View source for Religion:Sovereignty of God in Christianity

{{Attributes of God}}
'''Sovereignty of God''' in [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] can be defined as the right of [[Religion:God in Christianity|God]] to exercise his ruling [[Philosophy:Omnipotence|power]] over his creation. Sovereignty can include also the way God exercises his ruling power. However this aspect is subject to divergences notably related to the concept of God's self-imposed limitations. The correlation between God's sovereignty and human [[Philosophy:Free will|free will]] is a crucial theme in discussions about the meaningful nature of human choice.

== Theological definition ==
Theological dictionaries give fairly uniform definitions of the notion of God's sovereignty. At first, it can be seen as His "absolute right to do all things according to his own good pleasure."{{sfn|Easton|1897}} With more nuances, it can be seen as the teaching "[...] that all things come from and depend upon God. [...] [It] does not mean that everything which occurs in the world is God's will."{{sfn|Leonard|1991|loc={{zwnj}}}} More precisely, it can be defines as a twofold concept: "First, it may be seen as the divine right to rule totally; second, it may be extended to include God's exercise of this right. As to the first aspect, there is no debate. Difference of opinion arises in respect to the second aspect."{{sfn|Oke|1983|p=171}} 

According to these definitions, God's sovereignty in Christianity can be defined as the right of God to exercise his ruling power over his creation. The way in which God exercises his power is subject to differing views. Moreover, this exercise is generally considered by [[Religion:Calvinism|Calvinists]] to be part of the concept of sovereignty.{{sfn|Grudem|1994|p=217|ps=. "God's exercise of power over his creation is also called God's ''sovereignty''."}} For non-Calvinists, this exercise is more likely to be considered part of the concept of [[Philosophy:Divine providence|divine providence]].{{sfn|Walker|1911|ps=. "Providence is God Himself considered in that act by which in His wisdom He so orders all events within the universe that the end for which it was created may be realized."}}{{sfn|Baaren|Stefon|2020|ps=. "Providence [...] indicates that God not only created the world but also governs it and cares for its welfare."}}

The sovereignty of God must be distinguished from God's [[Religion:God and eternity|eternal]] [[Religion:Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes]]. For example, God's omnipotence is his quality of having unlimited power. This attribute is not [[Philosophy:Contingency|contingent]] upon something else other than God himself, and is therefore one of his eternal attributes.{{sfn|Lewis|2001|p=10}} God's sovereignty, as the right to exercise his ruling power over his [[Astronomy:Creatio ex nihilo|creation]], is contingent upon his creation. God's sovereignty was only first expressed when the creation was there to be expressed over it. If the sovereignty of God is considered one of his attributes, it is a temporal one.{{sfn|Flowers|2014|ps=. "For God to be in control over others there has to be others in which to control. He can’t display His power over creatures unless the creatures exist. Therefore, before creation the concept of sovereignty (or providence) was not an attribute that could be used to describe God. An eternal attribute is something God possesses that is not contingent upon something else. The eternal attribute of God is His omnipotence, which refers to His eternally limitless power. Sovereignty is a temporal characteristic, not an eternal one, thus we can say God is all powerful, not because He is sovereign, but He is sovereign because He is all powerful, or at least He is as sovereign as He so chooses to be in relation to this temporal world."}} That been said, God's sovereignty can then be seen as his right to express his eternal attribute of omnipotence{{sfn|Flowers|2014|loc={{zwnj}}}} qualified by his other eternal attributes such as [[Philosophy:Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolence]] and [[Philosophy:Omniscience|omniscience]].{{sfn|Grudem|1994|p=217|ps=. "Also God's power is infinite, his use of his power his qualified by his other attributes".|loc={{zwnj}}}}

== Sovereignty and theodicy ==
The relationship between free will and the sovereignty of God is relevant in the philosophical [[Philosophy:Theodicy|theodicy]]. As stated by [[Biography:Alvin Plantinga|Alvin Plantinga]], theodicy is the "answer to the question of why God permits evil". Plantinga argues that human free will explains the existence of evil without threatening the existence of an omnipotent and [[Philosophy:Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] God.{{sfn|Plantinga|1974|p=10}} The sin of [[Biography:Satan|Satan]], the sin of [[Biography:Adam|Adam]] and the sin of David each represent a permissible consequence of God's sovereign decision to create humanity with free will, for which God is not responsible.{{sfn|Reeves|Madueme|2014|p=120}}

