View source for Social:Georgian language

{{short description|Official language of Georgia}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Georgian
| altname          = ''kartuli ena''
| nativename       = {{lang|ka|ქართული ენა}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA-ka|ˈkʰartʰuli ˈena|}}
| states           = [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| region           = [[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]
| speakers         = 4 million
| ethnicity        = Georgians
| date             = 2023
| ref              = e18
| familycolor      = Caucasian
| fam1             = [[Social:Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]]
| fam2             = [[Social:Karto-Zan languages|Karto-Zan]]
| ancestor         = Old Georgian
| dia1             = Georgian dialects
| script           = {{Plainlist}}
* Georgian script
* Georgian Braille
| nation           = {{flag|Georgia}}
| agency           = Cabinet of Georgia
| iso1             = ka
| iso2b            = geo
| iso2t            = kat
| iso3             = kat
| lingua           = 42-CAB-baa – bac
| image            = Kartuli Georgian Sample3.svg
| imagescale       = 1.2
| imagecaption     = {{transl|ka|Kartuli}} written in Georgian script
| map              = Kartvelian_languages.svg
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = nucl1302
| glottorefname    = Georgian
}}

'''Georgian''' ({{lang|ka|ქართული ენა}}, {{small|[[Social:Romanization of Georgian|romanized:]]}} {{transl|ka|kartuli ena}}, {{IPA-ka|ˈkʰartʰuli ˈena|pron}}) is the most widely spoken Kartvelian language; it also serves as the [[Social:Literary language|literary language]] or lingua franca for speakers of related languages.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hiller|1994|p=1}}</ref> It is the official language of [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and the native or primary language of 87.6% of its population.<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. (2016). Georgia. In ''The World Factbook''. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222544/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/ |date=2021-02-04 }}</ref> Its speakers today amount to approximately four million. Georgian is written in its own unique alphabet.

==Classification==
No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in the world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called [[Social:Zan languages|Zan languages]] (Megrelian and [[Social:Laz language|Laz]]); [[Glottochronology|glottochronological]] studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. [[Social:Svan language|Svan]] is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago.<ref name=":4">{{Harvcoltxt|Hiller|1994|p=2}}</ref>

==Dialects==
Standard Georgian is largely based on the Kartlian dialect.<ref name="ARMAZI">[http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm ''Georgian Dialects'']{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002101/http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, The ARMAZI project. Retrieved on March 28, 2007</ref> Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another.<ref>Manana Kock Kobaidze (2004-02-11) [http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html ''From the history of Standard Georgian''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927075905/http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html|date=September 27, 2007}}</ref>

==History==
The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases:<ref name="woodard"/>
* Early Old Georgian: 5th–8th centuries
* Classical Old Georgian: 9th–11th centuries
* Middle Georgian: 11th/12th–17th/18th centuries
* Modern Georgian: 17th/18th century–present

The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of Marcus Cornelius Fronto, a Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD.<ref>Braund, David (1994), ''Georgia in Antiquity; a History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 B.C.&nbsp;– A.D. 562'', p. 216. [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|0-19-814473-3}}</ref> The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century ''Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik'' by Iakob Tsurtaveli.

The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the Christianization of Georgia in the mid-4th century, which led to the replacement of Aramaic as the [[Social:Literary language|literary language]].<ref name="woodard">Tuite, Kevin, "Early Georgian", pp. 145–6, in: Woodard, Roger D. (2008), ''The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor''. {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}, {{ISBN|0-521-68496-X}}</ref>

By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the epic poem ''The Knight in the Panther's Skin,'' written by Shota Rustaveli in the 12th century.

