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{{short description|Vaccines against the bacterium Bacillus anthracis}}
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'''Anthrax vaccines''' are vaccines to prevent the livestock and human disease [[Medicine:Anthrax|anthrax]], caused by the [[Biology:Bacterium|bacterium]] ''[[Biology:Bacillus anthracis|Bacillus anthracis]]''.<ref name="Domachowske2020.7">{{cite book | vauthors = Bonville C, Domachowske J | veditors = Domachowske J, Suryadevara M |title=Vaccines: A Clinical Overview and Practical Guide |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |location=Switzerland |isbn=978-3-030-58413-9 |pages=99–110|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KIGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |language=en |chapter=7. Anthrax}}</ref>

They have had a prominent place in the history of medicine, from Pasteur's pioneering 19th-century work with cattle (the first effective bacterial [[Biology:Vaccine|vaccine]] and the second effective vaccine ever) to the controversial late 20th century use of a modern product to protect American troops against the use of [[Medicine:Anthrax|anthrax]] in [[Biology:Biological warfare|biological warfare]]. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current vaccine approved by the U.S. [[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) was formulated in the 1960s. &nbsp;

Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular (USA, UK) and live spore (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general [[Medicine:Reactogenicity|reactogenicity]] ([[Medicine:Erythema|erythema]], induration, soreness, [[Medicine:Fever|fever]]) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Splino M, Patocka J, Prymula R, Chlibek R | title = Anthrax vaccines | journal = Annals of Saudi Medicine | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 143–9 | date = 2005 | pmid = 15977694 | pmc = 6147967 | doi = 10.5144/0256-4947.2005.143 }}</ref> New third-generation vaccines being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant sub-unit vaccines.

==Pasteur's vaccine==
In the 1870s, the French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) applied his previous method of immunising chickens against chicken cholera to [[Medicine:Anthrax|anthrax]], which affected [[Biology:Cattle|cattle]], and thereby aroused widespread interest in combating other diseases with the same approach. In May 1881, Pasteur performed a famous public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep, one goat and several cows. The animals of one group were twice injected, with an interval of 15 days, with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur; a control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the non-vaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Decker J |title=Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax |publisher=Chelesa House Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7910-7302-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anthraxdeadlydis00jane/page/27 27–28] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/anthraxdeadlydis00jane/page/27 }}</ref> The public reception was sensational.

Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacilli to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint (1847–1890), a Toulouse veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine.<ref name="cohn">{{cite web| url=http://pyramid.spd.louisville.edu/~eri/fos/interest1.html| title=Pasteur| vauthors = Cohn DV | location=University of Louisville| date=December 18, 2006| access-date=2007-12-02| quote=Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain {{sic}} and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, who had reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint had been on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared by a method similar to that of Toussaint and different from what Pasteur had announced.| archive-date=2013-04-17| archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FwSn0Eot?url=http://pyramid.spd.louisville.edu/~eri/fos/interest1.html| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Loir A | title=Le mouvement sanitaire| year=1938| pages=18, 160| chapter=A l'ombre de Pasteur}}</ref> This method used the oxidizing agent [[Chemistry:Potassium dichromate|potassium dichromate]]. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a [[Social:Patent|patent]] on the production of an anthrax vaccine.

The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for [[Medicine:Smallpox|smallpox]]. Inoculation with smallpox ([[Biology:Variolation|variolation]]) was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. The English physician Edward Jenner (1749–1823) had also discovered (1796) the process of [[Biology:Vaccination|vaccination]] by using [[Medicine:Cowpox|cowpox]] to give cross-immunity to [[Medicine:Smallpox|smallpox]] and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and [[Medicine:Anthrax|anthrax]] or chicken cholera vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been "generated artificially", so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name "[[Biology:Vaccine|vaccine]]s", in honor of Jenner's groundbreaking discovery. In 1885, Pasteur produced his celebrated first vaccine for [[Medicine:Rabies|rabies]] by growing the virus in rabbits and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.