==Sovereignty and free will==
===The debate in Christianity===
Bible scholars have expressed the idea of the existence of God's self-imposed limitations in various degrees.{{sfn|Ryrie|1986|pp=40, 43, 44|ps=. "Self imposed limitations include those things He has not chosen to include in His plan which he might have included as long as they were not contrary to His nature. He did not choose to spare His Son; He did not choose to save all people; He did not choose all nations in Old Testament times; He did not choose Esau; He did not choose to spare James (Acts 12:2). Though He could have done any of these things without being inconsistent with omnipotence, He did not choose to do so in His plan. [...] Ultimately God is in complete control of all things, though He may choose to let certain events happen according to [[Philosophy:Natural law|natural law]]s which He has ordained."}}{{sfn|Leonard|1991|ps=. "God has created a world in which freedom is a real possibility. His permissive will provides for human freedom and the laws of nature."}} Especially, the question whether God's way of expressing is sovereignty is consistent with meaningful human decisions which are free from compulsion is a significant theological question in Christianity.{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2017}} The debate on this question was first clearly expressed by [[Biography:Augustine of Hippo|Augustine of Hippo]] in the 4th century.{{sfn|Warfield|1971|pp=320–323}} The debate has continued through various forms notably through the Calvinist-Arminian debate until today.{{sfn|Tenney|1975|loc=Sovereignty of God}}

===Catholic views===
[[Biography:Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] is often associated with the doctrine of divine providence in the [[Social:Greek East and Latin West|Latin West]]. Augustine expressed God's sovereignty as his continuous control and unifying governance over the [[Astronomy:Universe|universe]].{{sfn|Walker|1911|loc={{zwnj}}}} On the other hand, the Greek [[Religion:Church Fathers|church fathers]] believed in classical [[Philosophy:Free will in theology|free will]] [[Philosophy:Classical theism|theism]] and rejected [[Philosophy:Theological determinism|theological determinism]].{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=90|ps=. "The early Greek church fathers believed in freedom of the will and rejected determinism."}} For instance, Saint Maximus the Confessor (<abbr>c.</abbr> 580 – 13 August 662) argued that because humans are made in the image of God, they possess the same type of self-determinism as God.{{sfn|Bathrellos|2004|p=167|ps=. "As regards the way in which self-determination must be understood, it is noteworthy that, for Maximus, the basis and archetype of man’s self-determination is the self-determination of God. As we have seen, Maximus argued that man is self-determining because he is made in the image of the divinity, which is self-determining [...]".}} 

Christian teaching on providence in the [[History:High Middle Ages|High Middle Ages]] was most fully developed by [[Biography:Thomas Aquinas|Thomas Aquinas]] in the ''[[Philosophy:Summa Theologica|Summa Theologica]]'' (1274). It viewed the concept of providence as a care exercised by God over the universe.{{sfn|Walker|1911|loc={{zwnj}}}} 

The ''[[Religion:Catechism of the Catholic Church|Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' (1993) express the concept of God's sovereignty as his rule over his creation, allowing human [[Philosophy:Libertarianism|libertarian]] [[Philosophy:Free will in theology|free will]] and co-operation with him: "God is the sovereign master of his plan. But to carry it out he also makes use of his creatures' co-operation. This use is not a sign of weakness, but rather a token of almighty God's greatness and goodness. God grants his creatures not only their existence, but also the dignity of acting on their own, of being causes and principles for each other, [...]".{{sfn|John Paul II|1993|loc=Section II, Ch. 1, Article 1, §4 Providence and secondary causes, item 306}}

=== Eastern Orthodox view ===

In general, [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox theology|Eastern Theology]] places much more emphasis on human freedom and less on God's sovereignty than do the Augustinian and Reformed strands of Western theology. Orthodox view of human free will is close to the Wesleyan-Arminian view.{{sfn|Fairbairn|2002|p=91}}

