesus, King of the Jews|king of the Jews]], for they had seen his [[Unsolved:Star of Bethlehem|star]] at its rising, and wished to pay him homage. Herod and all Jerusalem were afraid when they heard this, but Herod, learning from the chief priests and scribes that the messiah would be born in Bethlehem according to prophecy, sent the Magi there with instructions to return and tell him when they had found him. The Magi worshipped the child in Bethlehem and gave him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, but an angel warned them in a dream not to return to Herod, and they returned home by another way.

===Massacre of the innocents, flight into Egypt, and return to Israel===
When Herod learned that the Magi had tricked him, he was infuriated and killed all the children in and around Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents). This was in fulfilment of the prophet Jeremiah: "A voice was heard in Ramah, wailing and loud lamentation, Rachel weeping for her children; she refused to be consoled, because they are no more." But an angel had appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned him to take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt, and the [[Religion:Holy Family|Holy Family]] remained there until Herod died to fulfil the words of the prophet, "Out of Egypt I have called my son." On the death of Herod an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and told him to return with the child and its mother to Israel, but Herod's son was now ruler of Judea, and after being warned in a dream Joseph went instead to Galilee, where he made his home in Nazareth "so that what had been spoken through the prophets might be fulfilled, "He will be called a Nazorean.""<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|2}}</ref>

In this chapter, the author of Matthew needs to establish that "Jesus of Nazareth" was in fact born in Bethlehem, the town where David was born, for the "son of David" born there will be "King of the Jews" (a designation that does not reappear in Matthew until the crucifixion).{{sfn|France|2007|p=61}} Herod's fear and the visit of the Magi underline the royal birth, as do the various prophetic texts quoted or referenced in this chapter.{{sfn|France|2007|p=67}}

==Gospel of Luke==
[[File:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 023.jpg|thumb|upright|''Angel [[Biography:Gabriel|Gabriel]]'s Annunciation to Mary'', by Murillo, {{circa|1660}}]] 

In the Gospel of Luke, when Herod was king of Judea, God sent the angel Gabriel to Nazareth in Galilee to [[Religion:Annunciation|announce to a virgin named Mary]], who was betrothed to a man named Joseph, that a child would be born to her. The angel Gabriel announced that she was to name him Jesus, for he would be the [[Religion:Son of God|son of God]] and rule over Israel forever. When the time of the birth drew near, Caesar Augustus commanded a census of Roman domains, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the ancient city of David, as he was of the House of David. Jesus was born in Bethlehem; since there was nowhere for them to stay in the town, the infant was laid in a manger while angels announced his birth to a group of shepherds who worshipped him as Messiah and Lord.

In accordance with the Jewish law, his parents presented the infant Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem, where two people in the temple, Simeon and Anna the Prophetess, gave thanks to God who had sent his salvation. Joseph and Mary then returned to Nazareth.

==Date and place of birth==
{{further|Religion:Date of the birth of Jesus}}
[[File:Nativity Church15.jpg|thumb|Altar in the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem]]
[[File:Botticelli Nativity.jpg|thumb|''Nativity of Jesus'', by Botticelli, {{circa|1473–1475}}]]

Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was born in [[Religion:Bethlehem|Bethlehem]] during the reign of Herod the Great.{{sfn|Robinson|2009|p=111}} In Luke the newborn baby is placed in a [[Religion:Manger|manger]] "because there was no place in the {{transliteration|grc|katalyma}}.{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=399}} {{transliteration|grc|Katalyma}} might mean a private home (this has little support among scholars), or a room in a private home, or an inn, but it is impossible to be certain which is meant.{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=400}}

In the 2nd century, [[Biography:Justin Martyr|Justin Martyr]] stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while the [[Religion:Gospel of James|Protoevangelium of James]] described a legendary birth in a cave nearby.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Taylor | first=Joan E. |  title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins | year=1993 | publisher=Clarendon Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-814785-5 | pages=99–102}}</ref><ref>''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0847.htm Protoevangelium]'' 18; Justin Martyr, ''Dialogue with Trypho''; cf. Origen, ''Contra Celsum'' 1.2.</ref> The [[Religion:Church of the Nativity|Church of the Nativity]] inside the town, built by St. Helena, contains the cave-manger site traditionally venerated as the birthplace of Jesus, which may have originally been a site of the cult of the god Tammuz.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Taylor | first=Joan E. | author-link=Joan E. Taylor | title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins | year=1993 | publisher=Clarendon Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-814785-5 | pages=99–100}}
</ref> In his {{lang|la|Contra Celsum}} (1.51), [[Biography:Origen|Origen]], who travelled throughout Palestine beginning in around 215, wrote of the "manger of Jesus".<ref>''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' 2000 {{ISBN|90-5356-503-5}} p. 173</ref>

The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but basing it on the death of Herod would place the date between 6 BC and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 >{{Cite journal | first = James DG | last = Dunn | title = Jesus Remembered | publisher = Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2003 | page = 324}}</ref> The historical evidence is too ambiguous to allow a definitive date to be determined,<ref>Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".</ref> but dates have been estimated through known historical events mentioned in the nativity accounts,<ref>e.g. {{bibleverse|Luke|2:1|KJV}} states that Jesus was born during the census of Quirinius, which Raymond Brown notes has led most scholars to conclude that Luke is in error. Brown, R.E. "An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories". Liturgical Press. 1978, p=17</ref> by working backwards from the estimated start of the ministry of Jesus,<ref name=ChronosPaul >Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus And Virgin Mary." in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}} pp. 113–129</ref><ref name=Niswonger121 >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 IBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124</ref> or by associating the claimed astrological portents mentioned with actual historical astronomical alignments and phenomena.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Molnar |first=M.R. |title=The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8135-2701-7 |pages=104}}</ref>

==Themes and analogies==

===Thematic analysis===
[[File:Matthew's Gospel - British Library Add. MS 59874 Ethiopian Bible.jpg|thumb|upright|Gospel of Matthew from an Ethiopian Bible, 1700]]

Helmut Koester writes that while Matthew's narrative was formed in a Jewish environment, Luke's was modeled to appeal to the [[History:Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman world]].<ref name="Köster">Helmut Köster, "Ancient Christian gospels: their history and development", Continuum International Publishing Group, (2004). pp. 307–308</ref> In particular, while shepherds were regarded negatively by Jews in Jesus' time, they were seen in Greco-Roman culture as "symbols of a golden age when gods and humans lived in peace and nature was at harmony".<ref name="Köster"/> C. T. Ruddick Jr. writes that Luke's birth narratives of Jesus and John were modeled on passages from [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Genesis]], chapters 27–43.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|27–43|HE}}</ref><ref>C. T. Ruddick, Jr. (1970) "Birth Narratives in Genesis and Luke" ''Novum Testamentum'' 12(4):343–348.</ref> Regardless, Luke's nativity depicts Jesus as a savior for all people, tracing a genealogy all the way back to Adam, demonstrating his common humanity, and likewise for the lowly circumstances of his birth. Luke, writing for a gentile audience, portrays the infant Jesus as a savior for gentiles as well as Jews.<ref name="Harris Luke">Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Luke" pp. 297–301</ref> Matthew uses quotations from Jewish scripture, scenes reminiscent of [[Biography:Moses|Moses]]' life, and a numerical pattern in his genealogy to identify Jesus as a son of David, of Abraham, and of God. Luke's prelude is much longer, emphasizing the age of the [[Religion:Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]] and the arrival of a savior for all people, both Jew and gentile.<ref>"Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Mainstream scholars interpret Matthew's nativity as depicting Jesus as a new Moses with a genealogy going back to Abraham,<ref name="Harris Matthew">Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" pp. 272–285</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1977|pp=104–121}} while Ulrich Luz views Matthew's depiction of Jesus at once as the new Moses and the inverse of Moses, and not simply a retelling of the Moses story.<ref name=LuzTheo /> Luz also points out that in the massacre narrative, once again, a fulfilment quotation is given: Rachel, the ancestral mother of Israel, weeping for her dead children (Matthew 2:18).<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matthew|2:18}}</ref><ref>Ulrich Luz, ''Theology of the Gospel of Matthew'', {{ISBN|0-521-43576-5}} p. 28</ref>

Scholars who interpret Matthew as casting Jesus in the role of being a second Moses argue that, like Moses, the infant Jesus is saved from a murderous tyrant; and he flees the country of his birth until his persecutor is dead and it is safe to return as the savior of his people.<ref name="3surkLVdw3UC">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&q=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary|first1=John|last1=Barton|first2=John|last2=Muddiman|date=6 September 2001|publisher=OUP Oxford|via=Google Books|isbn=9780198755005}}</ref> In this view, the account in Matthew is based on an earlier narrative patterned on traditions about the birth of Moses. Moses' birth is announced to Pharaoh by Magi; the child is threatened and rescued; the male Israelite children are similarly put to death by an evil king.<ref name="Harris Matthew" /><ref name="3surkLVdw3UC" />

According to Ulrich Luz, the beginning of the narrative of Matthew is similar to earlier biblical stories, e.g., the [[Religion:Annunciation|Annunciation]] of Jesus' birth (Matthew 1:18–25)<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matthew|1:18–25}}</ref> is reminiscent of the biblical accounts of the births of Ishmael (Genesis 16:11, Genesis 17),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|16:11}}, {{bibleverse|Genesis|17}}</ref> Isaac (Genesis 21:1),<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:1}}</ref> Samson (Judges 13:3, 13:5),<ref>{{bibleverse|Judges|13:3}}, {{bibleverse|Judges|13:5}}</ref> and recalls the Haggadic traditions of the birth of Moses. Yet in Luz's view, the contours appear, in part, strangely overlapped and inverted: "Egypt, formerly the land of suppression becomes a place of refuge and it is the King of Israel who now takes on the role of [[Social:Pharaoh|Pharaoh]]. Yet Matthew is not simply retelling the Moses story. Instead, the story of Jesus really is a new story: Jesus is at once the new Moses and the inverse of Moses."<ref name=LuzTheo >Ulrich Luz, The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew, {{ISBN|0-521-43576-5}} p. 24/25</ref>

===Old Testament parallels===
[[File:Codex of Sinay.jpg|thumb|upright|A page from the Codex Sinaiticus, 4th century]]

Scholars have debated whether Matthew 1:22 and Matthew 2:23 refer to specific [[Religion:Old Testament|Old Testament]] passages. Fourth century documents such as the Codex Sinaiticus do not mention the prophet Isaiah in the statement in Matthew 1:22: "All this happened to fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet", but some copies of Matthew from the 5th–6th centuries, such as the Codex Bezae, read "Isaiah the prophet".<ref>See Aland, op.cit., p. 3.</ref> The statement in [[Religion:Matthew 1:23|Matthew 1]], "Behold the virgin shall be with child", uses the Greek term {{transliteration|grc|parthenos}} ("virgin") as in the Septuagint Isaiah, while the Book of Isaiah [[Religion:Isaiah 7:14|7:14]] uses the Hebrew {{transliteration|hbo|[[Religion:Almah|almah]]}}, which may mean "maiden," "young woman," or "virgin."<ref name=Brown92 >Brown, Raymond E.; Achtemeier, Paul J. (1978). ''Mary in the New Testament: A Collaborative Assessment by Protestant and Roman Catholic Scholars''. Paulist Press. p. 92. {{ISBN|0-8091-2168-9}}.</ref> Raymond E. Brown states that the 3rd century BC translators of the Septuagint may have understood the Hebrew word {{transliteration|hbo|almah}} to mean "virgin" in this context.<ref name=Brown92 />

