View source for Social:Greater India

{{Short description|Cultural sphere of India beyond the Indian subcontinent}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox
| name             = Greater India
| bodystyle        = 
| titlestyle       = background:#bee5fe;
| abovestyle       = background:#fcfebe;
| headerstyle      = background:#ddf;
| title            = Indian Cultural Sphere
| above            = Greater India
| imagestyle       = 
| captionstyle     = 
| image            = 
| caption          = 
| header1          = [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]
| label1           = 
| data1            = 
| header2          = 
| label2           = Indianized Kingdoms
| data2            = Angkor, Borobodur, [[Place:Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]], Cebu, [[Place:Champa|Champa]], Chenla, Dvaravati, Funan, Gangga Negara, Kalingga, [[Place:Kutai|Kutai]], [[Place:Langkasuka|Langkasuka]], [[Social:Majapahit|Majapahit]], [[History:Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]], [[History:Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]], [[Social:Singhasari|Singhasari]], Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, Tondo
| header3          = 
| label3           = Theravada Buddhism
| data3            = Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand
| header4          =
| label4           = [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]]
| data4            = Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Central and Southern Vietnam, Malaysia
| header5          = [[Place:South Asia|South Asia]]
| label5           = 
| data5            = 
| header6          = 
| label6           = Theravada Buddhism
| data6            = Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
| label7           = Vajrayana Buddhism
| data7            = Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet
| header8          = 
| label8           = Hinduism
| data8            = Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, [[Organization:Hinduism in Pakistan|Pakistan]], Sri Lanka
| header9         = [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]
| label9          = 
| data9           = 
| header10         = 
| label11          = Buddhist monasticism
| data11           = Central Asia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan
| image2           = [[File:Indian cultural zone.svg|250px]]
| caption2         = '''Indian cultural extent'''<br /> '''Dark orange''': The [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] (Bangladesh, Bhutan, {{wipe|India}}, [[History:Maldives|Maldives]], {{wipe|Pakistan}},
Nepal,<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Patel|first1= Sneha|title= India's South Asian Policy|journal= The Indian Journal of Political Science|date= 2015|volume= 76|issue= 3|pages= 677–680|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/26534911|jstor= 26534911|quote = It is important to note that Nepal was not a British colony like India. Geographically, culturally, socially and historically India and Nepal are linked most intimately and lived together from time immemorial. The most significant factor which has nurtured Indo-Nepalese relations through ages is geographical setting of the two countries which is a good example to understand that how geography connects the two countries.}}</ref> and Sri Lanka)<br />'''Light orange''': Southeast Asia culturally linked to {{wipe|India}}, notably Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia (except Western New Guinea), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]], [[Place:Champa|Champa]] (presently Bình - Trị - Thiên provinces of North Central Coast, South Central Coast and [[Place:Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] Vietnam), Funan (presently Southern Vietnam), and Thailand<br /> '''Yellow''': Regions with significant Indian cultural influence, notably the {{wipe|Philippines}}, [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]], Yunnan, and historically [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] and Afghanistan<ref name="Lal1979">{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jaswant Lal |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598 |volume=I |edition=1st |year=1979 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |oclc=557595150 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598/page/n55 31] |language=en |quote=Modern Afghanistan was part of ancient India; the Afghans belonged to the pale of Indo-Aryan civilisation. In the eighty century, the country was known by two regional names—Kabul land Zabul. The northern part, called Kabul (or Kabulistan) was governed by a Buddhist dynasty. Its capital and the river on the banks of which it was situated, also bore the same name. Lalliya, a Brahmin minister of the last Buddhist ruler Lagaturman, deposed his master and laid the foundation of the Hindushahi dynasty in c. 865.}}</ref><ref name="Chandra2006">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals |date=2006 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110669 |page=41 |quote=Although Afghanistan was considered an integral part of India in antiquity, and was often called "Little India" even in medieval times, politically it had not been a part of India after the downfall of the Kushan empire, followed by the defeat of the Hindu Shahis by Mahmud Ghazni.}}</ref>
| belowstyle       = background:#fcfebe;
| below            = [[Social:Indosphere|Indosphere]] {{·}} [[Religion:Hindu texts|Hindu texts]] {{·}} [[Religion:Buddhist texts|Buddhist texts]] {{·}} Folklore of India {{·}} [[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]] ([[Religion:Versions of Ramayana|Versions of Ramayana]])
}}