In 1629, a certain Nikoloz Cholokashvili authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the ''Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione'' and the ''Dittionario giorgiano e italiano''. These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for [[Religion:Evangelism|evangelical]] purposes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Georgian and Italian Dictionary|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/321/|publisher=World Digital Library|accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref>

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian alphabet, which is essentially phonemic.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants<ref name="ipashosted">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=263}}</ref><ref name="GMU">{{cite web |title=Native Phonetic Inventory: georgian |url=http://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=23 |access-date=24 August 2019 |website=gmu.edu |publisher=George Mason University}}</ref>
! colspan="2" | &nbsp;
! Labial
! Dental/<br/>Alveolar
! Post-alveolar
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| {{IPAlink|m}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|მ}}
| {{IPAlink|n}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ნ}}
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | Stop
! <small>aspirated</small>
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ფ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|თ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ქ}}
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ბ}}<sup>7, 8</sup>
| {{IPAlink|d}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|დ}}<sup>7, 8</sup>
|
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|გ}}<sup>7, 8</sup>
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>ejective</small>
| {{IPAlink|pʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|პ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ტ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|kʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|კ}}
| {{IPAlink|qʼ}}<sup>3</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ყ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | Affricate
! <small>(aspirated)</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|t͡sʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ც}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡ʃʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჩ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|d͡z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ძ}}
| {{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჯ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>ejective</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|t͡sʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|წ}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡ʃʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჭ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|s}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ს}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|შ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|x}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ხ}}
| {{IPAlink|h}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჰ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced </small>
| {{IPAlink|v}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ვ}}<sup>6</sup>
| {{IPAlink|z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ზ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჟ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|ɣ}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ღ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Vibrant
|
| {{IPAlink|r}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|რ}}<sup>4</sup>
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Lateral
|
| {{IPAlink|l}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ლ}}<sup>5</sup>
|
|
|
|
|}

# Opinions differ on the aspiration of {{IPA|/t͡sʰ, t͡ʃʰ/}}, as it is non-contrastive.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
# Opinions differ on how to classify /{{IPAlink|x}}/ and /{{IPAlink|ɣ}}/; {{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990}} classifies them as post-velar, {{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995}} argues that they range from velar to uvular according to context.
# The uvular ejective stop is commonly realised as an uvular ejective fricative [{{IPAlink|χʼ}}] but it can also be [{{IPAlink|qʼ}}], [{{IPAlink|ʔ}}], or [{{IPAlink|qχʼ}}], they are in free variation.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=256}}</ref>
# /{{IPAlink|r}}/ is realised as an alveolar tap [{{IPAlink|ɾ}}] <ref name=":0">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=261}}</ref> though [{{IPAlink|r}}] occurs in free variation.
# /{{IPAlink|l}}/ is pronounced as velarized [{{IPAlink|ɫ}}] before back vowels, it is pronounced as [{{IPAlink|l}}] in the environment of front vowels.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=17-18}}</ref>
# /{{IPAlink|v}}/ has the following allophones. <ref name=":0" />
## word-initially, intervocally and word-finally, it is realized as a bilabial fricative [{{IPAlink|β}}] or [{{IPAlink|v}}].<ref name=":1">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995|p=21}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
## before voiceless consonants, it is realized as [{{IPAlink|f}}] or [{{IPAlink|ɸ}}].
## post-consonantally, it is realized as [{{IPAlink|ʷ}}] labialization on preceding consonants.
#In initial positions, /b, d, ɡ/ are pronounced as weakly voiced [b̥, d̥, ɡ̊]<ref name=":2">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=15}}</ref>
#In word-final positions, /b, d, ɡ/ are devoiced to [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

Former {{IPA|/qʰ/}} ({{lang|ka|ჴ}}) has merged with {{IPA|/x/}} ({{lang|ka|ხ}}), leaving only the latter.

The glottalization of the ejectives is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the tenuis stops in foreign words and names with the ejectives. In many romanization systems, it is not marked for transcriptions such as ejective ''p'', ''t'', ''ts'', ''ch'', ''k'' and ''q'', against aspirated ''p‘'', ''t‘'', ''ts‘'', ''ch‘'' and ''k‘'' (as in transcriptions of Armenian).

