View source for Social:Common Brittonic

{{short description|Ancient Celtic language of Britain, ancestor to Welsh, Cornish, Breton and Cumbric}}
{{Infobox language
|name = Common Brittonic
|nativename = {{asterisk}}{{lang|cel-GB|Brittonikā}}
|region = Great Britain
|ethnicity = Britons
|era = {{circa|6th century BC to mid-6th century AD}}
|ref = linglist
|speakers2=Developed into [[Social:Old Welsh|Old Welsh]], Cumbric, [[Social:Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Social:Breton language|Breton]] and probably Pictish<ref name="UGlas" />
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam2 = Celtic
|fam3 = Insular Celtic
|fam4 = Brittonic
|isoexception=historical
|linglist = brit
|lingua = 50-AB
|glotto=none
}}

'''Common Brittonic''' ({{lang-cy|Brythoneg}}; {{lang-kw|Brythonek}}; {{lang-br|Predeneg}}), also known as '''British''', '''Common Brythonic''', or '''Proto-Brittonic''',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eska|first=Joseph F.|date=2019-12-01|title=The evolution of proto-Brit. *-/lth/ in Welsh|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zcph-2019-0003/html|journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie|volume=66|issue=1|pages=75–82|doi=10.1515/zcph-2019-0003|s2cid=212726410|issn=1865-889X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sims-Williams|first=Patrick|title=The Double System of Verbal Inflexion in Old Irish|date=November 1984|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|language=en|volume=82|issue=1|pages=138–201|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x|issn=0079-1636}}</ref> was a Celtic language spoken in Britain and Brittany.

It is a form of Insular Celtic, descended from [[Social:Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]], a theorized parent language that, by the first half of the first millennium BC, was diverging into separate dialects or languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Henderson |first=Jon C. |title=The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC |url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticironages00hend |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlanticironages00hend/page/n306 292]–295|isbn=9780415436427 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sims-Williams |first=Patrick |title=Studies on Celtic Languages before the Year 1000 |publisher=CMCS |date=2007 |page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |url= https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128 |url-access=limited |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n19 1455]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Eska |first=Joseph |chapter=Continental Celtic |editor-first=Roger |editor-last=Woodard |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |publisher=Cambridge |date=2008}}</ref> [[Social:Pictish language|Pictish]] is linked, likely as a sister language or a descendant branch.<ref>{{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=Katherine |author-link=Katherine Forsyth |editor-first=John T. |editor-last=Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2006 |pages=1444, 1447}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=Katherine |title=Language in Pictland: The case against "non-Indo-European Pictish" |location=Utrecht |publisher=de Keltische Draak |date=1997 |page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Kenneth H. |author-link=Kenneth H. Jackson |date=1955 |chapter=The Pictish Language |editor-first=F. T. |editor-last=Wainwright |title=The Problem of the Picts |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Nelson |pages=129–166}}</ref>

Evidence from early and modern Welsh shows that Common Brittonic was significantly influenced by [[Social:Latin|Latin]] during the Roman period, especially in terms related to the church and [[Religion:Western Christianity|Christianity]].<ref name="ElfenLadin">{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=H. |date=1943 |title=Yr Elfen Ladin yn yr Iaith Gymraeg |location=Cardiff |publisher=University of Wales Press}}</ref> By the sixth century AD, the languages of the Celtic Britons were rapidly diverging into [[Social:Neo-Brittonic|Neo-Brittonic]]: [[Social:Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Social:Cumbric|Cumbric]], [[Social:Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Social:Breton language|Breton]], and possibly the [[Social:Pictish language|Pictish language]].