The statement in Matthew 2:23 that "he will be called a Nazarene" does not mention a specific passage in the Old Testament, and there are multiple scholarly interpretations as to what it may refer to.<ref name=Menken161 >''Matthew's Bible: the Old Testament text of the evangelist'' by M. J. J. Menken 2004 {{ISBN|90-429-1419-X}} p. 161</ref> Barbara Aland and other scholars consider the Greek {{lang-grc|Ναζωραίος|Nazoréos|label=none}} used for 'Nazarene' of uncertain etymology and meaning,<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Aland |first2=Kurt |last2=Aland |author-link2=Kurt Aland |first3=Carlo M. |last3=Martini |author-link3=Carlo M. Martini |first4=Johannes |last4=Karavidopoulos |author-link4=Johannes Karavidopoulos |first5=Bruce M. |last5=Metzger |author-link5=Bruce Metzger |title=Novum Testamentum Graece Et Latine—Greek/Latin New Testament |date=December 1983 | publisher=American Bible Society| isbn=978-3-438-05401-2 | page=5}}</ref> but {{thinspace|M.|J.|J.}} Menken states that it is a demonym that refers to an "inhabitant of Nazareth".<ref name=Menken164 >''Matthew's Bible: the Old Testament text of the evangelist'' by M. J. J. Menken 2004 {{ISBN|90-429-1419-X}} p. 164</ref> Menken also states that it may be referring to Judges 13:5 and 13:7.<ref>Menken, Maarten J. J. "The Sources of the Old Testament Quotation in Matthew 2:23" ''Journal of Biblical Literature''120:3 (451–68), 467–8.</ref> Gary Smith states that [[Philosophy:Nazirite|Nazirite]] may mean one consecrated to God, i.e. an ascetic; or may refer to Isaiah 11:1.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Smith | first=Gary |title=The New American Commentary: Isaiah 1–33, Vol. 15A (New American Commentary) | date=2007-08-30 | publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8054-0115-8 | page=268}}</ref> ''The Oxford Bible Commentary'' states that it may be word-play on the use of ''nazirite'', "Holy One of God," in Isaiah 4:3,<ref>{{bibleverse|Isaiah|4:3}}</ref> meant to identify Jesus with the Nazarenes, a Jewish sect who differed from the Pharisees only in that they regarded Jesus as the Messiah.<ref name="3surkLVdw3UC"/> The Swiss theologian Ulrich Luz, who locates the Matthean community in Syria, has noted that Syrian Christians also called themselves Nazarenes.<ref>Ulrich Luz, the Theology of the Gospel of Matthew, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-43576-5}} p. 18</ref>

==Christian theology==
{{Christianity|expanded=hide}}
The theological significance of the Nativity of Jesus has been a key element in Christian teachings, from the early [[Religion:Church Fathers|Church Fathers]] to 20th century theologians.<ref name=Barth256 /><ref name=Bethune /><ref name=Williston /> The theological issues were addressed as early as Apostle Paul, but continued to be debated and eventually lead to both [[Religion:Christology|Christological]] and [[Religion:Mariology|Mariological]] differences among Christians that resulted in early schisms within the Church by the 5th century.

===Birth of the new man===
[[File:Geertgen tot Sint Jans, The Nativity at Night, c 1490.jpg|thumb|upright|''Nativity at Night'', by Geertgen tot Sint Jans, {{circa|1490}}]]

{{quote|He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. For by him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible.|Colossians 1:15–16 regards the birth of Jesus as the model for all creation.<ref>''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} page 308</ref><ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 {{ISBN|0-8146-5856-3}} p. 238</ref><ref>''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} p. 712</ref><ref>''Basic Theology:'' by Charles Caldwell Ryrie 1999 {{ISBN|0-8024-2734-0}} p. 275</ref>}}

[[Biography:Paul the Apostle|Paul the Apostle]] viewed the birth of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which brought forth a "new man" who undid the damage caused by the fall of the first man, [[Religion:Adam and Eve|Adam]]. Just as the Johannine view of Jesus as the incarnate [[Philosophy:Logos|Logos]] proclaims the universal relevance of his birth, the Pauline perspective emphasizes the birth of a new man and a new world in the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Pannenberg /> Paul's [[Unsolved:Eschatology|eschatological]] view of Jesus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to [[Biography:Adam|Adam]]. Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and ushers in a world of morality and salvation.<ref name=Pannenberg >''Systematic Theology, Volume 2'' by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 {{ISBN|0567084663}}, pp. 297–303</ref>

In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man and Jesus as the second: Adam, having corrupted himself by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left it with a curse as inheritance. The birth of Jesus, on the other hand, counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bringing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by Adam.<ref name=Daille >''An exposition of the epistle of Saint Paul to the Philippians'' by Jean Daille 1995 {{ISBN|0-8028-2511-7}} pp. 194–195</ref>

In patristic theology, Paul's contrasting of Jesus as the new man versus Adam provided a framework for discussing the uniqueness of the birth of Jesus and the ensuing events of his life. The nativity of Jesus thus began to serve as the starting point for "cosmic Christology" in which the birth, life and Resurrection of Jesus have universal implications.<ref name=Pannenberg /><ref>''Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon'' by Aloys Grillmeier, John Bowden 1975 {{ISBN|0-664-22301-X}} pp. 15–19</ref><ref>''The Witness of Jesus, Paul and John: An Exploration in Biblical Theology'' by Larry R. Helyer 2008 {{ISBN|0-8308-2888-5}} p. 282</ref> The concept of Jesus as the "new man" repeats in the cycle of birth and rebirth of Jesus from his nativity to his [[Religion:Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]: following his birth, through his morality and obedience to the Father, Jesus began a new harmony in the relationship between God the Father and man. The nativity and resurrection of Jesus thus created the author and exemplar of a new humanity.<ref name=":0">''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} pp. 474 and 1434</ref>

In the 2nd century Church Father Irenaeus writes:

{{quote|When He became incarnate and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of human beings, and furnished us, in a brief, comprehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam – namely to be according to the image and likeness of God – that we might recover in Christ Jesus.<ref name=Bethune >''An introduction to the early history of Christian doctrine'' by James Franklin Bethune-Baker 2005 {{ISBN|1-4021-5770-3}} p. 334</ref><ref name=Williston >''A History of the Christian Church'' by Williston Walker 2010 {{ISBN|1-4400-4446-5}} pp. 65–66</ref>}}

Irenaeus was also one of the early theologians to use the analogy of "second Adam and second Eve". He suggested the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" and wrote that the Mary had "untied the knot of sin bound up by the virgin Eve" and that just as Eve had tempted Adam to disobey God, Mary had set a path of obedience for the second Adam (i.e. Jesus) from the [[Religion:Annunciation|Annunciation]] to Calvary so that Jesus could bring about salvation, undoing the damage of Adam.<ref>''Burke, Raymond L.; et al. (2008). Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons'' {{ISBN|978-1-57918-355-4}} pp. 613–614</ref>

In the 4th century, this uniqueness of the circumstances related to the nativity of Jesus, and their interplay with the mystery of the incarnation, became a central element in both the theology and hymnody of Ephrem the Syrian. For him, the uniqueness of the nativity of Jesus was supplemented with the sign of the majesty of the Creator through the ability of a powerful God to enter the world as a small newborn.<ref>''The Early Christian World, Volumes 1–2'' by Philip Francis Esler 2004 {{ISBN|0-415-33312-1}} p. 452</ref>

In the [[History:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] the birth of Jesus as the second Adam came to be seen in the context of Saint Augustine's {{lang|la|[[Philosophy:Felix culpa|Felix culpa]]}} ("happy fall") and was intertwined with the popular teachings on the fall from grace of [[Religion:Adam and Eve|Adam and Eve]].<ref>''Handbook to life in the medieval world, Volume 1'' by Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones 2008 {{ISBN|0-8160-4887-8}} p. 329</ref> Augustine was fond of a statement on the nativity by [[Biography:Gregory of Nyssa|Gregory of Nyssa]] and he quoted it five times: "Venerate the Nativity, through which you are freed from the bonds of an earthly nativity".<ref name=Demacopoulos >''Orthodox readings of Augustine'' by George E. Demacopoulos, Aristotle Papanikolaou 2008 {{ISBN|0-88141-327-5}} pp. 92–96</ref> He also liked to quote: "Just as in Adam all of us died, so too in Christ all of us will be brought to life".<ref name=Demacopoulos /><ref>1Corinthians 15:22</ref>

The theology persisted into the Protestant Reformation, and second Adam was one of the six modes of atonement discussed by [[Biography:John Calvin|John Calvin]].<ref>''The theology of John Calvin'' by Charles Partee 2008 {{ISBN|0-664-23119-5}} p. 159</ref> In the 20th century, leading theologian [[Biography:Karl Barth|Karl Barth]] continued the same line of reasoning and viewed the nativity of Jesus as the birth of a new man who succeeded Adam. In Barth's theology, in contrast to Adam, Jesus acted as an [[Religion:Active obedience of Christ|obedient]] Son in the fulfilment of the divine will and was therefore free from sin and could hence reveal the righteousness of God the Father and bring about salvation.<ref name=Barth256 >''Church dogmatics, Volume 4, Part 1'' by Karl Barth, Geoffrey William Bromiley, Thomas Forsyth Torrance 2004 {{ISBN|0-567-05129-3}} pp. 256–259</ref>

===Christology===
[[File:SummaTheologiae.jpg|thumb|In {{lang|la|Summa Theologiæ}}, (1471 copy shown here) Thomas Aquinas addressed many of the open Christological questions regarding the Nativity of Jesus.]]