===Calvinist view===
Orthodox forms of [[Religion:Calvinism|Calvinism]] (both historical and Edwardsian) view God's sovereignty as expressed through [[Philosophy:Theological determinism|theological determinism]].{{sfn|Helm|2010|p=268}}{{sfn|Cammenga|Hanko|2002|loc=Ch. 1|ps=. "The central truth proclaimed by Calvinism, Calvinism that is faithful to its heritage, is the absolute sovereignty of God."}} This means that every event in the world is determined by God.{{sfn|Alexander|Johnson|2016|p=204|ps=. "It should be conceded at the outset, and without any embarrassment, that Calvinism is indeed committed to divine determinism: the view that everything is ultimately determined by God."}} As the ''[[Religion:Westminster Confession of Faith|Westminster Confession of Faith]]'' put it: "God, from all eternity, did, by the most wise and holy counsel of His own will, freely, and unchangeably ordain whatever comes to pass."{{sfn|Westminster Assembly|1647|loc=ch. 3}}

From this perspective, human [[Philosophy:Free will|free will]] is determined by God{{sfn|Sproul|2011b|p=27|ps=. “We say that he [man] is free, but his freedom is within limits, and those limits are defined by the sovereignty of God.”}} and God alone possesses self-determinism.{{sfn|Piper|2016|ps=. "Only God has free will in the sense of ultimate self-determination."}} Moreover, God acts through [[Philosophy:Voluntarism|voluntarism]] in its [[Philosophy:Nominalism|nominalist]] sense.{{sfn|Brice|2023|pp=27-31}} This means, what God does is good not because it is guided by his character or moral structure within his nature, but only because God wants it.{{sfn|Calvin|2008|loc=3.32.2|ps=. "For God’s will is so much the highest rule of righteousness that whatever he wills, by the very fact that he wills it, must be considered righteous. When, therefore, one asks why God has so done, we must reply: because he has willed it. But if you proceed further to ask why he so willed, you are seeking something greater and higher than God’s will, which cannot be found."}} Besides, Calvinism affirm a soft determinism involving [[Philosophy:Semicompatibilism|semicompatibilism]], which implies the compatibility between human responsibility for an act and its determination by God.{{sfn|Alexander|Johnson|2016|p=4|ps=. "Calvinists are committed to saying that moral responsibility and any sort of free will that is necessary for moral responsibility are compatible with whatever sort of determinism is entailed by Calvinist views of providence."}}

Concerning [[Religion:Salvation in Christianity|salvation]], [[Biography:John Calvin|Calvin]] expressly taught that it is God's sovereign decision to determine whether an individual is saved or damned.{{sfn|Calvin|2008|loc=3.21.5}}{{sfn|Calvin|2008|loc=3.23.1|ps=. "Those therefore whom God passes by [does not elect] He reprobates, and that for no other cause than He is pleased to exclude them."}} He writes "By predestination we mean the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man. All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death."{{sfn|Calvin|2008|loc=3.21.7}} On the other hand, human actions leading to this end are also predetermined by God.{{sfn|Sproul|2011a|p=37|ps=. "If God has decided our destinies from all eternity, that strongly suggests that our free choices are but charades, empty exercises in predetermined playacting. It is as though God wrote the script for us in concrete and we are merely carrying out his scenario."}}{{sfn|James|2018|ps=. "[...] God is absolved of any personal culpability, yet Zwingli can assert that God is the "author, mover and instigator" of human sin."}}

Concerning [[Unsolved:Prayer|prayer]], from an Edwardsian Calvinist view, it can be seen as a predetermined means for a predetermined purpose.{{sfn|Helm|2010|p=268}} More generally, from the majority Calvinist view, prayer can't change what is predetermined by God.{{sfn|Pink|2001|p=217|ps=. "Prayer is not the requesting of God to alter His purpose or for Him to form a new one."}} Specifically, since prayer is intrinsically predetermined, praying for the salvation of individuals whom God has intentionally chosen for [[Religion:Damnation|damnation]] will not change their destiny.{{sfn|Spurgeon|1860|ps=. “If sinners be damned, at least let them leap to Hell over our dead bodies. And if they perish, let them perish with our arms wrapped about their knees, imploring them to stay. If Hell must be filled, let it be filled in the teeth of our exertions, and let not one go unwarned and unprayed for.”}}{{sfn|Pink|2001|p=101}} Nor will prayer change the salvation of the elect.{{sfn|Packer|2003}}{{sfn|Pink|2001|p=203-219}}