In 1995, the centennial of Pasteur's death, ''{{wipe|The New York Times}}'' ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian Gerald L. Geison declared Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Geison G | title = The Private Science of Louis Pasteur | publisher = Princeton University Press | date = 1995 | isbn = 0-691-01552-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Wolpert L | date = 7 May 1995 | title = Experiments in Deceit | work = The New York Times | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/07/books/experiments-in-deceit.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altman LK | date = 16 May 1995 | title = Revisionist History Sees Pasteur As Liar Who Stole Rival's Ideas | journal = The New York Times | pages = C1, C3 | pmid = 11647062 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/16/science/doctor-s-world-revisionist-history-sees-pasteur-liar-who-stole-rival-s-ideas.html}}</ref> The same year, [[Biography:Max Perutz|Max Perutz]] published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in ''The New York Review of Books''.<ref>{{cite magazine | vauthors = Perutz MF | date = 
21 December 1995 | magazine = The New York Times Review of Books | url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1995/dec/21/the-pioneer-defended/ | title = The Pioneer Defended}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | vauthors = Geison GL, Perutz MF | date =  4 April 1996  | magazine = The New York Times Review of Books | url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1996/apr/04/pasteur-and-the-culture-wars-an-exchange/ | title = Pasteur and the Culture Wars: An Exchange }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | title = Pasteur's 'Private Science' | vauthors = Summers WC, Perutz MF | date = 6 February 1997 | url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1997/feb/06/pasteurs-private-science/ | magazine = The New York Times Review of Books }}</ref>

==Sterne's vaccine==
The Austrian-South African immunologist Max Sterne (1905–1997) developed an attenuated live animal vaccine in 1935 that is still employed and derivatives of his strain account for almost all veterinary anthrax vaccines used in the world today.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turnbull PC | title = Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future | journal = Vaccine | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = 533–539 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1771966 | doi = 10.1016/0264-410x(91)90237-z }}</ref> Beginning in 1934 at the Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute, north of [[Place:Pretoria|Pretoria]], he prepared an attenuated anthrax vaccine, using the method developed by Pasteur. A persistent problem with Pasteur's vaccine was achieving the correct balance between virulence and immunogenicity during preparation. This notoriously difficult procedure regularly produced casualties among vaccinated animals. With little help from colleagues, Sterne performed small-scale experiments which isolated the "Sterne strain" (34F2) of anthrax which became, and remains today, the basis of most of the improved livestock anthrax vaccines throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Turnbull P | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-max-sterne-1270967.html | title = Obituary: Max Sterne | work = The Independent | date = 4 March 1997 }}</ref>
As Sterne's vaccine is a live vaccine, vaccination during use of antibiotics produces much reduced results and should be avoided. There is a withholding period after vaccination when animals cannot be slaughtered. No such period is defined for milk and there are no reports of humans being infected by products from vaccinated animals. There have been a few cases when humans accidentally self-inject the vaccine when trying to administer to a struggling animal. One case developed fever and meningitis, but it is unclear whether the illness was caused by the vaccine. Livestock anthrax vaccines are made in many countries around the world, most of which use 34F2 with saponin adjuvant.<ref name=WHO_A5>{{cite book|chapter=Annex 5. Vaccines and therapeutic sera |title=Anthrax in Humans and Animals. 4th edition |date=2008 |publisher=World Health Organization |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310479/ |language=en}}</ref>