'''Greater India''', also known as the '''Indian cultural sphere''', or the '''Indic world''', is an area composed of many countries and regions in [[Place:South Asia|South]], [[Place:East Asia|East Asia]] and [[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]] that were historically influenced by Indian culture, which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures of these regions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195030/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|url-status=live}}</ref> The term ''Greater India'', as a reference to the Indian cultural sphere, was popularised by a network of [[Social:Bengalis|Bengali]] scholars in the 1920s. It is an umbrella term encompassing the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] and surrounding countries, which are culturally linked through a diverse cultural cline. These countries have been transformed to varying degrees by the acceptance and introduction of cultural and institutional elements from each other. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and [[Earth:Indian Ocean trade|maritime trade]] had resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Religion:Hindus|Hindu]] beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.<ref name="Hal1985">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hal|title=Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|year=1985|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0843-3|page=63|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195010/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|url-status=live}}</ref> In Central Asia, the transmission of ideas was predominantly of a religious nature.

By the early centuries of the [[Common Era|common era]], most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Indian culture, religion, and administration. The notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of [[Philosophy:Harihara|Harihara]], and Sanskrit and other Indian epigraphic systems were declared official, like those of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and [[History:Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya dynasty]].<ref name="academia edu">{{citation |last=Lavy |first=Paul |title=As in Heaven, So on Earth: The Politics of Visnu Siva and Harihara Images in Preangkorian Khmer Civilisation |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=34 |pages=21–39 |number=1 |year=2003 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2635407 |access-date=23 December 2015 |doi=10.1017/S002246340300002X |s2cid=154819912 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812222402/https://www.academia.edu/2635407 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Stark1999"/> These Indianized kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès in his work ''Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient'',{{sfnp|Coedès|1968|pp=14–}} were characterized by resilience, political integrity, and administrative stability.<ref>{{citation |first=Pierre-Yves |last=Manguin |chapter=From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia |title=25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient |location=Jakarta |publisher=Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO |year=2002 |pages=59–82 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJBwAAAAMAAJ |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195002/https://books.google.com/books?id=NJBwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

To the north, Indian religious ideas were assimilated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan, and merged with indigenous traditions. Buddhist [[Philosophy:Monasticism|monasticism]] extended into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and other parts of [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]], and Buddhist texts and ideas were accepted in China and Japan in the east.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Overview |publisher=The Saylor Foundation 1 |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221358/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> To the west, Indian culture converged with Greater Persia via the Hindu Kush and the Pamir Mountains.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Qingzhi |title=Some Linguistic Evidence for Early Cultural Exchange between China and India |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=66 |date=March 1995 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |quote=everyone knows well the so-called "Buddhist conquest of China" or "Indianized China" |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804122822/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Evolution of the concept==
[[File:1864 Mitchell Map of India, Tibet, China and Southeast Asia - Geographicus - India-mitchell-1864.jpg|thumb|300px|Hindoostan and Farther India in a 1864 map by Samuel Augustus Mitchell]]
The concept of the ''Three Indias'' was in common circulation in pre-industrial Europe. ''Greater India'' was the southern part of South Asia, ''Lesser India'' was the northern part of South Asia, and ''Middle India'' was the region near the Middle East.<ref name="Phillips1998">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=J. R. S. |date=1998 |title=The Medieval Expansion of Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1pcTl11iawC&pg=PA192 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=192 |isbn=978-0-19-820740-5}}</ref> The Portuguese form ({{lang-pt|India Maior}}<ref name="Phillips1998" /><ref name=azurara /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären |date=1997 |title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |url-access=limited |publisher=University of California Press  |page=[https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi/page/n143 269] |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pedro Machado |first=José |date=1992 |title=Terras de Além: no Relato da Viagem de Vasco da Gama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeGyyRefPd0C&pg=PA333 |journal=Journal of the University of Coimbra |volume=37 |pages=333–}}</ref>) was used at least since the mid-15th century.<ref name=azurara>{{Harv|Azurara|1446}}</ref> The term, which seems to have been used with variable precision,<ref>{{Harv|Beazley|1910|p=708}} Quote: "Azurara's hyperbole, indeed, which celebrates the Navigator Prince as joining Orient and Occident by continual voyaging, as transporting to the extremities of the East the creations of Western industry, does not scruple to picture the people of the ''Greater and the Lesser India''"</ref> sometimes meant only the Indian subcontinent;<ref>{{Harv|Beazley|1910|p=708}} Quote: "Among all the confusion of the various Indies in Mediaeval nomenclature, "Greater India" can usually be recognized as restricted to the "India proper" of the modern [c. 1910] world."</ref> Europeans used a variety of terms related to South Asia to designate the South Asian peninsula, including ''High India'', ''Greater India'', ''Exterior India'' and ''India aquosa''.<ref name="gindia">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären |date=1997 |title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi |url-access=limited |publisher=University of California Press  |page=[https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi/page/n145 274] |isbn=978-0-520-20742-4}}</ref>

However, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India (or ''India Major'') extended from the Malabar Coast (present-day Kerala) to ''India extra Gangem''<ref>{{Harv|Wheatley|1982|p=13}} Quote: "Subsequently the whole area came to be identified with one of the "Three Indies," though whether ''India Major'' or ''Minor, Greater'' or ''Lesser, Superior'' or ''Inferior'', seems often to have been a personal preference of the author concerned. When Europeans began to penetrate into Southeast Asia in earnest, they continued this tradition, attaching to various of the constituent territories such labels as Further India or Hinterindien, the East Indies, the Indian Archipelago, Insulinde, and, in acknowledgment of the presence of a competing culture, Indochina."</ref> (lit. "India, beyond the Ganges," but usually the [[Place:East Indies|East Indies]], i.e. present-day [[Place:Malay Archipelago|Malay Archipelago]]) and ''India Minor'', from Malabar to Sind.<ref>{{Harv|Caverhill|1767}}</ref> ''Farther India'' was sometimes used to cover all of modern Southeast Asia.<ref name=gindia/> Until the fourteenth century, India could also mean areas along the Red Sea, including Somalia, South Arabia, and Ethiopia (e.g., Diodorus of Sicily of the first century BC says that "the Nile rises in India" and Marco Polo of the fourteenth century says that "Lesser India ... contains ... Abash [Abyssinia]").<ref>{{cite book |last=Uhlig |first=Siegbert |date=2003 |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4WUdKWGcYsC |publisher=Isd |page=145 |isbn=978-3-447-05607-6}}</ref>

In late 19th-century geography, ''Greater India'' referred to a region that included: "(a) Himalaya, (b) [[Place:Punjab|Punjab]], (c) Hindustan, (d) Burma, (e) [[Place:Mainland Southeast Asia|Indo-China]], (f) Sunda Islands, (g) Borneo, (h) Celebes, and (i) {{wipe|Philippines}}."<ref name=geography19cent>"Review: New Maps," (1912) ''Bulletin of the American Geographical Society'' 44(3): 235–240.</ref> German atlases distinguished ''Vorder-Indien'' (Anterior India) as the South Asian peninsula and ''Hinter-Indien'' as Southeast Asia.<ref name=gindia/>