Over the next three centuries, Brittonic was replaced in most of Scotland by [[Social:Scottish Gaelic|Scottish Gaelic]] and by [[Social:Old English|Old English]] (from which descend [[Social:English language|Modern English]] and [[Social:Scots language|Scots]]) throughout most of modern England as well as Scotland south of the Firth of Forth.<ref name="Nicolaisen"/> Cumbric disappeared in the 12th century<ref name="Nicolaisen">{{cite book |last=Nicolaisen |first=W. F. H. |title=Scottish Place Names |page=131}}</ref> and, in the far south-west, [[Social:Cornish language|Cornish]] probably became extinct in the eighteenth century, though its use has since been revived.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Marcus |title=The last of the Celts |date=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300104642 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lastofcelts00tann/page/225 225] |url=https://archive.org/details/lastofcelts00tann/page/225 }}</ref>{{efn|A study of 2018 found the number of people with at least minimal skills in Cornish as over 3,000, including around 500 estimated to be fluent.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ferdinand |first=Siarl |title=The Promotion of Cornish in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly: Attitudes towards the Language and Recommendations for Policy |date=2018 |journal=Studia Celtica Fennica |volume=19 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.33353/scf.79496 |doi-access=free}}</ref>}} O'Rahilly's historical model suggests a Brittonic language in Ireland before the introduction of the Goidelic languages, but this view has not found wide acceptance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Rahilly |first1=Thomas |title=Early Irish history and mythology |year=1964 |publisher=School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies |isbn=0-901282-29-4}}</ref> Welsh and Breton are the only daughter languages that have survived fully into the modern day.

==History==

===Sources===
[[File:Roman baths 2014 60.jpg|thumb|right|Bath curse tablet featuring possible Common Brittonic]]
No documents in the language have been found, but a few inscriptions have been identified.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ireland and the Classical World |first=Philip |last=Freeman |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press}}{{page needed|date=September 2021}}</ref> The [[Social:Bath curse tablets|Bath curse tablets]], found in the Roman feeder pool at Bath, Somerset (Aquae Sulis), bear about 150 names &ndash; about 50% Celtic (but not necessarily Brittonic). An inscription on a metal pendant (discovered there in 1979) seems to contain an ancient Brittonic curse:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tomlin |first=R. S. O.|date=1987 |title=Was ancient British Celtic ever a written language? Two texts from Roman Bath |journal=Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies |volume=34 |pages=18–25}}</ref> 
"{{lang|cel-GB|Adixoui Deuina Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamenai}}". (Sometimes the final word has been rendered {{lang|cel-GB|cuamiinai}}.) This text is often seen as: "The affixed – Deuina, Deieda, Andagin [and] Uindiorix – I have bound."<ref>{{cite book |last=Mees |first=Bernard |title=Celtic Curses |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |date=2009 |page=35}}</ref> else, at the opposite extreme, taking into account case-marking – {{lang|cel-GB|-rix}} "king" nominative, {{lang|cel-GB|andagin}} "worthless woman" accusative, {{lang|cel-GB|dewina deieda}} "divine Deieda" nominative/vocative – is:
"May I, Windiorix for/at Cuamena defeat [or "summon to justice"] the worthless woman, [oh] divine Deieda."<ref>Patrick Sims-Williams, "Common Celtic, Gallo-Brittonic, and Insular Celtic", ''Gaulois et celtique continental'', eds. Pierre-Yves Lambert and Georges-Jean Pinault (Geneva: Droz, 2007), 327.</ref>

A tin/lead sheet retains part of 9 text lines, damaged, with likely Brittonic names.<ref>Tomlin, 1987.</ref>

Local Roman Britain toponyms (place names) are evidentiary, recorded in Latinised forms by [[Biography:Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s [[Geography (Ptolemy)|''Geography'']] discussed by Rivet and Smith in their book of that name published in 1979. They show most names he used were from the Brittonic language. Some place names still contain elements derived from it. Tribe names and some Brittonic personal names are also taken down by Greeks and, mainly, Romans.

Tacitus's ''Agricola'' says that the language differed little from that of [[Place:Gaul|Gaul]]. Comparison with what is known of [[Social:Gaulish language|Gaulish]] confirms the similarity.<ref>Pierre-Yves Lambert, ''La langue gauloise'', éditions errance 1994. p. 17.</ref>

===Pictish and Pritenic===
'''Pictish''', which became extinct around 1000 years ago, was the spoken language of the Picts in Northern Scotland.<ref name="UGlas" /> Despite significant debate as to whether this language was Celtic, items such as geographical and personal names documented in the region gave evidence that this language was most closely aligned with the Brittonic branch of Celtic languages.<ref name="UGlas" /> The question of the extent to which this language was distinguished, and the date of divergence, from the rest of Brittonic, was historically disputed.<ref name="UGlas" />