The coronal occlusives ({{IPA|/tʰ tʼ d n/}}, not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental".<ref name="ipashosted"/>

===Vowels===
{|  class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes<ref name=":5">{{Harvcoltxt|Testelets|2020|p=497}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Harvcoltxt|Putkaradze|Mikautadze|2014|p=53}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1987|p=19}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
!
! Front
!Central
! Back
|- style="text-align: center;"
! Close
| {{IPAlink|i}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ი}}
|
| {{IPAlink|u}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|უ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! Mid
| {{IPAlink|e}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ე}}
|
| {{IPAlink|o}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ო}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! Open
|
| {{IPAlink|a}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ა}}
|
|}Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [{{IPAlink|i}}], [{{IPAlink|e̞}}], [{{IPAlink|ä}}], [{{IPAlink|o̞}}], [{{IPAlink|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Canepari|2007|p=385}}</ref>

Aronson describes their realizations as [i̞], [{{IPAlink|e̞}}], [{{IPAlink|ä}}] (but "slightly fronted"), [{{IPAlink|o̞}}], [u̞].<ref name=":3">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=18}}</ref>

Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [{{IPAlink|i}}], [{{IPAlink|ɛ}}], [{{IPAlink|ɑ}}], [{{IPAlink|ɔ}}], [{{IPAlink|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=262}}</ref>

Allophonically, [{{IPAlink|ə}}] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in {{IPA|/dɡas/}} {{IPA|[dəɡäs]}}.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=McCoy |first=Priscilla |date=1999 |title=Harmony and Sonority in Georgian |url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS1999/papers/p14_0447.pdf |conference=14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences}}</ref>

===Prosody===
[[Social:Prosody (linguistics)|Prosody]] in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm.  Stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=18}}</ref>  Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jun|Vicenik|Lofstedt|2007}}</ref>

According to Borise,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borise |first=Lena |last2=Zientarski |first2=Xavier |date=2018-06-18 |title=Word Stress and Phrase Accent in Georgian |url=https://www.isca-speech.org/archive/tal_2018/borise18_tal.html |journal=6th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2018) |language=en |pages=207–211 |doi=10.21437/TAL.2018-42}}</ref> Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of a word.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borise |first=Lena |date=2023-02-13 |title=Disentangling word stress and phrasal prosody: A view from Georgian |url=https://www.phondata.org/index.php/pda/article/view/43 |journal=Phonological Data and Analysis |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.3765/pda.v5art1.43 |issn=2642-1828 |s2cid=256858909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kwon |first=Harim |last2=Chitoran |first2=Ioana |date=2023-11-29 |title=Perception of illusory clusters: the role of native timing |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/phon-2023-2005/html |journal=Phonetica |language=en |doi=10.1515/phon-2023-2005 |issn=1423-0321|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Phonotactics===
Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. {{lang|ka|'''ბგ'''ერა}} ''bgera'' (sound), {{lang|ka|'''ცხ'''ოვრება}} ''tskhovreba'' (life), and {{lang|ka|'''წყ'''ალი}} ''ts'q'ali'' (water).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=33}}</ref> There are also frequent consonant clusters, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like {{lang|ka|'''გვფრცქვნ'''ი}} ''gvprtskvni'' ("you peel us") and {{lang|ka|'''მწვრთნ'''ელი}} ''mts'vrtneli'' ("trainer").

Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Vicenik|2010|p=87}}</ref>

== Writing system ==
[[File:AmCyc Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia) - Georgian language alphabet.png|thumb|Georgian alphabet from ''The American Cyclopædia'', 1879]]
[[File:Road Sign in Latin and Georgian.jpg|thumb|Road sign in Mtavruli and Latin scripts]]
[[File:Mshrali khidi signboard.JPG|thumb|"Mshrali khidi" (dry bridge) bilingual construction signboard in Georgian (Mtavruli) and Italian in [[Place:Tbilisi|Tbilisi]].]]
Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently the ''Mkhedruli'' script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture.