The nativity of Jesus impacted the [[Religion:Christology|Christological]] issues about the [[Religion:Person of Christ|Person of Christ]] from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.<ref>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Georg Strecker 2000 {{ISBN|0-664-22336-2}} pp. 401–403</ref><ref>''Matthew'' by Grant R. Osborne 2010 {{ISBN|0-310-32370-3}} lxxix</ref>

The belief in the divinity of Jesus leads to the question: "was Jesus a man to be born of a woman or was he God born of a woman?" A wide range of hypotheses and beliefs regarding the nature of the nativity of Jesus were presented in the first four centuries of Christianity. Some of the debates involved the title {{transliteration|grc|[[Religion:Theotokos|Theotokos]]}} (God bearer) for the Virgin Mary and began to illustrate the impact of [[Religion:Mariology|Mariology]] on [[Religion:Christology|Christology]]. Some of these viewpoints were eventually declared as [[Religion:Heresy|heresies]], others led to schisms and the formation of new branches of the Church.<ref name=SRoll >''Toward the origins of Christmas'' by Susan K. Roll 1995 {{ISBN|90-390-0531-1}} pp. 208–211</ref><ref name=McGrath2007>{{Cite book| last = McGrath | first =  Alister E.| year = 2007| title = Christian theology: an introduction| page = 282| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tHlY94UWi3UC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=PA282| isbn = 978-1-4051-5360-7| publisher = Blackwell| location = Malden, Mass. }}</ref><ref name="the_orthodox_corruption_of_scripture_a01">{{Citation  | last1 = Ehrman | first1 = Bart D. | title = The Orthodox corruption of scripture: the effect of early Christological controversies on the text of the New Testament | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NHIBM3p83UcC&pg=PA181 | year = 1993 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York  | isbn = 978-0-19-510279-6 }}</ref><ref>''Mary and the Saints'' by James P. Campbell 2005 0829417257 pp. 17–20</ref>

The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to the [[Unsolved:Holy Name of Jesus|Holy Name of Jesus]].<ref name="autogenerated159">''All the Doctrines of the Bible'' by Herbert Lockyer 1988 {{ISBN|0-310-28051-6}} p. 159</ref><ref>''Matthew 1–13'' by Manlio Simonetti 2001 {{ISBN|0-8308-1486-8}} p. 17</ref><ref>''Matthew 1-2/ Luke 1–2'' by Louise Perrotta 2004 {{ISBN|0-8294-1541-6}} p. 19</ref> Matthew 1:23 provides the only key to the ''Emmanuel Christology'' in the New Testament. Beginning with 1:23, Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of his Gospel.<ref name=Kupp >''Matthew's Emmanuel'' by David D. Kupp 1997 {{ISBN|0-521-57007-7}} pp. 220–224</ref> The name 'Emmanuel' does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in Matthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate that Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age.<ref name=Kupp /><ref name=Kingsbury17 >''Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} p. 17</ref> According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.<ref>''The theology of the Gospel of Matthew'' by Ulrich Luz 1995 {{ISBN|0-521-43576-5}} p. 31</ref>

A number of ecumenical councils were convened in the 4th and 5th centuries to deal with these issues. The Council of Ephesus debated [[Religion:Hypostatic union|hypostasis]] (co-existing natures) versus [[Religion:Monophysitism|Monophysitism]] (only one nature) versus [[Religion:Miaphysitism|Miaphysitism]] (two natures united as one) versus [[Religion:Nestorianism|Nestorianism]] (disunion of two natures).<ref>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, Vol XIV p. 207, translated edition by H.R. Percival. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ephesus.html</ref><ref>The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. 192–242</ref> The 451 [[Organization:Council of Chalcedon|Council of Chalcedon]] was highly influential and marked a key turning point in the Christological debates that divided the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th century. In Chalcedon the hypostatic union was decreed, namely that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human, making this part of the creed of [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|orthodox Christianity]].<ref>''The acts of the Council of Chalcedon'' by Council of Chalcedon, Richard Price, Michael Gaddis 2006 {{ISBN|0-85323-039-0}} pp. 1–5</ref><ref>''The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology'' by Berard L. Marthaler 2007 {{ISBN|0-89622-537-2}} p. 114</ref><ref>''Essential theological terms'' by Justo L. González 2005 {{ISBN|0-664-22810-0}} p. 120</ref><ref>''Doctrine and practice in the early church'' by Stuart George Hall 1992 {{ISBN|0-8028-0629-5}} pp. 211–218</ref>

In the 5th century, leading Church Father [[Religion:Pope Leo I|Pope Leo I]] used the nativity as a key element of his theology. Leo gave 10 sermons on the nativity and 7 have survived. The one on December 25, 451, demonstrates his concern to increase the importance of the feast of nativity and along with it emphasize the two natures of Christ in defense of the Christological doctrine of hypostatic union.<ref name=Bronwen >''Leo the Great'' by Pope Leo I, Bronwen Neil 2009 {{ISBN|0-415-39480-5}} pp. 61–62</ref> Leo often used his nativity sermons as an occasion to attack opposing viewpoints, without naming the opposition. Thus Leo used the occasion of the Nativity feast to establish boundaries for what could be considered a heresy regarding the birth and nature of Christ.<ref name=SRoll />

In the 13th century, [[Biography:Thomas Aquinas|Thomas Aquinas]] addressed the Christologocal attribution of the nativity: if it should be attributed to the person ([[Religion:Logos (Christianity)|the Word]]) or only to the assumed human nature of that person. Aquinas treated nativity in 8 separate articles in {{lang|la|[[Philosophy:Summa Theologica|Summa Theologica]]}}, each posing a separate question:

* "Does Nativity regard the nature rather than the Person?"
* "Should a temporal Nativity be attributed to Christ?"
* "Should the Blessed Virgin be called Christ's Mother?"
* "Should the Blessed Virgin be called the Mother of God?"
* "Are there two filiations in Christ?", etc.<ref>''Summa Theologica, Volume 4 (Part III, First Section)'' by St. Thomas Aquinas 207 Cosimo Classics {{ISBN|1-60206-560-8}} pp. 2197–2211</ref>

To deal with this issue, Aquinas distinguishes between the person born and the nature in which the birth takes place.<ref name=Weinandy >''Aquinas on doctrine: a critical introduction'' by Thomas Gerard Weinandy, John Yocum 2004 {{ISBN|0-567-08411-6}} p. 98</ref> Aquinas thus resolved the question by arguing that in the hypostatic union Christ has two natures, one received from the Father from eternity, the other from his mother in time. This approach also resolved the [[Religion:Mariology|Mariological problem]] of Mary receiving the title of [[Religion:Theotokos|Theotokos]] for under this scenario she is the "Mother of God".<ref name=Weinandy  />

During the Reformation, [[Biography:John Calvin|John Calvin]] argued that Jesus was not sanctified to be "God manifested as Incarnate" ({{lang|la|Deus manifestatus in carne}}) only due to his virgin birth, but through the action of the Holy Spirit at the instant of his birth. Thus Calvin argued that Jesus was exempt from original sin because he was sanctified at the moment of birth so that his generation was without blemish; as generation was blemishless before the fall of Adam.<ref>''Calvin's Catholic Christology'' by E. David Willis 1966 Published by E.J. Brill, Netherlands, p. 83</ref>

==Impact on Christianity==
===Christmas, the Feast of the Nativity of Our Lord===
[[File:Advent Wreath (Broadway United Methodist Church).jpg|thumb|upright|On Christmas, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services.]]

Christian Churches celebrate the nativity of Jesus on Christmas, which is marked on December 25 by the Western Christian Churches, while many [[Religion:Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian Churches]] celebrate the Feast of the Nativity of Our Lord on January 7.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/christmasinholyl00worl |title=Christmas in the Holy Land |date=1987 |publisher=[[Company:World Book Encyclopedia|World Book Encyclopedia]] |isbn=9780716608875 |page=58 |language=en}}</ref> This is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. In the Council of Tours of 567, the Church, with its desire to be universal, "declared the twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany to be one unified festal cycle", thus giving significance to both the Western and Eastern dates of Christmas.<ref name="Forbes08">{{cite book|last=Forbes|first=Bruce David|title=Christmas: A Candid History|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25802-0|page=27|quote=In 567 the Council of Tours proclaimed that the entire period between Christmas and Epiphany should be considered part of the celebration, creating what became known as the twelve days of Christmas, or what the English called Christmastide. On the last of the twelve days, called Twelfth Night, various cultures developed a wide range of additional special festivities. The variation extends even to the issue of how to count the days. If Christmas Day is the first of the twelve days, then Twelfth Night would be on January 5, the eve of Epiphany. If December 26, the day after Christmas, is the first day, then Twelfth Night falls on January 6, the evening of Epiphany itself. After Christmas and Epiphany were in place, on December 25 and January 6, with the twelve days of Christmas in between, Christians gradually added a period called Advent, as a time of spiritual preparation leading up to Christmas.|date=2008-11-13}}</ref><ref name="Hynes1993">{{cite book|last=Hynes|first=Mary Ellen|title=Companion to the Calendar|year=1993|publisher=Liturgy Training Publications|isbn=978-1-56854-011-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne/page/8 8]|quote=In the year 567 the church council of Tours called the 13 days between December 25 and January 6 a festival season. Up until that time the only other joyful church season was the 50 days between Easter Sunday and Pentecost.|url=https://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne/page/8}}</ref><ref name=Knight>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm|title=Christmas|last=Knight|first=Kevin|year=2012|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=December 15, 2014|quote=The Second Council of Tours (can. xi, xvii) proclaims, in 566 or 567, the sanctity of the "twelve days" from Christmas to Epiphany, and the duty of Advent fast; that of Agde (506), in canons 63–64, orders a universal communion, and that of Braga (563) forbids fasting on Christmas Day. Popular merry-making, however, so increased that the "Laws of King Cnut", fabricated c. 1110, order a fast from Christmas to Epiphany.}}</ref><ref name="Hill2003">{{cite book|last=Hill|first=Christopher|title=Holidays and Holy Nights: Celebrating Twelve Seasonal Festivals of the Christian Year|year=2003|publisher=Quest Books|isbn=978-0-8356-0810-7|page=91|quote=This arrangement became an administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east. While the Romans could roughly match the months in the two systems, the four cardinal points of the solar year—the two equinoxes and solstices—still fell on different dates. By the time of the first century, the calendar date of the winter solstice in Egypt and Palestine was eleven to twelve days later than the date in Rome. As a result the Incarnation came to be celebrated on different days in different parts of the Empire. The Western Church, in its desire to be universal, eventually took them both—one became Christmas, one Epiphany—with a resulting twelve days in between. Over time this hiatus became invested with specific Christian meaning. The Church gradually filled these days with saints, some connected to the birth narratives in Gospels (Holy Innocents' Day, December 28, in honor of the infants slaughtered by Herod; St. John the Evangelist, "the Beloved," December 27; St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, December 26; the Holy Family, December 31; the Virgin Mary, January 1). In 567, the Council of Tours declared the twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany to become one unified festal cycle.}}</ref><ref name="Bunson">{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/vexperts/showmessage_print.asp?number=518618&language=en|title=Origins of Christmas and Easter holidays|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|date=October 21, 2007|publisher=Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217073451/http://www.ewtn.com/vexperts/showmessage_print.asp?number=518618&language=en|archive-date=17 December 2014|access-date=December 17, 2014|quote=The Council of Tours (567) decreed the 12 days from Christmas to Epiphany to be sacred and especially joyous, thus setting the stage for the celebration of the Lord's birth not only in a liturgical setting but in the hearts of all Christians.}}</ref> The liturgical season of [[Religion:Advent|Advent]] precedes, and is used to prepare for the celebration of Christmas.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Church of England Magazine, Volume 49 |date=1860 |publisher=J. Burns |page=369 |language=en}}</ref> Customs of the Christmas season include completing an Advent daily devotional and Advent wreath,<ref name="KennedyHatch2013">{{cite book|last1=Kennedy|first1=Rodney Wallace|last2=Hatch|first2=Derek C|title=Baptists at Work in Worship|date=27 August 2013|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-62189-843-6|page=147|quote=There are a variety or worship practices that enable a congregation to celebrate Advent: lighting an advent wreath, a hanging of the greens service, a Chrismon tree, and an Advent devotional booklet.}}</ref> carol singing,<ref name="GeddesGriffiths2002">{{cite book|last1=Geddes|first1=Gordon|last2=Griffiths|first2=Jane|title=Christian Belief and Practice|year=2002|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=9780435306915|page=102|quote=Carol singing is a common custom during the Christmas season. Many Christians form groups and go from house to house singing carols. The words of the carols help to pass on the message of Christmas to others.}}</ref> gift giving,<ref name=Kubesh>{{cite book|last1=Kubesh |first1=Katie |last2=McNeil|first2=Niki|last3=Bellotto |first3=Kimm|title=The 12 Days of Christmas|publisher=In the Hands of a Child|page=16|quote=The Twelve Days of Christmas, also called Twelvetide, are also associated with festivities that begin on the evening of Christmas Day and last through the morning of Epiphany. This period is also called Christmastide{{nbsp}}[...] one early American tradition was to make a wreath on Christmas Eve and hang it on the front door on Christmas night. The wreath stayed on the front door through Epiphany. Some families also baked a special cake for the Epiphany. Other Old Time Traditions from around the world include: Giving gifts on Christmas night only. Giving gifts on the Twelfth Night only. Giving gifts on each night. On the Twelfth Night, a Twelfth Night Cake or King Cake is served with a bean or pea baked in it. The person who finds the bean or pea in his or her portion is a King of Queen for the day.}}</ref> seeing Nativity plays,<ref name="Collins2010">{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Ace |title=Stories Behind the Great Traditions of Christmas |date=2010 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=9780310873884 |pages=139–141 |language=en}}</ref> attending [[Religion:Church service|church service]]s,<ref name="Bharati1976">{{cite book|last=Bharati|first=Agehanada|title=Ideas and Actions|date=1 January 1976|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|language=en |isbn=9783110805871|page=454|quote=These were services of worship held in Christian churches at Christmastide...}}</ref> and eating special food, such as Christmas cake.<ref name=Nair2013>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Cakewalk-in-Allahabad/articleshow/27391297.cms|title=Cakewalk in Allahabad|last=Nair|first=Malini|date=15 December 2013|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=28 March 2015|quote=Around early December, an unusual kind of pilgrim starts to take the Prayag Raj from Delhi to Allahabad: the devout worshipper of the Allahabadi Christmas cake. This is no elegant western pudding – it is redolent with desi ghee, petha, ginger, nutmeg, javitri, saunf, cinnamon, something called cake ka jeera and marmalades from Loknath ki Galli. All this is browned to perfection at a bakery that has acquired cult status – Bushy's on Kanpur Road. The ancient city has had a great baking tradition. It could be because Allahabad has a sizeable population of Christians.}}</ref> In many countries, such as Sweden, people start to set up their Advent and Christmas decorations on the first day of [[Religion:Advent|Advent]].<ref name="Michelin2012">{{cite book|last=Michelin|title=Germany Green Guide Michelin 2012–2013|quote=Advent – The four weeks before Christmas are celebrated by counting down the days with an advent calendar, hanging up Christmas decorations and lightning an additional candle every Sunday on the four-candle advent wreath.|date=10 October 2012|publisher=Michelin |isbn=9782067182110|page=73}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.graphicgarden.com/files17/eng/sweden/xmas2e.php|title=Modern Christmas|last=Normark|first=Helena|year=1997|publisher=Graphic Garden|access-date=9 April 2014|quote=Christmas in Sweden starts with Advent, which is the await for the arrival of Jesus. The symbol for it is the Advent candlestick with four candles in it, and we light one more candle for each of the four Sundays before Christmas. Most people start putting up the Christmas decorations on the first of Advent.}}</ref> Liturgically, this is done in some [[Religion:Parish church|parishes]] through a hanging of the greens ceremony.<ref name="RiceHuffstutler2001">{{cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Howard L.|last2=Huffstutler|first2=James C.|title=Reformed Worship|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|language=en |isbn=978-0-664-50147-1|page=197|quote=Another popular activity is the "Hanging of the Greens," a service in which the sanctuary is decorated for Christmas.}}</ref>