==Soviet/Russian anthrax vaccines==
Anthrax vaccines were developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and available for use in humans by 1940.<ref>Anaisimova, TI, Pimenov TV, Kozhukhov VV, et al: "Development of method for preparation and maintenance of the anthrax strain STI-1 and test strain Zenkovsky" In ''Salisbury Medical Bulletin'', Special Supplement #87, June 1996, pg 122.</ref><ref name=Shlyakov94>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shlyakov EN, Rubinstein E | title = Human live anthrax vaccine in the former USSR | journal = Vaccine | volume = 12 | issue = 727| page = 1994 }}</ref> A live attenuated, unencapsulated spore vaccine became widely used for humans. It was given either by scarification or subcutaneous injection (only in emergency)<ref name=WHO_A5/> and its developers claimed that it was reasonably well tolerated and showed some degree of protective efficacy against cutaneous anthrax in clinical field trials.<ref name=Shlyakov94/> The efficacy of the live Russian vaccine was reported to have been greater than that of either of the killed British or US anthrax vaccines (AVP and AVA, respectively)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hambleton P, Turnbull PC | title = Anthrax vaccine development: a continuing story | journal = Advances in Biotechnological Processes | volume = 13 | pages = 105–122 | year = 1990 | pmid = 1692223 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lesnyak OT, Saltykov RA | title = Comparative assessment of anthrax vaccine strains' | journal = Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol | volume = 47 | page = 32| year = 1970 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shlyakhov E, Rubinstein E, Novikov I | title = Anthrax post-vaccinal cell-mediated immunity in humans: kinetics pattern | journal = Vaccine | volume = 15 | issue = 6–7 | pages = 631–636 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9178463 | doi = 10.1016/s0264-410x(96)00286-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turnbull PC, Quinn CP, Hewson R, Stockbridge MC, Melling J | title = Protection conferred by microbially-supplemented UK and purified PA vaccines. | journal = Salisbury Medical Bulletin | date = 1990 | volume = 68 | pages = 89–91 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267818225 }}</ref> during the 1970s and '80s. The STI-1 vaccine, consisting only of freeze-dried spores,<ref name=WHO_A5/> is given in a two-dose schedule, but serious side-effects restricted its use to healthy adults.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Guillemin J |title=ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=343 |issue=16 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthraxinvestiga0000guil |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-520-22917-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anthraxinvestiga0000guil/page/34 34] |pmid=11041763 |doi=10.1056/NEJM200010193431615 }}</ref> It was reportedly manufactured at the George Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology and Virology in Tbilisi, Georgia, until 1991.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nass M | title = Anthrax vaccine. Model of a response to the biologic warfare threat | journal = Infectious Disease Clinics of North America | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 187–208, viii | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10198799 | doi = 10.1016/s0891-5520(05)70050-7 | url = http://www.vaccinationcouncil.org/2009/06/19/anthrax-vaccine-model-of-a-response-to-the-biologic-warfare-threat/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130109105142/http://www.vaccinationcouncil.org/2009/06/19/anthrax-vaccine-model-of-a-response-to-the-biologic-warfare-threat | archive-date= 9 January 2013 }}</ref> As of 2008, the STI-1 vaccine remains available, and is the only human anthrax vaccine "nominally available outside national borders".<ref name=WHO_A5/>

China uses a different live attenuated strain for their human vaccines, designated "A16R". The A16R vaccine is given as a suspention in 50% glycerol and distilled water. A single dose is given by scarification, followed by a booster in 6 or 12 months, then annual boosters.<ref name=WHO_A5/>

==British anthrax vaccines==
British biochemist Harry Smith (1921–2011), working for the UK bio-weapons program at Porton Down, discovered the three [[Biology:Anthrax toxin|anthrax toxin]]s in 1948. This discovery was the basis of the next generation of antigenic anthrax vaccines and for modern [[Biology:Antitoxin|antitoxin]]s to anthrax.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = [[Biography:Jeanne Guillemin|Guillemin J]] | date = 2005 | title = ''Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism | publisher = Columbia University Press | page = 98 }}</ref> The widely used British anthrax vaccine—sometimes called Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated (AVP) to distinguish it from the similar AVA (see below)—became available for human use in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine in distinction to the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine previously used for veterinary purposes.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/anthrax/downloads/ed-vpd2006-anthrax.ppt | title = Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine—Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120824060412/http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/anthrax/downloads/ed-vpd2006-anthrax.ppt | archive-date = 24 August 2012 | publisher = National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = January 2006 }}</ref> It is now manufactured by Porton Biopharma Ltd, a Company owned by the UK Department of Health.