''Mkhedruli'' has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of ''Mkhedruli'' correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language.

According to the traditional account written down by Leonti Mroveli in the 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the [[Place:Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Iberia]], [[Biography:Pharnavaz I of Iberia|Pharnavaz]], in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called ''Asomtavruli'' "capitals", ''Nuskhuri'' "small letters", and ''Mkhedruli''. The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of the [[Religion:Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgian Orthodox Church]] and together are called ''Khutsuri'' "priests' [alphabet]".

In ''Mkhedruli'', there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called ''Mtavruli'', "title" or "heading", is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and the like.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Modern Georgian alphabet
! Letter
! National<br />transcription !! IPA<br /> transcription
|-
! {{lang|ka|ა}}
| ''a'' || {{IPA|ä}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ბ}}
| ''b'' || {{IPA|b}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|გ}}
| ''g'' || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|დ}}
| ''d'' || {{IPA|d}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ე}}
| ''e'' || {{IPA|e̞}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ვ}}
| ''v'' || {{IPA|v}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ზ}}
| ''z'' || {{IPA|z}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|თ}}
| ''t'' || {{IPA|tʰ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ი}}
| ''i'' || {{IPA|i}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|კ}}
| ''k’'' || {{IPA|kʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ლ}}
| ''l'' || {{IPA|l}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|მ}}
| ''m'' || {{IPA|m}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ნ}}
| ''n'' || {{IPA|n}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ო}}
| ''o'' || {{IPA|o̞}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|პ}}
| ''p’'' || {{IPA|pʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჟ}}
| ''zh'' || {{IPA|ʒ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|რ}}
| ''r'' || {{IPA|r}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ს}}
| ''s'' || {{IPA|s}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ტ}}
| ''t’'' || {{IPA|tʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|უ}}
| ''u'' || {{IPA|u}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ფ}}
| ''p'' || {{IPA|pʰ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ქ}}
| ''k'' || {{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ღ}}
| ''gh'' || {{IPA|ɣ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ყ}}
| ''q’'' || {{IPA|qʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|შ}}
| ''sh'' || {{IPA|ʃ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჩ}}
| ''ch'' || {{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ც}}
| ''ts'' || {{IPA|t͡sʰ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ძ}}
| ''dz'' || {{IPA|d͡z}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|წ}}
| ''ts’'' || {{IPA|t͡sʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჭ}}
| ''ch’'' || {{IPA|t͡ʃʼ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ხ}}
| ''kh'' || {{IPA|x}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჯ}}
| ''j'' || {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჰ}}
| ''h'' || {{IPA|h}}
|}

=== Keyboard layout ===
This is the Georgian standard<ref>[https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/keyboards/kbdgeome Georgian Keyboard Layout] Microsoft</ref> keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual typewriters.


==Grammar==

===Morphology===
Georgian is an agglutinative language. Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined together in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ''ageshenebinat'' ("you (pl.) should have built (it)"). The verb can be broken down to parts: ''a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t''. Each morpheme here contributes to the meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object.

====Morphophonology====
In Georgian morphophonology, syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix -''eb''-) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels ''a'' or ''e'' in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, ''megob'''a'''ri'' means "friend". To say "friends", one says ''megobrebi'' (''megob'''Ø'''rebi''), with the loss of ''a'' in the last syllable of the word stem.

====Inflection====
Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative. An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on the character of the verb). This is called the dative construction. In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case.