===Arminian view===
Arminianism accepts [[Philosophy:Classical theism|classical theism]], which states that God is [[Philosophy:Omnipresence|omnipresent]], [[Philosophy:Omnipotence|omnipotent]], and [[Philosophy:Omniscience|omniscient]].{{sfn|Olson|2009|pp=90-91}} In that view, God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of his divine nature and character.{{sfn|Olson|2010b}}

Besides, [[Religion:Arminianism|Arminianism]] view on God's way of expressing his sovereignty, i.e. his [[Philosophy:Divine providence|providence]], is based on postulates stemming from God's character,{{sfn|Olson|2010b}} especially as fully revealed in Jesus Christ.{{sfn|Olson|2014|p=11}} On the first hand, divine [[Religion:Election in Christianity|election]] must be defined in such a way that God is not in any case, and even in a secondary way, the author of [[Philosophy:Evil|evil]]. On the other hand, man's responsibility for evil must be absolutely preserved. It would not correspond to the character of God.{{sfn|Olson|2010a|ps=. "Classical Arminianism does NOT say God never interferes with free will. It says God NEVER foreordains or renders certain evil. [...] An Arminian COULD believe in divine dictation of Scripture and not do violence to his or her Arminian beliefs. [...] Arminianism is not in love with libertarian free will –as if that were central in and of itself. Classical Arminians have gone out of our way (beginning with Arminius himself) to make clear that our sole reasons for believe in free will AS ARMINIANS [...] are 1) to avoid making God the author of sin and evil, and 2) to make clear human responsibility for sin and evil."}} Those two postulates require a specific way by which God chooses to manifest his sovereignty when interacting with his creatures:

On one hand, it requires for God to operate according to a voluntarily limited mode of [[Philosophy:Divine providence|providence]]. This means that God deliberately exercises sovereignty without determining every event.{{sfn|Olson|2018|loc={{zwnj}}}} On the other hand, it requires for God's [[Religion:Election in Christianity|election]] to be a "[[Philosophy:Predestination|predestination]] by foreknowledge".{{sfn|Olson|2018|ps=. "What is Arminianism? A) Belief that God limits himself to give human beings free will to go against his perfect will so that God did not design or ordain sin and evil (or their consequences such as innocent suffering); B) Belief that, although sinners cannot achieve salvation on their own, without “prevenient grace” (enabling grace), God makes salvation possible for all through Jesus Christ and offers free salvation to all through the gospel. “A” is called “limited providence,” “B” is called “predestination by foreknowledge.”"}}

In that respect, God's foreknowledge reconciles with human free will in the following way: Human [[Philosophy:Free will in theology|free will]] is limited by [[Religion:Original sin|original sin]], though God's [[Religion:Prevenient grace|prevenient grace]] restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation.{{sfn|Picirilli|2002|pp=42–43, 59-}} God's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not [[Philosophy:Contingency|contingent]] on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible.{{sfn|Picirilli|2002|p=40}}

To Arminians, then, the decision to believe and [[Religion:Repentance in Christianity|repent]] is a decision which a sovereign God granted to humanity. Thus, free will is granted and limited by God's sovereignty, but God's sovereignty allows all men the choice to accept the [[Religion:Gospel|Gospel]] of Jesus through [[Philosophy:Faith in Christianity|faith]], simultaneously allowing all men to resist.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=142}}

== Notes and references ==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
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* {{cite book |language=en |last=Fairbairn |first=Donald |title=Eastern Orthodoxy Through Western Eyes |location=London |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |date=2002}}
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[[Category:Attributes of God in Christian theology|Sovereignty]]

{{Sourceattribution|Sovereignty of God in Christianity}}