'''Pritenic''' (also '''Pretanic''' and '''Prittenic''') is a term coined in 1955 by Kenneth H. Jackson to describe a hypothetical Roman era (1st to 5th centuries) predecessor to the Pictish language.<ref name="UGlas" /> Jackson saw Pritenic as having diverged from Brittonic around the time of 75-100 AD.<ref name="UGlas" />

The term Pritenic is controversial. In 2015, linguist Guto Rhys concluded that most proposals that Pictish diverged from Brittonic before {{Circa|500 AD}} were incorrect, questionable, or of little importance, and that a lack of evidence to distinguish Brittonic and Pictish rendered the term Prittenic "redundant".<ref name="UGlas">{{cite web |last1=Rhys |first1=Guto |title=Approaching the Pictish language: historiography, early evidence and the question of Pritenic |url=http://theses.gla.ac.uk/6285/7/2015RhysPhD.pdf |website=University of Glasgow |publisher=University of Glasgow}}</ref>

===Diversification and Neo-Brittonic===
Common Brittonic vied with Latin after the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD, at least in major settlements. Latin words were widely borrowed by its speakers in the Romanised towns and their descendants, and later from church use.

By 500–550 AD, Common Brittonic had diverged into the Neo-Brittonic dialects:<ref name="UGlas" /> [[Social:Old Welsh|Old Welsh]] primarily in Wales, Old Cornish in Cornwall, Old Breton in what is now Brittany, [[Social:Cumbric|Cumbric]] in Northern England and Southern Scotland, and probably Pictish in Northern Scotland.<ref name="UGlas" />

The modern forms of [[Social:Breton language|Breton]] and [[Social:Welsh language|Welsh]] are the only direct descendants of Common Brittonic to have survived fully into the 21st century.<ref name="burnsmcarthur">{{cite book |last1=Burns Mcarthur |first1=Thomas |title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780192806376 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> [[Social:Cornish language|Cornish]] fell out of use in the 1700s but has since undergone a revival.<ref name="BBCCornnotextinct">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-11935464 |title=Cornish language no longer extinct, says UN |work=BBC News Online |date=7 November 2010 |access-date=30 April 2021 }}</ref> Cumbric and Pictish are extinct and today spoken only in the form of loanwords in English, [[Social:Scots language|Scots]], and [[Social:Scottish Gaelic|Scottish Gaelic]].<ref name="dictscot">{{cite web |title=Dictionaries of the Scots Language |url=https://dsl.ac.uk/about-scots/history-of-scots/vocabulary/ |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="UGlas" />

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ (Late) Common Brittonic consonants
!
!colspan=2 width=20px| Labial
!colspan=2 width=20px| Dental
!colspan=2 width=20px| Alveolar
!colspan=2 width=20px| Palatal
!colspan=2 width=20px| Velar
!colspan=2 width=20px| Labial–<br>velar
|-
! Nasal
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|m}}
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|n}}
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|({{IPAlink|ŋ}})
|colspan=2|
|-
! Stop
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|p}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|b}}
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|t}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|d}}
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|k}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|
|-
! Fricative
|style="border-right: 0;"| || style="border-left: 0;" |
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|θ}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|ð}}
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|s}}||style="border-left: 0;"|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|x}}||style="border-left: 0;"|
|colspan=2|
|-
! Approximant
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|j}}
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|w}}
|-
! Lateral
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|l}}
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! Trill
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|r}}
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}

===Vowels===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ Early Common Brittonic vowels
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! colspan="2" | Back
|-
! short
! long
! short
! long
! short
! long
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|iː}}
|
| 
| {{IPA|u}}
|
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|eː}}
|
| 
| {{IPA|o}}
|
|-
! Open-mid
| 
| {{IPA|ɛː}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔː}}
|-
! Open
|
|
| {{IPA|a}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɑː}}
|}

The early Common Brittonic vowel inventory is effectively identical to that of Proto-Celtic. {{IPA|/ɨ/}} and {{IPA|/ʉ/}} have not developed yet.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ Late Common Brittonic vowels
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! colspan="2" | Back
|-
! rowspan="1" | <small>unrounded</small>
! rowspan="1" | <small>rounded</small>
! rowspan="1" | <small>unrounded</small>
! rowspan="1" | <small>rounded</small>
! rowspan="1" | <small>rounded</small>
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|y}}
| {{IPA|ɨ}} 
| {{IPA|ʉ}}
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ø}}
|
|
| {{IPA|o}}
|-
! Mid
|
|
| {{IPA|(ə)}}
| {{IPA|(ɵ̞)}}
|
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
! Open
|
|
| {{IPA|a}}
|
|
|}
By late Common Brittonic, the New Quantity System had occurred, leading to a radical restructuring of the vowel system.