''Greater India'', or ''Greater India Basin'' also signifies "the [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian Plate]] plus a postulated northern extension", the product of the ''Indian–Asia collision''.<ref>{{Harv|Ali|Aitchison|2005|p=170}}</ref> Although its usage in geology pre-dates Plate tectonic theory,<ref>Argand, E., 1924. La tectonique de l' Asie. Proc. 13th Int. Geol. Cong. 7 (1924), 171–372.</ref> the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s. It is unknown when and where the India–Asia (Indian and [[Earth:Eurasian Plate|Eurasian Plate]]) convergence occurred, at or before 52 million years ago. The plates have converged up to {{convert|3600|km|mi|abbr=on}} ± {{convert|35|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The upper crustal shortening is documented from geological record of Asia and the Himalaya as up to approximately {{convert|2350|km|mi|abbr=on}} less.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthdynamics.org/papers-ED/2012/2012-vanHinsbergen-etal-PNAS.pdf |title=The Greater India Basin hypothesis |publisher=University of Oslo |access-date=20 December 2016 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809062646/http://earthdynamics.org/papers-ED/2012/2012-vanHinsbergen-etal-PNAS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The concept of "'''Indianized kingdoms'''" and "'''Indianization'''", coined by George Coedès, originally describes Southeast Asian [[Social:Principality|principalities]] that flourished from the early common era as a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, literature and architecture.<ref>National Library of Australia.  [http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021052224/http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html|date=21 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Urban Morphology of Commercial Port Cities and Shophouses in Southeast Asia |journal=Procedia Engineering |volume=142 |pages=190–197 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.031 |year=2016 |last1=Han |first1=Wang |last2=Beisi |first2=Jia |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Indianization of South East Asia==
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|300px|thumb|Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1 =Pierre-Yves|last1 =Manguin|editor1-first =Gwyn|editor1-last =Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World|chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages =51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|access-date =26 March 2023|archive-date =26 March 2023|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195021/https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|url-status =live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]
Austronesian sailors from Island Southeast Asia first established contact and trade with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture (including [[Engineering:Catamaran|catamaran]]s, [[Engineering:Outrigger boat|outrigger boat]]s, sewn-plank boats, and [[Chemistry:Paan|paan]]) and [[Biology:Cultigen|cultigen]]s (like [[Biology:Coconut|coconut]]s, [[Biology:Sandalwood|sandalwood]], [[Biology:Banana|banana]]s, and [[Biology:Sugarcane|sugarcane]]) to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and {{wipe|China}}. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider [[Finance:Spice trade|spice trade]] network, which were later also used by Tamil and Arab maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Manguin2016"/><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161216/https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated the emergence of centralized states and localized caste systems in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&q=Indianized+kingdoms&pg=PA299 | title= Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume I: To 1500: A Global History | date= 19 June 2014 | access-date= 20 December 2016 | isbn= 9781285783086 | last1= Lockard | first1= Craig A. | publisher= Cengage Learning | archive-date= 26 March 2023 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205006/https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&q=Indianized+kingdoms&pg=PA299 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=The Mon-Dvaravati Tradition of Early North-Central Thailand |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101012349/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Amitav Acharya |title=Southeast Asia: Imagining the region |url=http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222145059/http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Adaption and adoption ===
[[File:Angkor Wat.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world]]

Indian culture was likely introduced by Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=20 December 2016 | archive-date=16 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | url-status=live }}</ref> Divinity and royalty were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch. Brahmans and priests from India proper played a key role in supporting ruling dynasties through exact rituals. Dynastic consolidation was the basis for more centralized kingdoms that emerged in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries.<ref name="Chenla - 550-800">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-chenla.htm|title=Chenla – 550–800|publisher=Global Security|access-date=13 July 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714074235/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cambodia/history-chenla.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Shiva Temple of Prambanan in Java Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|The 9th century Shiva temple in Prambanan compound, adorned with bas-reliefs of Ramayana, located near Yogyakarta, Indonesia]]
Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata had been adopted and customized increasingly with a regional character. The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and reduced to serve for a selected group of nobles only.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hinduism-southeast-asia | title=Hinduism in Southeast Asia | publisher=Encyclopedia | access-date=20 December 2016 | archive-date=22 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222083437/http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hinduism-southeast-asia | url-status=live }}</ref> Many struggle to date and determine when Indianizaton in Southeast Asia occurred because of the structures and ruins found that were similar to those in India.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Coedes|first1=George|title=Some Problems in Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia|date=1964|publisher=Journal of Southeast Asian History}}</ref>