===Syntax===
* Georgian is a left-branching language, in which adjectives precede nouns, possessors precede possessions, objects normally precede verbs, and postpositions are used instead of prepositions.
* Each postposition (whether a suffix or a separate word) requires the modified noun to be in a specific case. This is similar to the way prepositions govern specific cases in many [[Social:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]] such as [[Social:German language|German]], [[Social:Latin language|Latin]], or [[Social:Russian language|Russian]].
* Georgian is a pro-drop language; both subject and object pronouns are frequently omitted except for emphasis or to resolve ambiguity.
* A study by Skopeteas ''et al.'' concluded that Georgian word order tends to place the focus of a sentence immediately before the verb, and the topic before the focus.  A subject–object–verb ([[Social:Subject–object–verb|SOV]]) word order is common in idiomatic expressions and when the focus of a sentence is on the object.  A subject–verb–object ([[Social:Subject–verb–object|SVO]]) word order is common when the focus is on the subject, or in longer sentences.  Object-initial word orders (OSV or OVS) are also possible, but less common.  Verb-initial word orders including both subject and object ([[Social:Verb–subject–object|VSO]] or VOS) are extremely rare.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Skopeteas|Féry|Asatiani|2009|pp=2–5}}</ref>
* Georgian has no grammatical gender; even the pronouns are ungendered.
* Georgian has no articles. Therefore, for example, "guest", "a guest" and "the guest" are said in the same way. In relative clauses, however, it is possible to establish the meaning of the definite article through use of some particles.{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}}

==Vocabulary==
[[File:AmCyc Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia) - Georgian language - Tariel (last verse).png|thumb|The last verse of Shota Rustaveli's romance ''The Knight in the Panther's Skin'' illustrating the appearance of the Georgian script.]]
Georgian has a rich word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root -''kart''-, the following words can be derived: ''Kart'''veli''''' (a Georgian person), ''Kart'''uli''''' (the Georgian language) and '''''Sa'''kart'''velo''''' (Georgia).

Most Georgian surnames end in -''dze'' ("son") (Western Georgia), -''shvili'' ("child") (Eastern Georgia), -''ia'' (Western Georgia, Samegrelo), -''ani'' (Western Georgia, Svaneti), -''uri'' (Eastern Georgia), etc.  The ending -''eli'' is a particle of nobility, comparable to French ''de'', German ''von'' or Polish -''ski''.

Georgian has a [[Vigesimal|vigesimal]] numeric system like [[Biography:Basque language|Basque]] or (partially) [[Social:French language|French]].  Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as "four times twenty plus thirteen" ({{lang|ka|ოთხმოცდაცამეტი}} – ''otkhmotsdatsamet'i'').

One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the ''Explanatory dictionary of the Georgian language'' (Georgian: {{lang|ka|ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი}}). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of Arnold Chikobava.

==Examples==

===Word formations===
Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example:

* From the root -{{transl|ka|ts'er}}- ("write"), the words {{transl|ka|'''ts'er'''ili}} ("letter") and ''m'''ts'er'''ali'' ("writer") are derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|tsa}}- ("give"), the word {{transl|ka|gada'''ts'''ema}} ("broadcast") is derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|tsda}}- ("try"), the word {{transl|ka|gamo'''tsd'''a}} ("exam") is derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|gav}}- ("resemble"), the words {{transl|ka|ms'''gav'''si}} ("similar") and ''ms'''gav'''seba'' ("similarity") are derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|shen}}- ("build"), the word {{transl|ka|'''shen'''oba}} ("building") is derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|tskh}}- ("bake"), the word {{transl|ka|nam'''tskh'''vari}} ("cake") is derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|tsiv}}- ("cold"), the word {{transl|ka|ma'''tsiv'''ari}} ("refrigerator") is derived.
* From the root -{{transl|ka|pr}}- ("fly"), the words {{transl|ka|tvitm'''pr'''inavi}} ("plane") and {{transl|ka|a'''pr'''ena}} ("take-off") are derived.