Notes:
* The central mid vowels {{IPA|/ə/}} and {{IPA|/ɵ̞/}} were allophonic developments of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, respectively.

==Grammar==
Through comparative linguistics, it is possible to approximately reconstruct the [[Social:Declension|declension]] paradigms of Common Brittonic:

===First declension===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brittonic *{{lang|mis|tōtā}} 'tribe' and cognates in other languages
! #
! Case
! Brittonic
! [[Social:Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
! [[Social:Old Irish|Old Irish]]
! [[Social:Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]
|-
! rowspan="8" | Singular
! Nominative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtā}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutā}}
| {{lang|sga|túath<sup>L</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh}}<sub>2</sub>
|-
! Vocative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtā}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutā}}
| {{lang|sga|túath<sup>L</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>}}
|-
! Accusative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtin}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutim}}
| {{lang|sga|túaith<sup>N</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>m}}
|-
! Genitive
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtiās}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutiās}}
| {{lang|sga|túaithe}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>s}}
|-
! Dative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtī}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutī}}
| {{lang|sga|túaith<sup>L</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>eh<sub>1</sub>}}
|-
!Ablative
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtī}}
|{{lang|xtg|toutī}}
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>es}}
|-
!Instrumental
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtī}}
|{{lang|xtg|toutī}}
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>(e)h<sub>1</sub>}}
|-
!Locative
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtī}}
|{{lang|xtg|toutī}}
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>i}}
|-
! rowspan="5" | Dual
! Nominative accusative vocative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtī}}
| —
| {{lang|sga|túaith<sup>L</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>h<sub>1</sub>e}}
|-
!Genitive
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtious}}
| —
|{{lang|sga|túath<sup>L</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>ows}}
|-
!Dative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtābon}}
| —
|{{lang|sga|túathaib}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>ām}}
|-
!Ablative instrumental
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtābin}}
|—
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>ām}}
|-
!Locative
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtābin}}
|—
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>ows}}
|-
! rowspan="7" |Plural
!Nominative vocative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtās}}
|{{lang|xtg|toutās}}
|{{lang|sga|túatha<sup>H</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>es}}
|-
! Accusative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtās}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutās}}
| {{lang|sga|túatha<sup>H</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>ns}}
|-
! Genitive
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtābon}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutānon}}
| {{lang|sga|túath<sup>N</sup>}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>om}}
|-
! Dative
| *{{lang|cel-GB|tōtābo}}
| {{lang|xtg|toutābi}}
| {{lang|sga|túathaib}}
| *{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>i}}
|-
!Ablative
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtā}}
|—
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>os}}
|-
!Instrumental
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtā}}
|—
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>is}}
|-
!Locative
|*{{lang|cel-GB|tōtā}}
|—
|
|*{{lang|ine-x-proto|tewteh<sub>2</sub>su}}
|}

Notes:
* The dative dual and plural represent the inherited instrumental forms, which replaced the inherited dative dual and plural, from Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|toutābom}}, {{lang|cel-x-proto|toutābos}}.