States such as Srivijaya, [[History:Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], [[Social:Majapahit|Majapahit]] and the Khmer empire had territorial continuity, resilient population and surplus economies that rivaled those in India itself. [[Astronomy:Borobudur|Borobudur]] and Prambanan in Java and Angkor in Cambodia are, apart from their grandeur, examples of a distinctly developed regional culture, style, and expression.<ref>[http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf Theories of Indianisation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224064227/http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |date=24 December 2015 }} Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia), by Dr. Helmut Lukas</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |title=THEORIES OF INDIANIZATION Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia) |publisher=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften |author=Helmut Lukas |access-date=14 January 2018 |archive-date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215113853/http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Southeast Asia is called Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum – the golden land and Suvarnadvipa – the golden Islands in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |title= History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh |access-date= 13 July 2015 |isbn= 9788120749108 |author1= Kapur |author2= Kamlesh |year= 2010 |publisher= Sterling Publishers Pvt. |archive-date= 26 March 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465 |url-status= live }}</ref> It was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly [[Place:Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. Cultural and trading relations between the powerful [[History:Chola dynasty|Chola dynasty]] of South India and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called "The Chola Lake", and the Chola attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century CE are the sole example of military attacks by Indian rulers against Southeast Asia. The [[History:Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]] of [[Place:Bengal|Bengal]], which controlled the heartland of Buddhist India, maintained close economic, cultural and religious ties, particularly with Srivijaya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |title=Śrīvijaya―towards ChaiyaーThe History of Srivijaya |author=Takashi Suzuki |date=25 December 2012 |access-date=6 March 2013 |archive-date=16 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616052352/http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Religion, authority and legitimacy ===
[[File:Ramayana Bali Ubud 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in Ubud.]]
The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features. The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further legitimized a ruler identified with a God who battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.<ref name="oxford press">{{cite web | url= http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml | title= Hinduism in Southeast Asia | publisher= Oxford Press | date= 28 May 2013 | access-date= 20 December 2016 | archive-date= 21 December 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161221234559/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml | url-status= live }}</ref>

Hinduism does not have a single historical founder, a centralized imperial authority in India proper nor a bureaucratic structure, thus ensuring relative religious independence for the individual ruler. It also allows for multiple forms of divinity, centered upon the [[Philosophy:Trimurti|Trimurti]] the triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the deities responsible for the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe.<ref name="Ramirez-Faria2007">{{cite book|author=Carlos Ramirez-Faria|title=Concise Encyclopedia of World History The "King of the mountain"|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&q=funan+mountain+kings&pg=PA106|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0775-5|pages=106–|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&q=funan+mountain+kings&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref>

The effects of Hinduism and Buddhism applied a tremendous impact on the many civilizations inhabiting Southeast Asia which significantly provided some structure to the composition of written traditions. An essential factor for the spread and adaptation of these religions originated from trading systems of the third and fourth century.<ref name="smith" /> In order to spread the message of these religions Buddhist monks and Hindu priests joined mercantile classes in the quest to share their religious and cultural values and beliefs. Along the Mekong delta, evidence of Indianized religious models can be observed in communities labeled Funan. There can be found the earliest records engraved on a rock in Vocanh.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kleinmeyer|first1=Cindy|title=Religions of Southeast Asia|url=https://www.niu.edu/cseas/_pdf/lesson-plans/k-12/origins-religion.pdf|website=niu.edu|publisher=Northern Illinois University|access-date=1 June 2014|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219023623/http://www.niu.edu/cseas/_pdf/lesson-plans/k-12/origins-religion.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The engravings consist of Buddhist archives and a south Indian scripts are written in Sanskrit that have been dated to belong to the early half of the third century. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local cultures that formed their own distinctive variations of these structures in order to reflect their own ideals.