It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns:

* From the noun -{{transl|ka|omi}}- ("war"), the verb {{transl|ka|'''om'''ob}} ("wage war") is derived.
* From the noun -{{transl|ka|sadili}}- ("lunch"), the verb {{transl|ka|'''sadil'''ob}} ("eat lunch") is derived.
* From the noun -{{transl|ka|sauzme}} ("breakfast"), the verb {{transl|ka|ts'a'''sauzm'''eba}} ("eat a little breakfast") is derived; the preverb ''ts'a''- in Georgian could add the meaning "''VERB''ing ''a little''".
* From the noun -{{transl|ka|sakhli}}- ("home"), the verb {{transl|ka|gada'''sakhl'''eba}} (the infinite form of the verb "to relocate, to move") is derived.

Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example:

* From the adjective -{{transl|ka|ts'iteli}}- ("red"), the verb {{transl|ka|ga'''ts'itl'''eba}} (the infinite form of both "to blush" and "to make one blush") is derived. This kind of derivation can be done with many adjectives in Georgian.
* From the adjective -{{transl|ka|brma}} ("blind"), the verbs {{transl|ka|da'''brma'''veba}} (the infinite form of both "to become blind" and "to blind someone") are derived.
* From the adjective -{{transl|ka|lamazi}}- ("beautiful"), the verb {{transl|ka|ga'''lamaz'''eba}} (the infinite form of the verb "to become beautiful") is derived.

===Words that begin with multiple consonants===
In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below.
*Some examples of words that begin with two consonants are:
** {{lang|ka|'''წყ'''ალი}} ({{transl|ka|'''ts'q''''ali}}), "water"
** {{lang|ka|'''სწ'''ორი}} ({{transl|ka|'''sts''''ori}}), "correct"
** {{lang|ka|'''რძ'''ე}} ({{transl|ka|'''rdz'''e}}), "milk"
** {{lang|ka|'''თმ'''ა}} ({{transl|ka|'''tm'''a}}), "hair"
** {{lang|ka|'''მთ'''ა}} ({{transl|ka|'''mt'''a}}), "mountain"
** {{lang|ka|'''ცხ'''ენი}} ({{transl|ka|'''tskh'''eni}}), "horse"
* Many words begin with three contiguous consonants:
** {{lang|ka|'''თქვ'''ენ}} ({{transl|ka|'''tkv'''en}}), "you (plural)"
** {{lang|ka|'''მწვ'''ანე}} ({{transl|ka|'''mts'v'''ane}}), "green"
** {{lang|ka|'''ცხვ'''ირი}} ({{transl|ka|'''tskhv'''iri}}), "nose"
** {{lang|ka|'''ტკბ'''ილი}} ({{transl|ka|'''t'k'b'''ili}}), "sweet"
** {{lang|ka|'''მტკ'''ივნეული}} ({{transl|ka|'''mt'k''''ivneuli}}), "painful"
** {{lang|ka|'''ჩრდ'''ილოეთი}} ({{transl|ka|'''chrd'''iloeti}}), "north"
* A few words in Georgian that begin with four contiguous consonants. Examples are:
** {{lang|ka|'''მკვლ'''ელი}} ({{transl|ka|'''mk'vl'''eli}}), "murderer"
** {{lang|ka|'''მკვდ'''არი}} ({{transl|ka|'''mk'vd'''ari}}), "dead"
** {{lang|ka|'''მთვრ'''ალი}} ({{transl|ka|'''mtvr'''ali}}), "drunk"
** {{lang|ka|'''მწკრ'''ივი}} ({{transl|ka|'''mts'k'r'''ivi}}), "row, screeve"
* Some extreme cases also exist in Georgian. For example, the following word begins with six contiguous consonants:
** {{lang|ka|'''მწვრთნ'''ელი}} ({{transl|ka|'''mts'vrtn'''eli}}), "trainer"
*While the following word begins with seven:
**{{lang|ka|'''გვწვრთნ'''ი}} ({{transl|ka|'''gvts'vrtn'''i}}), "you train us"
* And the following words begin with eight:
** {{lang|ka|'''გვფრცქვნ'''ი}} ({{transl|ka|'''gvprtskvn'''i}}), "you peel us"
** {{lang|ka|'''გვბრდღვნ'''ი}} ({{transl|ka|'''gvbrdghvn'''i}}), "you tear us"