===Second declension===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brittonic *{{lang|mis|wiros}} 'man' and cognates in other languages
! #
! Case
! Brittonic
! Gaulish
! Welsh
! Old Irish
! PIE
|-
! rowspan="7" | Sg
! Nom.
| *{{lang|mis|wiros}}
| {{lang|xtg|wiros}}
| {{lang|cy|gŵr}}
| {{lang|sga|fer}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHros}}
|-
! Voc.
| *{{lang|mis|wire}}
| {{lang|xtg|wire}}
| 
| {{lang|sga|fir<sup>L</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHre}}
|-
! Acc.
| *{{lang|mis|wiron}}
| {{lang|xtg|wirom}}
| 
| {{lang|sga|fer<sup>N</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrom}}
|-
! Gen.
| *{{lang|mis|wirī}}
| {{lang|xtg|wirī}}
| 
| {{lang|sga|fir<sup>L</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrosyo}}
|-
! Dat.
| *{{lang|mis|wirū}}
| {{lang|xtg|wirū}}
| 
| {{lang|sga|fiur<sup>L</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHroh<sub>1</sub>}}
|-
!Abl. ins.
|*{{lang|mis|wirū}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHroh<sub>1</sub>}}
|-
!Loc.
|*{{lang|mis|wirē}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrey}}
|-
! rowspan="6" | Du
!Nom. acc. voc.
| *{{lang|mis|wirō}}
|{{lang|xtg|wirō}}
| 
|{{lang|sga|fer<sup>L</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHroh<sub>1</sub>}}
|-
! Gen.
| *{{lang|mis|wirōs}}
| —
| 
| {{lang|sga|fer}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrows}}
|-
! Dat.
| *{{lang|mis|wirobon}}
| —
| 
| {{lang|sga|feraib}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām}}
|-
!Abl.
|*{{lang|mis|wirobin}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām}}
|-
!Ins.
|*{{lang|mis|wirobin}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām}}
|-
!Loc.
|*{{lang|mis|wirou}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrows}}
|-
! rowspan="7" |Pl
!Nom. voc.
| *{{lang|mis|wirī}}
|{{lang|xtg|wirī}}
|{{lang|cy|gwŷr}}
|{{lang|sga|fir<sup>L</sup>}} (nom.), {{lang|sga|firu<sup>H</sup>}} (voc.)
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHroy}}
|-
!Acc.
| *{{lang|mis|wirūs}}
|{{lang|xtg|wirūs}}
| 
|{{lang|sga|firu<sup>H</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrons}}
|-
!Gen.
| *{{lang|mis|wiron}}
|{{lang|xtg|wiron}}
| 
|{{lang|sga|fer<sup>N</sup>}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrooHom}}
|-
!Dat.
| *{{lang|mis|wirobi}}
|{{lang|xtg|wirobi}}
| 
|{{lang|sga|feraib}}
| {{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrōys}}
|-
!Abl.
|*{{lang|mis|wirobi}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHromos}}
|-
!Ins.
|*{{lang|mis|wirobi}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHrōys}}
|-
!Loc.
|*{{lang|mis|wirobi}}
|—
|
|
|{{lang|ine-x-proto|wiHroysu}}
|}
Notes:

* Neuter 2nd declension stems deviate from the paradigm as such:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Neuter 2nd declension stem *{{lang|mis|cradion}}
!#
!Case
!Brittonic
|-
|Sg
|Nom. voc. acc.
|*{{lang|mis|cradion}}
|-
|Pl
|Nom. voc. acc.
|*{{lang|mis|cradiā}}
|}
Notes:

* Dual is same as singular
* All other declensions same as regular 2nd declension paradigm

=== Third declension ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brittonic *{{lang|mis|carrecis}} and cognates in other languages
!#
!Case
!Brittonic
!Gaulish
!Welsh
!Old Irish
!PIE
|-
! rowspan="6" |Sg
!Nom.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecis}}
|—
|{{lang|cy|carreg}}
|{{lang|sga|carrac}}
|
|-
!Voc.
|*{{lang|mis|carreci}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Acc.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecin}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Gen.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecēs}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Dat.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecē}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Abl. ins. loc.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecī}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |Du
!Nom.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecī}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Gen.
|*{{lang|mis|carreciōs}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Dat.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecibon}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Abl. ins. loc.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecī}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |Pl
!Nom. voc. acc.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecīs}}
|—
|{{lang|cy|cerrig}}
|
|
|-
!Gen.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecion}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Dat.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecibo}}
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Abl. ins. loc.
|*{{lang|mis|carrecibi}}
|—
|
|
|
|}

==Place names==
Brittonic-derived place names are scattered across Great Britain, with many occurring in the West Country; however, some of these may be pre-Celtic. The best example is perhaps that of each (river) Avon, which comes from the Brittonic {{lang|mis|aβon[a]}}, "river" (transcribed into Welsh as {{lang|cy|afon}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|avon}}, [[Social:Irish language|Irish]] and [[Social:Scottish Gaelic|Scottish Gaelic]] {{lang|ga|abhainn}}, [[Biography:Manx language|Manx]] {{lang|gv|awin}}, Breton {{lang|br|aven}}; the Latin cognate is {{lang|la|amnis}}). When river is preceded by the word, in the modern vein, it is tautological.