===History of feasts and liturgical elements===
[[File:Dorfkrippe Baumkirchen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Religion:Nativity scene|Nativity scene]] in Baumkirchen, Austria]]

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the [[Religion:Lord's Day|Lord's Day]] (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the [[Religion:Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus]] became a separate feast as Easter and in the same century [[Religion:Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6.<ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 {{ISBN|0-8146-5856-3}} p. 237</ref> The celebration of the feast of the Magi on January 6 may relate to a pre-Christian celebration for the blessing of the Nile in Egypt on January 5, but this is not historically certain.<ref>''The journey of the Magi: meanings in history of a Christian story'' by Richard C. Trexler 1997 {{ISBN|0-691-01126-5}} p. 9</ref> The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th-century feast in the Western Church notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.<ref>''Christian worship in Reformed Churches past and present'' by Lukas Vischer 2002 {{ISBN|0-8028-0520-5}} pp. 400–401</ref>

The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of [[Biography:Jesus|Jesus]] was [[Religion:Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus of Rome]] (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |last=Mills |first=Watson E. |author2=Edgar V. McKnight |author3=Roger Aubrey Bullard  |year=1990 |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |page=142 |access-date=July 10, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&q=%22spring+equinox%22&pg=PA142}}</ref> There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and [[Religion:Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Jesus]] on the same day, on January 6, while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the [[Astronomy:Winter solstice|Winter solstice]]); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts.<ref name=JBurnett >''Aspects of the liturgical year in Cappadocia (325–430)'' by Jill Burnett Comings 2005 {{ISBN|0-8204-7464-9}} pp. 61–71</ref> The earliest suggestions of a feast of the Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from [[Biography:Clement of Alexandria|Clement of Alexandria]], but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.<ref name=JBurnett />

[[File:NativityofJesus.jpg|thumb|upright|Christmas Eve Nativity at Resurrection Lutheran Church, Fredericksburg, Virginia]]

The Chronography of 354 illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome includes an early reference to the celebration of a Nativity feast. In a sermon delivered in Antioch on December 25, {{c.|386}}, John Chrysostom provides specific information about the feast there, stating that the feast had existed for about 10 years.<ref name=JBurnett /> By around 385 the feast for the birth of Jesus was distinct from that of the Baptism and was held on December 25 in Constantinople, Nyssa and Amaseia. In a sermon in 386, [[Biography:Gregory of Nyssa|Gregory of Nyssa]] specifically related the feast of Nativity with that of the martyrdom of Saint Stephen, celebrated a day later. By 390 the feast was also held in Iconium on that day.<ref name=JBurnett />

[[Religion:Pope Leo I|Pope Leo I]] established a feast of the "Mystery of Incarnation" in the 5th century, in effect as the first formal feast for the Nativity of Jesus. Pope Sixtus III then instituted the practice of [[Religion:Midnight Mass|Midnight Mass]] just before that feast.<ref name=RClancy >''Sacred Christmas Music'' by Ronald M. Clancy 2008 {{ISBN|1-4027-5811-1}} pp. 15–19</ref> The feast was celebrated in Jerusalem by the 6th century,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frøyshov |first=Stig Simeon |title=[Hymnography of the] Rite of Jerusalem |url=https://www.academia.edu/4874556 |journal=Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology}}</ref> when Emperor Justinian declared Christmas to be a legal holiday.<ref name=Kelly2>''The Feast of Christmas'' by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 {{ISBN|0-8146-3325-0}} pp. 331–391</ref>

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the theological importance of the nativity of Jesus was coupled with an emphasis on the loving nature of the child Jesus in sermons by figures such as Jean Gerson. In his sermons Gerson emphasized the loving nature of Jesus at his nativity, as well as his cosmic plan for the salvation of mankind.<ref>''Pastor and laity in the theology of Jean Gerson'' by Dorothy Catherine Brown 1987 {{ISBN|0-521-33029-7}} p. 32</ref>

By the early part of the 20th century, Christmas had become a "cultural signature" of Christianity and indeed of the Western culture even in countries such as the United States which are officially non-religious. By the beginning of the 21st century these countries began to pay more attention to the sensitivities of non-Christians during the festivities at the end of the calendar year.<ref>''The Feast of Christmas'' by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 {{ISBN|0-8146-3325-0}} pp. 112–114</ref>

===Transforming the image of Jesus===
[[File:American Nativity Scene.jpg|thumb|A [[Religion:Nativity scene|Nativity scene]] inside an American home]]
[[File:8452 - Milano - S. Marco - Londonio - Presepe (ca 1750) - Foto G. Dall'Orto - 14-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|upright|Paper on wood [[Religion:Nativity scene|Nativity scene]] from 1750, Milan, presenting a tender image of Jesus]]

Early Christians viewed Jesus as "the Lord" and the word {{transliteration|grc|[[Religion:Kyrios|Kyrios]]}} appears over 700 times in the [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]], referring to him as such.<ref name =mercer >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} pp. 520–525</ref> The use of the word {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} in the Septuagint Bible also assigned to Jesus the [[Religion:Old Testament|Old Testament]] attributes of an omnipotent God.<ref name =mercer /> The use of the term {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}}, and hence the Lordship of Jesus, pre-dated the [[Religion:Pauline epistles|Pauline epistles]], but Paul expanded and elaborated on the topic.<ref name =mercer />

Pauline writings established among early Christians the {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} image, and attributes of Jesus as not only referring to his eschatological victory, but to him as the "divine image" ([[Social:Greek language|Greek]] {{lang-grc|εἰκών|eikōn|label=none}}) in whose face the glory of God shines forth. This image persisted among Christians as the predominant perception of Jesus for a number of centuries.<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} pp. 113 and 179</ref> More than any other title, {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} defined the relationship between Jesus and those who believed in him as Christ: Jesus was their Lord and Master who was to be served with all their hearts and who would one day judge their actions throughout their lives.<ref>''II Corinthians: a commentary'' by Frank J. Matera 2003 {{ISBN|0-664-22117-3}} pp. 11–13</ref>

The lordship attributes associated with the {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} image of Jesus also implied his power over all creation.<ref>Philippians 2:10</ref><ref name=mini7 /> Paul then looked back and reasoned that the final lordship of Jesus was prepared from the very beginning, starting with [[Religion:Pre-existence of Christ|pre-existence]] and the nativity, based on his obedience as the image of God.<ref name=Mini211 >''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson ISBN p. 211</ref> Over time, based on the influence of [[Biography:Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm of Canterbury]], Bernard of Clairvaux and others, the {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} image of Jesus began to be supplemented with a more "tender image of Jesus", and the Franciscan approach to popular piety was instrumental in establishing this image.<ref name=mini7 >''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 {{ISBN|81-8324-007-0}} pp. 74–76</ref>