==Language example==
[[File:Ka-UDHR-Nicodene-dad.ogg|thumb|Recording of a middle-aged male speaker reading Article 1.]]
Article 1 of the [[Philosophy:Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Georgian and English:

''{{lang|ka|ყველა ადამიანი იბადება თავისუფალი და თანასწორი თავისი ღირსებითა და უფლებებით. მათ მინიჭებული აქვთ გონება და სინდისი და ერთმანეთის მიმართ უნდა იქცეოდნენ ძმობის სულისკვეთებით.}}''


'''Transliteration''':
{{transl|ka|italic=no|q'vela adamiani ibadeba tavisupali da tanasts'ori tavisi ghirsebita da uplebebit. mat minich'ebuli akvt goneba da sindisi da ertmanetis mimart unda iktseodnen dzmobis sulisk'vetebit}}.


''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<ref name="About Georgia: Georgian Alphabet">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/alphabet.html |title=About Georgia: Georgian Alphabet |access-date=2010-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202041609/http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/alphabet.html |archive-date=2010-12-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
* Old Georgian
* Georgian dialects
* Georgian alphabet
* Georgian calligraphy
* Georgian calendar
* Georgian grammar
* [[Georgian numerals]]
* Georgian profanity

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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* Elene Machavariani. ''The graphical basis of the Georgian Alphabet'', Tbilisi, 1982, 107 pp (in Georgian, French summary)
* Farshid Delshad. ''Georgica et Irano-Semitica'' Studies on Iranian, Semitic and Georgian Linguistics, Wiesbaden 2010, 401 pp  (in German, English, Russian and Georgian summary)
* "Great discovery" (about the expedition of Academician Levan Chilashvili).- Newspaper ''Kviris Palitra'', Tbilisi, April 21–27, 2003 (in Georgian)
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* Pavle Ingorokva. Georgian inscriptions of antique.- Bulletin of ENIMK, vol. X, Tbilisi, 1941, pp.&nbsp;411–427 (in Georgian)
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|first1 = Ryan K.
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|year= 2006
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|volume=36
|issue=2
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|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf
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* {{Citation |last=Testelets |first=Yakov G. |year=2020 |chapter=Kartvelian (South Caucasian) Languages |editor-last=Polinsky |editor-first=Maria |title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus |pages=491–528}}
* {{citation
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==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ka}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia)|Georgian language}}
* {{WALS|geo}}

===Grammars===
* [http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_georgian.pdf Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)]
* [http://learn101.org/georgian.php Georgian Grammar]

===Dictionaries===
* [http://www.translate.ge Georgian English, English Georgian online dictionary]
* [http://czudovo.info/list.php?what=1&ln=ka&in=from_en English-Georgian, German-Georgian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070122120120/http://www.georgianweb.com/language/dictionary/index.html English-Georgian HTML Dictionary]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Georgian_Swadesh_list Georgian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
*[https://lingua.ge/verbs-all/ Georgian Verb Conjugator/Dictionary]

===Software===
* [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/unicode/tituut.asp Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X]
* [https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/addon/10573 A keyboard for typing georgian characters for firefox]{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://itunes.apple.com/app/learn-georgian-alphabet-now/id1182898652?mt=8 Learn Georgian Alphabet Now app] Gives the name, pronunciation of each letter, and example words. Shows the stroke order of each letter. Permits drawing practice and has a quiz to learn the letters.

===Literature and culture===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120227084408/http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/ About Georgia – Language and Alphabet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020817/http://www.kartvfund.org.ge/page3.html Summer School of Georgian at Tbilisi State University]
* [http://georgian-language.com/learn_georgian/write.php Learn how to write Georgian hand-written letters correctly]

{{Languages of the Caucasus}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Georgian Language}}
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]

{{Sourceattribution|Georgian language}}