AVP is administered at primovaccination in three doses with a booster dose after six months. The active ingredient is a sterile filtrate of an [[Chemistry:Alum|alum]]-precipitated anthrax antigen from the Sterne strain in a solution for injection. The other ingredients are aluminium potassium sulphate, [[Chemistry:Sodium chloride|sodium chloride]] and purified water. The preservative is [[Chemistry:Thiomersal|thiomersal]] (0.005%). The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection and the primary course of four single injections (3 injections 3 weeks apart, followed by a 6-month dose) is followed by a single booster dose given once a year. During the Gulf War (1990–1991), UK military personnel were given AVP concomitantly with the [[Medicine:Pertussis vaccine|pertussis vaccine]] as an adjuvant to improve overall immune response and efficacy.

==American anthrax vaccines==
 
The {{wipe|United States}} undertook basic research directed at producing a new anthrax vaccine during the 1950s and '60s. The product known as Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA)—trade name ''[[Social:Anthrax vaccine adsorbed|BioThrax]]''—was licensed in 1970 by the U.S. [[Organization:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) and in 1972 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took over responsibility for vaccine licensure and oversight. AVA is produced from culture filtrates of an avirulent, nonencapsulated mutant of the ''B. anthracis'' Vollum strain known as V770-NP1-R.<ref name="biothrax">{{cite web | url = https://www.fda.gov/cber/label/biopava0131022LB.pdf | title = BioThrax Package Insert | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration }}</ref> No living organisms are present in the vaccine which results in protective immunity after 3 to 6 doses.<ref name="biothrax"/> AVA remains the only FDA-licensed human anthrax vaccine in the {{wipe|United States}} and is produced by [[Company:Emergent BioSolutions|Emergent BioSolutions]], formerly known as BioPort Corporation in Lansing, Michigan. The principal purchasers of the vaccine in the United States are the Department of Defense and Department of Health and Human Services.  Ten million doses of AVA have been purchased for the U.S. [[Social:Strategic National Stockpile|Strategic National Stockpile]] for use in the event of a mass bioterrorist anthrax attack.

In 1997, the Clinton administration initiated the [[Biology:Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program|Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program]] (AVIP), under which active U.S. service personnel were to be immunized with the vaccine. Controversy ensued since vaccination was mandatory and GAO published reports that questioned the safety and efficacy of AVA, causing sometimes serious side effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gao.gov/search?rows=10&now_sort=score%20desc&page_name=main&q=anthrax%20vaccine |title=GAO Anthrax Vaccine Report Search |format=PDF |publisher=U.S. Government Accountability Office |access-date=2018-04-14}}</ref> A Congressional report also questioned the safety and efficacy of the vaccine and challenged the legality of mandatory inoculations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-106hrpt556/html/CRPT-106hrpt556.htm |title=House Report 106-556 - THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ANTHRAX VACCINE IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM: UNPROVEN FORCE PROTECTION |date=2000-04-03 |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office |access-date=2018-04-14}}</ref> Mandatory vaccinations were halted in 2004 by a formal legal injunction which made numerous substantive challenges regarding the vaccine and its safety.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anthrax.mil/documents/library/AnthraxSJtOrder_Op.pdf |title=John Doe #1 v. Donald H. Rumsfeld, et al |date=2004-10-27 |publisher=Military Vaccine (MILVAX) Agency |access-date=2009-05-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825005302/http://www.anthrax.mil/documents/library/AnthraxSJtOrder_Op.pdf |archive-date=August 25, 2009 }}</ref> After reviewing extensive scientific evidence, the FDA determined in 2005 that AVA is safe and effective as licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. In 2006, the Defense Department announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. The vaccinations are required for most U.S. military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland [[Social:Bioterrorism|bioterrorism]] defense or deployed in Iraq, Afghanistan or {{wipe|South Korea}}.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/16/AR2006101601084_pf.html | title = Mandatory Vaccine Article]—'Mandatory Anthrax Shots to Return | vauthors = Lee C | newspaper = Washington Post | date = 17 October 2006 }}</ref>