The 13th century witnessed a major turning point in the development of a new "tender image of Jesus" within Christianity, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death. The construction of the nativity scene by Francis of Assisi was instrumental in portraying a softer image of Jesus that contrasted with the powerful and radiant image at the [[Religion:Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]], and emphasized how God had taken a humble path to his own birth.<ref name=Brooke >''The image of St Francis'' by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 {{ISBN|0-521-78291-0}} pp. 183–184</ref> As the Black Death raged in Medieval Europe, the two mendicant orders of Franciscans and Dominicans helped the faithful cope with tragedies. One element of the Franciscan approach was the emphasis on the humility of Jesus and the poverty of his birth: the image of God was the image of Jesus, not a severe and punishing God, but himself humble at birth and sacrificed at death.<ref name=Raab >''The tradition of Catholic prayer'' by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 {{ISBN|0-8146-3184-3}} pp. 86–87</ref> The concept that the omnipotent Creator would set aside all power in order to conquer the hearts of men by love and that he would have been helplessly placed in a manger was as marvelous and as touching to the believers as the sacrifice of dying on the cross in Calvary.<ref name=GFinger >''The vitality of the Christian tradition'' by George Finger Thomas 1944 {{ISBN|0-8369-2378-2}} pp. 110–112</ref>

Thus by the 13th century the tender joys of the nativity of Jesus were added to the agony of his [[Religion:Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] and a whole new range of approved religious emotions was ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impacts for centuries thereafter.<ref name=GFinger /> The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions. On one hand the introduction of the nativity scene encouraged the tender image of Jesus, while on the other hand Francis of Assisi himself had a deep attachment to the sufferings of Jesus on the Cross and was said to have received the [[Religion:Stigmata|stigmata]] as an expression of that love. The dual nature of Franciscan piety based both on joy of nativity and the sacrifice at [[Religion:Crucifixion of Jesus|Calvary]] had a deep appeal among city dwellers and as the Franciscan Friars travelled these emotions spread across the world, transforming the {{transliteration|grc|Kyrios}} image of Jesus to a more tender, loving, and compassionate image.<ref name=GFinger /> These traditions did not remain limited to Europe and soon spread to the other parts of the world such as Latin America, the {{wipe|Philippines}} and the United States.<ref>''La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental theology'' by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 {{ISBN|0-7425-5157-1}} pp. 3–5</ref><ref>''Philippines'' by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 {{ISBN|0-7614-1475-4}} p. 109</ref>

According to Archbishop Rowan Williams, this transformation, accompanied by the proliferation of the tender image of Jesus in Madonna and Child paintings, made an important impact within the Christian ministry by allowing Christians to feel the living presence of Jesus as a loving figure "who is always there to harbor and nurture those who turn to him for help".<ref name=Astley >''Christology: Key Readings in Christian Thought'' by Jeff Astley, David Brown, Ann Loades 2009 {{ISBN|0-664-23269-8}} p. 106</ref><ref>Williams, Rowan ''Ponder these things'' 2002 {{ISBN|1-85311-362-X}} p. 7</ref>

==Hymns, art and music==

===Canticles appearing in Luke===
Luke's nativity text has given rise to four well-known canticles: the {{lang|la|Benedictus}} and the {{lang|la|[[Religion:Magnificat|Magnificat]]}} in the first chapter, and the {{lang|la|Gloria in Excelsis}} and the {{lang|la|Nunc dimittis}} in the second chapter.<ref name=Kugler394 >''An Introduction to the Bible'' by Robert Kugler, Patrick Hartin {{ISBN|0-8028-4636-X}} p. 394</ref> These "Gospel canticles" are now an integral part of the liturgical tradition.<ref>''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} p. 396</ref> The parallel structure in Luke regarding the births of [[Biography:John the Baptist|John the Baptist]] and Jesus, extends to the three canticles {{lang|la|Benedictus}} (Song of Zechariah), the {{lang|la|Nunc dimittis}} and the {{lang|la|Magnificat}}.<ref>''Sanctity of time and space in tradition and modernity'' by Alberdina Houtman, Marcel Poorthuis, Joshua Schwartz 1998 {{ISBN|90-04-11233-2}} pp. 61–62</ref>

The {{lang|la|Magnificat}}, in Luke 1:46–55,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|1:46–55}}</ref> is spoken by Mary and is one of the eight most ancient Christian [[Religion:Hymn|hymn]]s, perhaps the earliest Marian hymn.<ref name=Breed >''The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn-Tunes'' by David R Breed 2009 {{ISBN|1-110-47186-6}} p. 17</ref> The {{lang|la|Benedictus}}, in Luke 1:68–79,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|1:68–79}}</ref> is spoken by Zechariah, while the {{lang|la|Nunc dimittis}}, in Luke 2:29–32,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:29–32}}</ref> is spoken by Simeon.<ref name=Reeves >''Favourite Hymns'' by Marjorie Reeves 2006 {{ISBN|0-8264-8097-7}} pp. 3–5</ref> The traditional {{lang|la|Gloria in Excelsis}} is longer than the opening line presented in Luke 2:14,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:14}}</ref> and is often called the "Song of the Angels" given that it was uttered by the angels in the Annunciation to the Shepherds.<ref>''All the music of the Bible'' by Herbert Lockyer 2004 {{ISBN|1-56563-531-0}} p. 120</ref>

The three canticles {{lang|la|Benedictus}}, {{lang|la|Nunc Dimittis}} and the {{lang|la|Magnificat}}, if not originating in the Gospel of Luke, may have their roots in the earliest Christian liturgical services in Jerusalem, but their exact origins remain unknown.<ref>''Music of the Middle Ages, Volume 1'' by Giulio Cattin, F. Alberto Gallo 1985 {{ISBN|0-521-28489-9}} p. 2</ref>

===Visual arts===
[[File:Meister von Hohenfurth 002.jpg|thumb|upright|Medieval miniature of the Nativity, {{circa|1350}}]]
[[File:Annunciation nesterov.jpg|thumb|upright|''Annunciation'' by Nesterov, 19th century, Russia]]

One of the most visible traditions during the Christmas season is the display of manger scenes depicting the nativity, usually in the form of statues or figurines, in private homes, businesses and churches, either inside or outside the building. This tradition is usually attributed to Francis of Assisi<ref name="Thomas">Thomas, George F.. ''Vitality of the Christian Tradition''. Ayer Co. Publishing, 1944.</ref> who was described as creating such a display at Greccio, Italy, in 1223<ref name="Johnson">Johnson, Kevin Orlin. ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' Random House, Inc., 1994.</ref><ref name="Mazar">Mazar, Peter and Evelyn Grala. ''To Crown the Year: Decorating the Church Through the Year''. Liturgy Training, 1995. {{ISBN|1-56854-041-8}}</ref> as related by St. Bonaventure in his ''Life of Saint Francis of Assisi'' written around 1260.<ref>{{cite web|last=St. Bonaventure|title=The Life of St. Francis of Assisi|url=http://www.ecatholic2000.com/bonaventure/assisi/francis.shtml|work=e-Catholic 2000|access-date=28 September 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614095831/http://www.ecatholic2000.com/bonaventure/assisi/francis.shtml|archive-date=14 June 2014}}</ref>

Before the tradition of building and displaying manger scenes developed, there were paintings depicting the subject. The earliest artistic depictions of the nativity were in the catacombs and on sarcophagi in Rome. As gentile visitors, the Magi were popular in these scenes, representing the significance of the arrival of the [[Religion:Messiah|Messiah]] to all peoples. The ox and ass were also taken to symbolize the Jews and the gentiles, and have remained a constant since the earliest depictions. Mary was soon seated on a throne as the Magi visited.<ref name=JKelly >''The Feast of Christmas'' by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 {{ISBN|0-8146-3325-0}} pp. 22–31</ref>

Depictions of the nativity soon became a normal component of cycles in art illustrating both the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin. Nativity images also carry the message of redemption: God's unification with matter forms the mystery of the Incarnation, a turning point in the Christian perspective on Salvation.<ref>''The mystical language of icons'' by Solrunn Nes 2005 {{ISBN|0-8028-2916-3}} p. 43</ref>

In the Eastern Church painted [[Religion:Icon|icon]]s of the nativity often correspond to specific hymns to Mary, e.g. to the {{transliteration|grc|Kontakion}}: "The Virgin today bringeth forth the Transubstantial, and the eart offereth a cave to the Unapproachable."<ref name=Ouspensky >''The meaning of icons'' by Leonide Ouspensky, Vladimir Lossky 1999 {{ISBN|0-913836-77-X}} p. 157</ref> In many Eastern icons of nativity (often accompanied by matching hymnody) two basic elements are emphasized. First the event portrays the mystery of incarnation as a foundation for the Christian faith, and the combined nature of Christ as divine and human. Secondly, it relates the event to the natural life of the world, and its consequences for humanity.<ref name=Ouspensky />

===Hymns, music and performances===
[[File:Nativity 01.jpg|thumb|The Nativity depicted in an English liturgical manuscript, {{c.|1310–1320}}]]
[[File:1880 Christmas Osgood.png|thumb|A Christmas carol card, Boston, 1880]]

Like 1st-century Jews, early Christians rejected the use of musical instruments in religious ceremonies and instead relied on chants and plainsong leading to the use of the term ''a cappella'' (in the chapel) for these chants.

One of the earliest nativity hymns was {{lang|la|Veni redemptor gentium}} composed by Ambrose of Milan in the 4th century. By the beginning of the 5th century, the Spanish poet Prudentius had written "From the Heart of the Father" where the ninth stanza focused on the nativity and portrayed Jesus as the creator of the universe. In the 5th century the Gallic poet Sedulius composed "From the lands that see the Sun arise" in which the humility of the birth of Jesus was portrayed.<ref name=JKelly /> The {{lang|la|[[Religion:Magnificat|Magnificat]]}}, one of the eight most ancient Christian [[Religion:Hymn|hymn]]s and perhaps the earliest Marian hymn, is based on the [[Religion:Annunciation|Annunciation]].<ref name="Breed"/><ref name="Reeves"/>

Romanus the Melodist had a dream of the Virgin Mary the night before the feast of the nativity, and when he woke up the next morning, composed his first hymn "On the Nativity" and continued composing hymns (perhaps several hundred) to the end of his life.<ref>''Church Fathers and Teachers: From Saint Leo the Great to Peter Lombard'' by Pope Benedict XVI 2010 {{ISBN|1-58617-317-0}} p. 32</ref> Re-enactments of nativity, which are now called nativity plays, were part of the ''troparion'' [[Religion:Hymn|hymn]]s in the liturgy of [[Religion:Byzantine Rite|Byzantine Rite]] churches, from Sophronius of Jerusalem in the 7th century.<ref>
{{cite journal |last=Wellesz |first=Egon |title=The Nativity Drama of the Byzantine Church |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=37 |issue=1–2 |year=1947 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.2307/298465 |jstor=298465 |s2cid=162243412 }}
</ref> By the 13th century, the Franciscans had encouraged a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native languages.<ref name="Miles, Clement 1976, pp. 31–37">Miles, Clement, ''Christmas customs and traditions'', Dover 1976, {{ISBN|0-486-23354-5}}, pp. 31–37</ref> Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty-five "caroles of Cristemas".<ref name="Miles, Clement 1976, pp. 47">Miles, Clement, ''Christmas customs and traditions'', Dover 1976, {{ISBN|0-486-23354-5}}, pp. 47–48</ref>