===Examples of place names derived from the Brittonic languages===

Examples are:
* ''Avon'' from {{lang|mis|abonā}}{{efn|name=b}} = 'river' (cf. [[Social:Welsh language|Welsh]] {{lang|cy|afon}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|avon}}, Breton {{lang|br|aven}})
* ''Britain'', cognate with {{lang|mis|Pritani}} = (possibly) 'People of the Forms' (cf. Welsh {{lang|cy|Prydain}} 'Britain', {{lang|cy|pryd}} 'appearance, form, image, resemblance'; Irish {{lang|ga|cruth}} 'appearance, shape', Old Irish {{lang|sga|Cruithin}} 'Picts')
* ''Cheviot'' from *{{lang|mis|cev-}} = 'ridge' and {{lang|mis|-ed}}, a noun suffix<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://spns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Alan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf |title=The Brittonic Language in the Old North: A Guide to the Place-name Evidence |first=Alan |last=James |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813011121/http://spns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Alan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2017 |url-status=dead |work=SPNS.org.uk |publisher=Scottish Place Name Society}}</ref>
* ''Dover'': as pre-medieval Latin did not distinguish a Spanish-style mixed {{IPA-all|b/v|}} sound, the phonetic standard way of reading {{lang|la|Dubrīs}} is as {{IPA-all|dʊβriːs|}}. It means 'water(s)' (cognate with old Welsh {{lang|cy|dwfr}}, plural phonetically {{IPAc-en|d|ə|v|r|ʊ|ɪ|ð}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|dowr}}, Breton {{lang|br|dour}}, and Irish {{lang|ga|dobhar}}, its orthography {{lang|ga|bh}} denoting {{IPA-all|v|}} or {{IPA-all|β|}} phonetically)
* ''Kent'' from {{lang|mis|canto-}} = 'border' (becoming in Welsh {{lang|cy|cant(el)}} 'rim, brim', in Breton, {{lang|br|kant}})
* ''Lothian'', ({{lang|wlm|Lleuddiniawn}} in medieval Welsh) from *{{lang|mis|Lugudũn(iãnon)}} 'Fort of [[Religion:Lugus|Lugus]]'
* ''Severn'' from {{lang|mis|Sabrīna}},{{efn|name=b|See note on pre-medieval-Latin recording of the letter {{lang|la|b}} at ''Dover'', in this section.}} perhaps the name of a goddess (modern Welsh, {{lang|cy|Hafren}})
* ''Thames'' from {{lang|mis|Tamesis}} = 'dark' (likely cognate with Welsh {{lang|cy|tywyll}} 'darkness', Cornish {{lang|kw|tewal}}, Breton {{lang|br|teñval}}, Irish {{lang|ga|teimheal}}, pointing to a Brittonic approximate word {{lang|mis|temeselo-}})
* ''Thanet (headland)'' from {{lang|mis|tan-eto-}} = 'bonfire', 'aflame' (cf. Welsh {{lang|cy|tân}} 'fire', Cornish {{lang|kw|tanses}}, Old Breton {{lang|mis|tanet}} 'aflame')  
* ''York'' from {{lang|mis|Ebur-ākon}}{{efn|name=b}} = '[[Biology:Taxus|yew tree]] stand/group'  (cognate with Welsh {{lang|cy|Efrog}}, from {{lang|cy|efwr}} '[[Biology:Heracleum sphondylium|cow parsnip, hogweed]]' + {{lang|cy|-og}} 'abundant in', Breton {{lang|br|evor}} '[[Biology:Frangula alnus|alder buckthorn]]', Scottish Gaelic {{lang|gd|iubhar}} 'yew', {{Lang|gd|iùbhrach}} 'stand/grove of yew trees'; cognate with Évreux in France, Évora in Portugal and Newry, Northern Ireland) via Latin {{lang|la|Eburacum}} > [[Social:Old English|OE]] {{lang|ang|Eoforwīc}} (re-analysed by English speakers as {{lang|ang|eofor}} 'boar' with Old English {{lang|ang|wic}} appended at the end) > [[Social:Old Norse|Old Norse]] {{lang|non|Jórvík}}