==Investigational anthrax vaccines==
[[File: 1tzo.jpg|thumb|300 px|Anthrax toxin protective antigen (fragment) heptamer, ''Bacillus anthracis''.]]
A number of experimental anthrax vaccines are undergoing pre-clinical testing, notably the ''Bacillus anthracis'' protective antigen—known as PA (see [[Biology:Anthrax toxin|Anthrax toxin]]—combined with various adjuvants such as aluminum hydroxide (Alhydrogel), [[Chemistry:Saponin|saponin]] [[Chemistry:QS-21|QS-21]], and monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) in [[Chemistry:Squalene|squalene]]/[[Biology:Lecithin|lecithin]]/[[Chemistry:Tween 80|Tween 80]] emulsion (SLT). One dose of each formulation has provided significant protection (> 90%) against inhalational anthrax in [[Biology:Rhesus macaque|rhesus macaque]]s.
*Omer-2 trial: Beginning in 1998 and running for eight years, a secret [[Place:Israel|Israel]]i project known as ''Omer-2'' tested an Israeli investigational anthrax vaccine on 716 volunteers of the Israel Defense Forces.  The vaccine—given under a seven-dose schedule—was developed by the Nes Tziona Biological Institute. A group of study volunteers complained of multi-symptom illnesses allegedly associated with the vaccine and petitioned for disability benefits to the Defense Ministry, but were denied. In February 2009, a petition from the volunteers to disclose a report about ''Omer-2'' was filed with the Israel's High Court against the Defense Ministry, the [[Organization:Israel Institute for Biological Research|Israel Institute for Biological Research]] at Nes Tziona, the director, Avigdor Shafferman, and the IDF Medical Corps. Release of the information was requested to support further action to provide disability compensation for the volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Haaretz Newspaper | title=Defense attempting to block report about anthrax trial | vauthors = Melman Y | url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1056673.html | date=27 January 2009 | access-date=11 March 2009 | archive-date=15 April 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415100259/http://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1056673.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2014 it was announced that the Israeli government would pay $6 million compensation to the 716 soldiers who participated in the Omer-2 trial.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
*In 2012, ''B. anthracis'' isolate H9401 was obtained from a Korean patient with gastrointestinal anthrax. The goal of the Republic of Korea is to use this strain as a challenge strain to develop a [[Biology:Recombinant DNA|recombinant]] vaccine against anthrax.<ref name="Chun">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chun JH, Hong KJ, Cha SH, Cho MH, Lee KJ, Jeong DH, Yoo CK, Rhie GE | display-authors = 6 | title = Complete genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis H9401, an isolate from a Korean patient with anthrax | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 194 | issue = 15 | pages = 4116–4117 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22815438 | pmc = 3416559 | doi = 10.1128/JB.00159-12 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Donegan S, Bellamy R, Gamble CL | title = Vaccines for preventing anthrax | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2009 | issue = 2 | pages = CD006403 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19370633 | pmc = 6532564 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006403.pub2 | veditors = Donegan S }}
* {{cite book | title=Immunisation against infectious disease | chapter=Chapter 13: Anthrax | chapter-url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/anthrax-the-green-book-chapter-13 | publisher=Public Health England | veditors = Ramsay M | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/immunisation-against-infectious-disease-the-green-book | year=2017 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Turnbull PC | title = Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future | journal = Vaccine | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = 533–539 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1771966 | doi = 10.1016/0264-410x(91)90237-z }}
{{refend}}
{{Vaccines}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | title=Anthrax Vaccine Information Statement | website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | date=January 2020 | url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/anthrax.html }}

[[Category:Anthrax]]
[[Category:Animal vaccines]]
[[Category:Biological warfare]]
[[Category:Vaccines]]

{{Sourceattribution|Anthrax vaccine}}