The largest body of musical works about Christ in which he does not speak are about the nativity. A large body of liturgical music, as well as a great deal of para-liturgical texts, carols and folk music exist about the nativity of Jesus. Christmas carols have
come to be viewed as a cultural-signature of the nativity of Jesus.<ref name=Houlden >''Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1'' by James Leslie Houlden 2003 {{ISBN|1-57607-856-6}} pp. 631–635</ref>

Most musical nativity narrations are not biblical and did not come about until church music assimilated opera in the 17th century. However, thereafter there was a torrent of new music, such as Heinrich Schütz's 1660, Marc-Antoine Charpentier ''(Midnight Mass, Pastorals, Oratorio, instrumental music'', 11 settings), ''The Christmas Story'' and Bach's ''Christmas Oratorio'' in the 18th century, as well as ''Lisz's Christus'', Berlioz's {{lang|fr|L'Enfance du Christ}} (1850), Camille Saint-Saëns' Christmas Oratorio (1858), etc.<ref name=Houlden /> [[Biography:John Milton|John Milton]]'s classic 1629 poem ''Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity'' was used by John McEwan in 1901.<ref name=Houlden />

==Historical analysis==

===Traditional views===
[[File:Byzantinischer Maler um 1020 003.jpg|thumb|upright|Beginning of a Byzantine copy of the Gospel of Luke, 1020]]

According to some scholars, the two Gospel accounts of the nativity are historically accurate and do not contradict each other,<ref name="autogenerated102">Mark D. Roberts ''Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John '' Good News Publishers, 2007 p. 102</ref> with similarities such as the birthplace of Bethlehem and the [[Religion:Virgin birth of Jesus|virgin birth]]. George Kilpatrick and Michael Patella state that a comparison of the nativity accounts of Luke and Matthew show common elements in terms of the virgin birth, the birth at Bethlehem, and the upbringing at Nazareth, and that although there are differences in the accounts of the nativity in Luke and Matthew, a general narrative may be constructed by combining the two.<ref>''The Origins of the Gospel According to St. Matthew'' by George Dunbar Kilpatrick 2007 {{ISBN|0-86516-667-6}} p. 54</ref><ref>''The Gospel according to Luke'' by Michael Patella 2005 {{ISBN|0-8146-2862-1}} pp. 9–10</ref> A number of biblical scholars have attempted to show how the text from both narratives can be interwoven as a [[Religion:Gospel harmony|gospel harmony]] to create one account that begins with a trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, followed by the flight to Egypt, and ending with a return to Nazareth.<ref>''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} p. 685</ref><ref>John Bernard Orchard, 1983 ''Synopsis of the Four Gospels''{{ISBN|0-567-09331-X}} pp. 4–12</ref><ref>''The horizontal line synopsis of the Gospels'' by Reuben J. Swanson 1984 {{ISBN|0-87808-744-3}} page xix</ref><ref>''Gospel Parallels'' by Burton H. Throckmorton 1992 {{ISBN|0-8407-7484-2}} pp. 2–7</ref><ref name="CoxEasley289">Steven L. Cox, Kendell H. Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}} pp. 289–290</ref>

Neither Luke nor Matthew claims their birth narratives are based on direct testimony.<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ'' by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} p. 322</ref> Raymond E. Brown suggested in 1973 that Joseph was the source of Matthew's account and Mary of Luke's, but modern scholars consider this "highly unlikely", given that the story emerged so late.{{sfn|Lincoln|2013|p=144}}

Roman Catholic scholars, such as John L. McKenzie, Raymond E. Brown, and Daniel J. Harrington express the view that due to the scarcity of ancient records, a number of issues regarding the historicity of some nativity episodes can never be fully determined, and that the more important task is deciding what the nativity narratives meant to the early Christian communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of the Bible|last=McKenzie|first=John L.|publisher=Touchstone|year=1995}}</ref><ref>Brown, Raymond Edward (1977). ''The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke''. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-385-05907-7}}.</ref><ref>Daniel J. Harrington 1991  ''The Gospel of Matthew'' {{ISBN|0-8146-5803-2}} pp. 45–49</ref>

===Critical analysis===
Many scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew nativity stories as historically factual,<ref name="Vermes 64" /><ref name = "Sanders birth"/><ref name="Birth Stories 1999 page 179">Marcus Borg, 'The Meaning of the Birth Stories' in Marcus Borg, N T Wright, ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'' (Harper One, 1999) page 179: "I (and most mainline scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual."</ref> regarding them as laced with theology and presenting two different accounts and [[Religion:Genealogy of Jesus|genealogies]].<ref name="NIDB">''The New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: Volume 3'' Abingdon Press, 2008. pp. 42, 269–70.</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book | last=Brown | first=Raymond Edward |  title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library) | date=1999-05-18 | publisher=Yale University Press | isbn=978-0-300-14008-8 | page=36}}</ref><ref name=Corley/><ref name="wright2004">{{Cite book | last=Wright | first=Tom | author-link=N. T. Wright | title=Luke for Everyone |date=March 2004 | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | location=London  | isbn=978-0-664-22784-5 | page=39}}</ref> For instance, they point to Matthew's account of the appearance of an angel to Joseph in a dream; the wise men from the East; the massacre of the innocents; and the flight to Egypt, which do not appear in Luke, which instead describes the appearance of an angel to Mary; the Roman census; the birth in a manger; and the choir of angels appearing to the shepherds in the fields.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=John Dominic |last1=Crossan |author-link1=John Dominic Crossan |first2=Richard J. |last2=Watts |author-link2=Richard J. Watts |title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus |date=October 1999 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=978-0-664-25842-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 11–12] |url=https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 }}</ref><ref name="NIDB" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="Vermes 64">{{Cite book | last=Vermes | first=Géza | author-link=Géza Vermes  | title=The Nativity: History and Legend | date=2006-11-02 | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd | isbn=978-0-14-102446-2 | page=64}}</ref><ref name = "Sanders birth">Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Sanders discusses both birth narratives in detail, contrasts them, and judges them not historical on pp. 85–88.</ref><ref name=Corley/><ref name="wright2004" /><ref name="Birth Stories 1999 page 179" /> Sanders considers Luke's census, for which everyone returned to their ancestral home, not historically credible, as this was contrary to Roman practice; they would not have uprooted everyone from their homes and farms in the Empire by forcing them to return to their ancestral cities. Moreover, people were not able to trace their own lineages back 42 generations.<ref name = "Sanders birth"/> More generally, according to [[Biography:Karl Rahner|Karl Rahner]] the gospels show little interest in synchronizing the episodes of the birth or subsequent life of Jesus with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Biography:Karl Rahner|Karl Rahner]] 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 731</ref> As a result, modern scholars do not use much of the birth narratives for historical information.<ref name="NIDB"/><ref name=Corley>Jeremy Corley ''New Perspectives on the Nativity'' Continuum International Publishing Group, 2009 p. 22.</ref> Nevertheless, they are considered to contain some useful biographical information: Jesus being born near the end of the reign of Herod, during the reign of Emperor Augustus and his father being named Joseph are considered historically plausible.<ref name="NIDB"/><ref>Bruce M. Metzger, Michael D. Coogan, ''The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible''. Oxford University Press US, 2004. p. 137</ref>

Most modern scholars accept the [[Unsolved:Marcan priority|Marcan priority]] hypothesis, that the Luke and Matthew accounts are based on the Gospel of Mark, but that the birth narratives come from the evangelists' independent sources, known as the M source for Matthew and the [[Religion:L source|L source]] for Luke, which were added later.<ref name = "ActJBirth">Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Birth & Infancy Stories" pp. 497–526.</ref>

While Géza Vermes and E. P. Sanders dismiss the accounts as [[Philosophy:Pious fiction|pious fiction]], Raymond E. Brown sees them as having been constructed from historical traditions which predate the Gospels.<ref name="Vermes 22">{{Cite book | last=Vermes | first=Géza |  title=The Nativity: History and Legend | date=2006-11-02 | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd | isbn=978-0-14-102446-2 | page=22}}</ref><ref name="Sanders 1993 85">{{Cite book | last=Sanders | first=Ed Parish | author-link=E. P. Sanders | title=The Historical Figure of Jesus | year=1993 | publisher=Allen Lane | location=London | isbn=978-0-7139-9059-1 | page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Hurtado | first=Larry W. | author-link=Larry W. Hurtado | title=Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity |date=June 2003 | publisher=W.B. Eerdmans | location=Grand Rapids, Mich. | isbn=978-0-8028-6070-5 | pages=319–320}}</ref> According to Brown, there is no uniform agreement among scholars on the historicity of the accounts, e.g., most of those scholars who reject the historicity of the birth at Bethlehem argue for a birth at Nazareth, a few suggest Capernaum, and other have hypothesized locations as far away as Chorazin.<ref>''The birth of the Messiah'' by Raymond Brown 1993 {{ISBN|0-385-47202-1}} p. 513</ref> Bruce Chilton and archaeologist Aviram Oshri have proposed a birth at Bethlehem of Galilee, a site located {{cvt|7|mi}} from Nazareth at which remains dating to the time of Herod the Great have been excavated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oshri |first1=Aviram |date=November–December 2005 |title=Where was Jesus Born? |journal=Archaeology |volume=58 |issue=6 |url=http://www.archaeology.org/0511/abstracts/jesus.html |access-date=24 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Chilton |first = Bruce |contribution = Recovering Jesus' Mamzerut |year = 2006 |title = Jesus and Archaeology |editor-last= Charlesworth |editor-first = James H. |pages = 95–96 |publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA95 |isbn = 9780802848802}}</ref> Armand P. Tarrech states that Chilton's hypothesis has no support in either the Jewish or Christian sources, although Chilton seems to take seriously the statement in Luke 2:4 that Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judaea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem.<ref>''Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus'' edited by Tom Holmen and Stanley E. Porter (Jan 12, 2011) {{ISBN|9004163727}} pages 3411–3412</ref>

Many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.<ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, ''People'', and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 {{ISBN|0-8054-4843-8}} pp. 75–78</ref><ref name="Jesus p. 89">''Jesus, the Christ: Contemporary Perspectives'' by Brennan R. Hill 2004 {{ISBN|1-58595-303-2}} p. 89</ref><ref name="Luke' p. 72">''The Gospel of Luke'' by Timothy Johnson 1992 {{ISBN|0-8146-5805-9}} p. 72</ref><ref name="Recovering Jesus p. 111">''Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament'' Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 {{ISBN|1-58743-202-1}} p. 111</ref> For instance, Matthew pays far more attention to the name of the child and its theological implications than the actual birth event itself.<ref name= Long14 >''Matthew'' by Thomas G. Long 1997 {{ISBN|0-664-25257-5}} pp. 14–15</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* {{annotated link|Religion:Chronology of Jesus}}
* {{annotated link|Religion:Jesus in Christianity}}
* {{annotated link|Religion:Life of Jesus in the New Testament}}
* {{annotated link|Religion:Marian art in the Catholic Church}}
* Matthew 2:23
* {{annotated link|Religion:Race and appearance of Jesus}}
* Saint Joseph's dreams
{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