Basic words {{lang|mis|[[Earth:Tor (rock formation)|tor]]}}, {{lang|mis|combe}}, {{lang|mis|bere}}, and {{lang|mis|hele}} from Brittonic are common in Devon place-names.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gover |first1=J. E. B. |last2=Mawer |first2=A. |last3=Stenton |first3=F. A. |title=Place-names of Devon |date=1932 |publisher=English Place-name Society}}</ref> Tautologous, [[Social:Hybrid word|hybrid word]] names exist in England, such as:
*Derwentwater (for Brittonic part see ''Dover'' above)
*Chetwood, (cognate with Welsh {{lang|cy|coed}}, Breton {{lang|br|koad}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndas.org.uk/place_names.html |title=The Archaeology of some North Devon Place-Names |last=Green |first=Terry |date=2003 |work=NDAS.org.uk |publisher=North Devon Archaeological Society |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004165450/http://www.ndas.org.uk/place_names.html |archive-date=4 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{fv|date=May 2023}}
*Bredon Hill

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Filppula, M.; Klemola, J.; Pitkänen, H. (2001); ''The Celtic Roots of English'', (Studies in Languages, No. 37); University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities; {{ISBN|952-458-164-7}}.
* Forsyth, K. (1997), ''Language in Pictland''.
* Jackson, Kenneth H. (1953), ''Language and History in Early Britain''.
* Jackson, Kenneth H. (1955), "The Pictish Language"; in F. T. Wainwright, ''The Problem of the Picts''; London: Nelson.
* Koch, John T. (1986), "New Thought on Albion, Ieni and the 'Pretanic Isles'", ''Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium'', 6: pp.&nbsp;1–28.
* Lambert, Pierre-Yves [ed.] (2002), ''Recueil des inscriptions gauloises II.2. Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum''; Paris: CNRS Editions; pp.&nbsp;304–306.
* Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003), ''La langue gauloise''; 2nd ed.; Paris: Editions Errance; p.&nbsp;176.
* Lockwood, W. B. (1975), ''Languages of the British Isles Past and Present''; London: Deutsch; {{ISBN|0-233-96666-8}}.
* Ostler, Nicholas (2005), ''Empires of the Word''; London: HarperCollins; {{ISBN|0-00-711870-8}}.
* Price, Glanville. (2000), ''Languages of Britain and Ireland''; Blackwell; {{ISBN|0-631-21581-6}}.
* Rivet, A. and Smith, C. (1979), ''The Place-names of Roman Britain''
* Sims-Williams, Patrick (2003), ''The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c. 400–1200''; Oxford, Blackwell; {{ISBN|1-4051-0903-3}}.
* Ternes, Elmar [ed.] (2011), ''Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From Medieval British to Modern Breton''; Bremen: Hempen Verlag.
* Trudgill, P. [ed.] (1984), ''Language in the British Isles''; Cambridge University Press.
* Willis, David (2009), "Old and Middle Welsh"; in ''The Celtic Languages'', 2nd ed.; eds. Martin J. Ball & Nichole Müller; New York: Routledge; {{ISBN|0-203-88248-2}}; pp.&nbsp;117–160.

==External links==
*[http://www.asnc.cam.ac.uk/personalnames/ Celtic Personal Names of Roman Britain]
<!-- is this one a reference, or just a link for more info?-->
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060518053641/http://www.roman-britain.org/chase/_romans.htm Roman road stations of the Cannock-Chase area]
*[https://www.academia.edu/2567392/Evidence_for_written_Celtic_from_Roman_Britain_a_linguistic_analysis_of_Tabellae_Sulis_14_and_18  Alex Mullen (2007)], "Evidence for Written Celtic from Roman Britain: A Linguistic Analysis of ''Tabellae Sulis'' 14 and 18", ''Studia Celtica''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brittonic, Common}}
[[Category:Proto-languages]]

{{Sourceattribution|Common Brittonic}}