{{reflist|group=Notes}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Allen
|first = O. Wesley Jr.
|chapter = Luke
|editor1-last = Petersen
|editor1-first = David L.
|editor2-last = O'Day
|editor2-first = Gail R.
|title = Theological Bible Commentary
|publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
|year = 2009
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rQWknj4ORJkC&q=%22Luke+O.+Wesley+Allen+Jr.%22&pg=PR6
|isbn = 9781611640304
}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Aune|editor-first=David E.|title=The Gospel of Matthew in current study|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8lZ7BXzt0sC&q=The+Gospel+of+Matthew+in+Current+Study:+Studies+in+Honor+of+William+G.+Thompson,+S.J.|isbn=978-0-8028-4673-0}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Aune
|first = David E.
|title = The New Testament in its literary environment
|publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
|year = 1988
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7F_5kPoTTnoC&q=The+New+Testament+in+its+literary+environment
|isbn = 978-0-664-25018-8
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = Balch
|first1 = David L.
|chapter = Luke
|editor1-last = Dunn
|editor1-first = James D. G.
|editor2-last = Rogerson
|editor2-first = John William
|title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 2003
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=%22The+infancy+narrative+has+seven+episodes%22&pg=PA1105
|isbn = 9780802837110
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Beaton
|first=Richard C.
|chapter=How Matthew Writes
|editor1-last=Bockmuehl
|editor1-first=Markus
|editor2-last=Hagner
|editor2-first=Donald A.
|title=The Written Gospel
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2005
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAZxCMRztQ4C&q=Chapter+6+Richard+C.+Beaton&pg=PA116
|isbn=978-0-521-83285-4
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Boring
|first = M. Eugene
|title = An Introduction to the New Testament: History, Literature, Theology
|publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
|year = 2012
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=leFrgkyEtusC&q=%2223+Luke%3A+Theologian%22&pg=PA556
|isbn = 9780664255923
}}
* {{Cite book
|last          = Brown
|first         = R.E.
|title         = The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke
|publisher     = Doubleday & Company
|year          = 1977
}}
* {{Cite book
|last          = Brown
|first         = R.E.
|title         = An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories
|publisher     = Liturgical Press
|year          = 1978
|isbn = 9780814609972
|url           = https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8Mh-GliPIC&q=%22most+critical+scholars+acknowledge+a+confusion+and+misdating%22&pg=PA17
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Buckwalter
|first = Douglas
|title = The Character and Purpose of Luke's Christology
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|year = 1996
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9nwtfHbKiF8C&q=Luke+makes+no+reference+to+Jesus+preexistence%2Crelatively+little+reference+to+the+atoning+significance+of+Jesus+death&pg=PA4
|isbn = 9780521561808
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Burkett
|first = Delbert
|title = An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|year = 2002
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&q=%2213+The+Gospel+of+Luke%22&pg=PA195
|isbn = 978-0-521-00720-7
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Carroll
|first = John T.
|title = Luke: A Commentary
|publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
|year = 2012
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=krRY23eR55IC&q=Carroll+Luke+Commentary
|isbn = 9780664221065
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Casey
|first = Maurice
|title = Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching
|publisher = Continuum
|year = 2010
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC
|isbn = 978-0-567-64517-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Charlesworth
|first = James H.
|title = The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide
|publisher = Abingdon Press
|year = 2008
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&q=%22The+composition+of+Luke-Acts%22%2C%22usually+dated+around+80-90%22%2C%22perhaps+between+90+and+110%22&pg=PT64
|isbn = 9781426724756
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=Howard W.|title=The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BB70m7EVPkC&q=Howard+W.+Clarke+%282003%29|isbn=978-0-253-34235-5}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Collins
|first = Adela Yarbro
|title = Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism
|publisher = BRILL
|year = 2000
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=eZv1JZAHdg0C
|isbn = 978-90-04-11927-7
}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W.D.|last2=Allison|first2=D.C.|author-link2=Dale Allison|title=Matthew 1–7|publisher=T&T Clark|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQzZc7KYUKgC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+1-7|isbn=978-0-567-08355-5 }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W.D.|last2=Allison|first2=D.C.|title=Matthew 8–18|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdpE84GmWiIC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+8-18&pg=PA211|isbn=978-0-567-08365-4}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W.D.|last2=Allison|first2=D.C.|title=Matthew 19–28|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEKQ_iBhX7UC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+19-28|isbn=978-0-567-08375-3}}
* {{Cite book |last = Duling |first = Dennis C. |editor-last=Aune |editor-first = David E. |title = The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament |contribution = The Gospel of Matthew |publisher = Wiley-Blackwell |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-1-4051-0825-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygcgn8h-jo4C&q=%22Chapter+18+The+Gospel+of+Matthew%22&pg=PA295}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Dunn
|first = James D.G.
|title = Jesus Remembered
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 2003
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC&q=Jesus+remembered++By+James+D.+G.+Dunn
|isbn = 978-0-8028-3931-2
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Edwards
|first = James R.
|title = The Gospel According to Luke
|publisher = Inter-Varsity Press
|year = 2020
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wmfnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT101
|isbn = 9781789740066
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Ehrman
|first = Bart D.
|title = Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 1999
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c9K_6NN3llcC
|isbn = 978-0-19-512474-3
}}
* {{cite book |last = Ehrman |first = Bart D. |title = Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year = 2012 |publisher = HarperCollins |isbn = 978-0-06-220460-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC&q=%22The+Oral+Traditions+About+Jesus+THE+FURTHER+QUESTION+THAT+needs+to+be+asked+is+where+all+these+Gospel+sources%22&pg=PT102 }}
* {{Cite book
|last = Ehrman
|first = Bart D.
|title = The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture : The Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 1996
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HGpL9x19GaEC
|isbn = 978-0-19-510279-6
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Ehrman
|first = Bart D.
|title = Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 1999
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c9K_6NN3llcC&q=Q
|isbn = 9780199839438
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Ehrman
|first = Bart D.
|title = Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2005
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA235
|isbn = 9780195182491
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Ellis
|first = E. Earl
|title = The Gospel of Luke
|publisher = Wipf and Stock Publishers
|year = 2003
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3OdKAwAAQBAJ&q=gospel+luke+western+text&pg=PA19
|isbn = 9781592442072
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Evans
|first = Craig A.
|title = Luke
|publisher = Baker Books
|year = 2011
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mBkB2Beyi2QC&q=%22he+views+history+as+consisting+of+three+major+epochs%22&pg=PT20
|isbn = 9781441236524
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Fuller
|first=Reginald H.
|chapter=Biblical Theology
|editor1-last=Metzger
|editor1-first=Bruce M.
|editor2-last=Coogan
|editor2-first=Michael D.
|title=The Oxford Guide to Ideas & Issues of the Bible
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2001
|isbn=9780195149173
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aml3tEWoOVEC&q=%22There+is+no+single+Christology+in+the+New+Testament%22&pg=PA68
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=France
|first=R.T
|title=The Gospel of Matthew
|publisher=Eerdmans
|year=2007
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ruP6J_XPCEC&q=%22A+pre-70+date+for+Matthew%22&pg=PA48 
|isbn=978-0-8028-2501-8 
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Gamble
|first = Harry Y.
|title = Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts
|publisher = Yale University Press
|year = 1995
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2aEJfsXY57cC
|isbn = 978-0-300-06918-1
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Green
|first = Joel
|title = The Theology of the Gospel of Luke
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|year = 1995
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RSNT4X_FdpEC&q=commentary+theology+luke
|isbn = 9780521469326
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Green
|first = Joel
|title = The Gospel of Luke
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 1997
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC&q=commentary+luke
|isbn = 9780802823151
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last = Hagner |first = D.A. |editor-last = Bromiley |editor-first = Geoffrey W. |title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. 3: K-P |contribution = Matthew, Gospel According to |pages = 280–8 |year = 1986 |publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn = 978-0-8028-8163-2 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Zkla5Gl_66oC&pg=PA280 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Harrington|first=Daniel J.|title=The Gospel of Matthew | publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1991|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bNf13S3k2w0C|isbn=9780814658031 }}
* {{Cite book
|last = Holladay
|first = Carl R.
|title = A Critical Introduction to the New Testament: Interpreting the Message and Meaning of Jesus Christ
|publisher = Abingdon Press
|year = 2011
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CUXim2wXtwsC&q=%22the+final+consummation+of+the+kingdom%22%2C%22when+the+Son+of+Man+comes%22&pg=PT216
|isbn = 9781426748288
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Hurtado
|first = Larry W.
|title = Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 2005
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k32wZRMxltUC
|isbn = 978-0-8028-3167-5
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Isaak
|first = Jon M.
|title = New Testament Theology: Extending the Table
|publisher = Wipf & Stock
|year = 2011
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QItJAwAAQBAJ&q=%22it+is+virtually+impossible+to+harmonize+the+two%22&pg=PA144
|isbn = 9781621892540
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Johnson
|first = Luke Timothy
|title = The New Testament: A Very Short Introduction
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2010
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hNKRc2yVsQUC&q=The+New+Testament%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction
|isbn = 9780199745999
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Kowalczyk
|first=A.
|title=The influence of typology and texts of the Old Testament on the redaction of Matthew's Gospel
|publisher=Bernardinum
|year=2008
|url=http://digital.fides.org.pl/publication/814
|isbn=978-83-7380-625-2
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Kupp
|first=David D.
|title=Matthew's Emmanuel: Divine Presence and God's People in the First Gospel
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=1996
|isbn=978-0-521-57007-7
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S.|title=A commentary on the Gospel of Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWzhEdBZOp4C&q=Craig+S.+Keener+%E2%80%94+A+Commentary+on+the+Gospel+of+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8028-3821-6}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Levine
|first=Amy-Jill
|chapter=Visions of kingdoms: From Pompey to the first Jewish revolt
|editor1-last=Coogan
|editor1-first=Michael D.
|title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2001
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=Visions+of+kingdoms%3A+From+Pompey+to+the+first+Jewish+revolt&pg=PT546
|isbn=978-0-19-513937-2
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1=Levison
|first1=J.
|last2=Pope-Levison
|first2=P.
|chapter=Christology
|editor1-last=Dyrness
|editor1-first=William A.
|editor2-last=Kärkkäinen
|editor2-first=Veli-Matti
|title=Global Dictionary of Theology
|publisher=InterVarsity Press
|year=2009
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqkZnDSeo4C&q=%22the+affirmations+and+definitions+of+Christ%27s+humanity+and+deity%22&pg=PA167
|isbn=9780830878116
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Lincoln
|first = Andrew
|title = Born of a Virgin?: Reconceiving Jesus in the Bible, Tradition, and Theology
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 2013
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=deNgAQAAQBAJ&q=Born+of+a+Virgin
|isbn = 9780802869258
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Lössl
|first = Josef
|title = The Early Church: History and Memory
|publisher = Continuum
|year = 2010
|isbn = 978-0-567-16561-9
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Studies in Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voRVZFEpNsAC&q=Luz+Studies+in+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8028-3964-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKl5M_MQMoYC&q=The+theology+of+the+Gospel+of+Matthew|isbn=978-0-521-43576-5}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Matthew 1–7: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8006-9600-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Matthew 8–20: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8006-6034-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/matthewcommentar0000luzu}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Matthew 21–28: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8006-3770-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/matthewcommentar0000luzu}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = McDonald
|first1 = Patricia M.
|chapter = Resemblances Between Matthew 1-2 and Luke 1-2
|editor1-last = Corley
|editor1-first = Jeremy
|title = New Perspectives on the Nativity
|publisher = Bloomsbury
|year = 2009
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c_gRBwAAQBAJ&q=%22This+list+expands+the+resemblances+noted+by+Raymond+E.+Brown%22&pg=PA200
|isbn = 9780567613790
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=McMahon
|first=Christopher
|chapter=Introduction to the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles
|editor-last=Ruff
|editor-first=Jerry
|title=Understanding the Bible: A Guide to Reading the Scriptures
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=2008
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=al4d-3t6rqwC&q=%22great+number+of+verbal+and+structural+similarities%22&pg=PA57
|isbn=9780884898528
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Miller
|first = Philip M.
|chapter = The Least Orthodox Reading is to be Preferred
|editor1-last = Wallace
|editor1-first = Daniel B.
|title = Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament
|publisher = Kregel Academic
|year = 2011
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=838A8BDUI5kC&q=%22Bruce+Metzger%22%2C%22identified+two+groups+of+alterations%22&pg=PA64
|isbn = 9780825489068
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Morris
|first = Leon
|title = New Testament Theology
|publisher = Zondervan
|year = 1990
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6D3o6fZd67EC&q=Morris+New+Testament+Theology
|isbn = 978-0-310-45571-4
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Leon|title=The Gospel according to Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC&q=Leon+Morris+%E2%80%94+The+Gospel+According+to+Matthew|isbn=978-0-85111-338-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Nolland|first=John|title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Commentary on the Greek Text|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0802823892}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Peppard
|first=Michael
|title=The Son of God in the Roman World: Divine Sonship in Its Social and Political Context
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2011
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iH4Zk-3MJJcC&q=%22the+chief+moment+encapsulating+Jesus%27+divine+power+as+God%27s+son%22&pg=PA133|isbn=9780199753703
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Perkins
|first = Pheme
|editor1-last = Barton
|editor1-first = John
|title = The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation
|chapter = The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: Telling the Christian Story
|year = 1998
|publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC
|isbn = 978-0-521-48593-7
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Perkins
|first = Pheme
|title = Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lMUZhdgmOR8C
|year = 2009
|publisher = Eerdmans
|isbn = 978-0-8028-6553-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Powell
|first = Mark Allan
|title = Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 1998
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IJP4DRCVaUMC&q=Jesus+as+a+Figure+in+History%3A+How+Modern+Historians+View+the+Man+from+Galilee
|isbn = 978-0-664-25703-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Powell
|first = Mark Allan
|title = What Are They Saying About Luke?
|publisher = Paulist Press
|year = 1989
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9jRu8_-GlKMC&q=Christology
|isbn = 9780809131112
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = Robinson
|first1 = Bernard P.
|chapter = Matthew's Nativity Stories: Historical and Theological Questions for Today's Readers
|editor1-last = Corley
|editor1-first = Jeremy
|title = New Perspectives on the Nativity
|publisher = Bloomsbury
|year = 2009
|isbn = 9780567613790
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c_gRBwAAQBAJ&q=%22Matthew%27s+infancy+narrative+is+seldom+considered+on+its+own%22&pg=PA110
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 =  Ryken
|first1 = Leland
|last2 = Wilhoit
|first2 = James C.
|last3 = Longman
|first3 = Tremper
|chapter = Birth stories
|title = Dictionary of Biblical Imagery
|publisher = InterVarsity Press
|year = 2010
|isbn = 9780830867332
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qjEYEjVVEosC&q=%22Birth+is+the+earliest+miracle+of+human+life%22&pg=PA96
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Scholz
|first = Daniel J.
|title = Jesus in the Gospels and Acts: Introducing the New Testament
|publisher = Saint Mary's Press
|year = 2009
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=royKA4FeMB4C&pg=PA112
|isbn = 9780884899556
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Schumack
|first = Richard
|title = Jesus through Muslim Eyes
|publisher = SPCK
|year = 2020
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8xDYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79
|isbn = 9780281081943
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Strelan
|first = Rick
|title = Luke the Priest - the Authority of the Author of the Third Gospel
|publisher = Ashgate Publishing
|year = 2013
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTdi13weAoC&q=Strelan%2C+Rick%2C+Luke+the+Priest%3A+The+Authority+of+the+Author+of+the+Third+Gospel+was+luke+a+jew+or+gentile&pg=PA103
|isbn = 9781409477884
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = Theissen
|first1 = Gerd
|last2 = Merz
|first2 = Annette
|title = The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide
|publisher = Eerdmans
|year = 1998
}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Thompson
|first = Richard P.
|editor-last = Aune
|editor-first = David E.
|title = The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament
|contribution = Luke-Acts: The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles
|page = 319
|publisher = Wiley–Blackwell
|year = 2010
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ygcgn8h-jo4C&q=%22Chapter+19+Luke-Acts%22&pg=PA318
|isbn = 9781444318944
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Saldarini|first=Anthony|chapter=Matthew|year=2003|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Matthew+Saldarini+name+composition+authorship+dates&pg=PA1000|title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible|isbn=978-0802837110}}, in {{Cite book|last1=Dunn|first1=James D.G.|last2=Rogerson|first2=John William|title=Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Saldarini|first=Anthony|title=Matthew's Christian-Jewish Community|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btSZh4_vzqoC&q=Matthew%27s+Christian-Jewish+Community|isbn=978-0-226-73421-7}}
* {{Cite book|last=Senior|first=Donald|chapter=Directions in Matthean Studies|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8lZ7BXzt0sC&q=The+Gospel+of+Matthew+in+Current+Study:+Studies+in+Honor+of+William+G.+Thompson,+S.J.|title=The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study: Studies in Memory of William G. Thompson, S.J|isbn=978-0802846730|year=2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans }}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Aune|editor-first=David E.|title=The Gospel of Matthew in current study|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8028-4673-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Senior|first=Donald|title=What are they saying about Matthew?|publisher=PaulistPress|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuyaPmvwnLEC&q=What+are+they+saying+about+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8091-3624-7}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stanton|first=Graham|title=A gospel for a new people: studies in Matthew|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GytxXOIsF-0C&q=Stanton%2BA+Gospel+for+a+New+People|isbn=978-0-664-25499-5}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Strecker
|first = Georg
|title = Theology of the New Testament
|publisher = Walter de Gruyter
|year = 2000
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_6NxpAvdrOgC&q=Strecker+Theology+New+Testament
|isbn = 978-0-664-22336-6
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Tuckett
|first=Christopher Mark
|title=Christology and the New Testament: Jesus and His Earliest Followers
|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press
|year=2001
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5Zr0_CsEcwC&q=chapter+7+Matthew&pg=PA119
|isbn=9780664224318
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Turner|first=David L.|title=Matthew|publisher=Baker|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8z9LSdKLUl4C&q=David+Turner|isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Twelftree
|first = Graham H.
|title = Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study
|publisher = InterVarsity Press
|year = 1999
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DitVtGWdYeYC
|isbn = 978-0-8308-1596-8
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Van de Sandt|first=H.W.M.|chapter=''Introduction''|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTE0FQtrphwC&q=Matthew+and+the+Didache|title=Matthew and the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish-Christian Milieu ?|isbn=978-9023240778|year=2005}}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Van de Sandt|editor-first=H.W.M|title=Matthew and the Didache|publisher=Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-90-232-4077-8}}
* {{Cite book
|last = Vermes
|first = Geza
|title = The meaning of the Dead Sea scrolls: Their significance for understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity
|publisher = Penguin UK
|year = 2006
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J00OOo-3RqEC&q=The+nativity+history+and+legend&pg=PT109
|isbn = 9780141912615
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = Wansbrough
|first1 = Henry
|chapter = The Infancy Stories of the Gospels Since Raymond E. Brown
|editor1-last = Corley
|editor1-first = Jeremy
|title = New Perspectives on the Nativity
|publisher = Bloomsbury
|year = 2009
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c_gRBwAAQBAJ&q=New+Perspectives+on+the+Nativity&pg=PA1
|isbn = 9780567613790
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Weren
|first=Wim
|chapter=The History and Social Setting of the Matthean Community
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTE0FQtrphwC&q=Matthew+and+the+Didache|title=Matthew and the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish-Christian Milieu ?|year=2005
|isbn=9789023240778
}}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Van de Sandt|editor-first=H.W.M.|title=Matthew and the Didache|publisher=Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-90-232-4077-8}}
* Berghorn, Matthias, ''Die Genesis Jesu Christi aber war so ...''. Die Herkunft Jesu Christi nah dem matthäischen Prolog (Mt 1,1-4,16), Göttingen 2019.
* Brown, Raymond E. ''The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke''. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
* Calkins, Robert G. ''Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.
* Carter, Warren. ''Matthew and Empire.'' Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2001.
* France, R.T. ''The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary.'' Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
* {{cite web|author=Ghose, Tia|title=A Christmas Tale: How Much of the Nativity Story is True? |work=LiveScience|date= December 22, 2014|url=http://m.livescience.com/49228-nativity-story-facts-history.html}}
* Gundry, Robert H. ''Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art.'' Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
* Gundry, Robert H. "Salvation in Matthew." ''Society of Biblical Literature – 2000 Seminar Papers.'' Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
* Hill, David. ''The Gospel of Matthew''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
* Jones, Alexander. ''The Gospel According to St. Matthew.'' London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965.
* Levine, Amy-Jill. "Matthew." ''Women's Bible Commentary.'' Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
* Schaberg, Jane. ''Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28)'' Sheffield Academic Press (March 1995) {{ISBN|1-85075-533-7}}
* Schweizer, Eduard. ''The Good News According to Matthew.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
* Vermes, Géza ''The Nativity: History and Legend''. Penguin (2006) {{ISBN|0-14-102446-1}}
* {{Cite book
|last1 = Vermes
|first1 = Geza
|title = Jesus: Nativity - Passion - Resurrection
|publisher = Penguin
|year = 2010
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qSV5O_b5PecC&pg=PT71
|isbn = 9780141957449
}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons and category|Nativity|Nativity of Jesus Christ}}
* [http://www.icon-art.info/topic.php?lng=en&top_id=13 Icons of the Nativity] (mostly Russian)

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Religion:Chronology of Jesus|Life of Jesus]]|||}}
{{s-bef|before=Mary visits Elizabeth}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]]<br>Events}}
{{s-aft|after=Annunciation to the shepherds}}
{{s-end}}

{{Christianity footer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nativity Of Jesus}}
[[Category:Nativity of Jesus| ]]

{{Sourceattribution|Nativity of Jesus}}