The indianized kingdoms had by the 1st to 4th centuries CE adopted Hinduism's cosmology and rituals, the ''[[Religion:Devaraja|devaraja]]'' concept of kingship, and Sanskrit as official writing. Despite the fundamental cultural integration, these kingdoms were autonomous in their own right and functioned independently.<ref name="Brannon">{{cite web|title=Vietnam's Champa Kingdom Marches on|first=Vrndavan Brannon|last=Parker|work=Hinduism Today|url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5491|access-date=21 November 2015|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007064500/https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5491|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Waning of Indianization===
[[File:Map-of-southeast-asia 900 CE.png|thumb|Map of South-east Asia c. 900 AD, showing the Khmer Empire in red, Srivijaya in green, and Champa in yellow.]]

====Khmer Kingdom====
Not only did Indianization change many cultural and political aspects, but it also changed the spiritual realm as well, creating a type of Northern Culture which began in the early 14th century, prevalent for its rapid decline in the Indian kingdoms. The decline of Hinduism kingdoms and spark of Buddhist kingdoms led to the formation of orthodox Sinhalese Buddhism and is a key factor leading to the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and thus became more popularized over Hinduism.<ref name="coedes" />

====Rise of Islam====
Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but Islamic control took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hinduist kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hinduism kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamic Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia.<ref name="coedes" /> Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein Indianization once persisted, the regions had become more Muslim populated. This so-called Islamic control has spanned to many of the trading centers across the regions of Southeast Asia, including one of the most dominant centers, Malacca, and has therefore stressed a widespread rise of Islamization.<ref name="coedes" />

==Indianized kingdoms of South East Asia==

===Mainland kingdoms===
[[File:Dancing Shiva 10th c.jpg|thumb|The 10th-century [[Engineering:Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] of the dancing Shiva in Champa, Vietnam]]
* '''Funan''': Funan was a polity that encompassed the southernmost part of the [[Place:Indochina|Indochinese peninsula]] during the 1st to 6th centuries. The name ''Funan'' is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and so is considered an exonym based on the accounts of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying who sojourned there in the mid-3rd century CE.<ref name="Higham">Higham, C., 2001, The Civilization of Angkor, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, {{ISBN|9781842125847}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars believe ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain"); while others thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all, rather it meant what it says in Chinese, meaning something like "Pacified South". Centered at the lower [[Earth:Mekong|Mekong]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stark |first=Miriam T. |date=2006 |title=Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong Archaeological Project |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |journal=Indo-Pacific Pre-History Association Bulletin |publisher=University of Hawai'i-Manoa |volume=26 |access-date=5 July 2015 |quote=The Mekong delta played a central role in the development of Cambodia's earliest complex polities from approximately 500 BC to AD 600. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172512/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Funan is noted as the oldest [[Religion:Hinduism|Hindu]] culture in this region, which suggests prolonged socio-economic interaction with India and maritime trading partners of the [[Social:Indosphere|Indosphere]].<ref name="Stark1999">{{cite journal |last1=Stark |first1=Miriam T. |last2=Griffin |first2=Bion |last3=Phoeurn |first3=Chuch |last4=Ledgerwood |first4=Judy |last5=Dega |first5=Michael |last6=Mortland |first6=Carol |last7=Dowling |first7=Nancy |last8=Bayman |first8=James M. |last9=Sovath |first9=Bong |last10=Van |first10=Tea |last11=Chamroeun |first11=Chhan |last12=Latinis |first12=Kyle |display-authors=4 |date=1999 |title=Results of the 1995–1996 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Cambodia |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/AP1999%20article.pdf |journal=Asian Perspectives |publisher=University of Hawai'i-Manoa |volume=38 |issue=1 |access-date=5 July 2015 |quote=The development of maritime commerce and Hindu influence stimulated early state formation in polities along the coasts of mainland Southeast Asia, where passive indigenous populations embraced notions of statecraft and ideology introduced by outsiders... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172419/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/AP1999%20article.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cultural and religious ideas had reached Funan via the [[Earth:Indian Ocean trade|Indian Ocean trade]] route. Trade with India had commenced well before 500 BC as [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] hadn't yet replaced [[Social:Pali|Pali]].<ref name="Stark1999" /> Funan's language has been determined as to have been an early form of Khmer and its written form was Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Dawn |date=1984 |title=Khmer Ceramics |url=http://rooneyarchive.net/books/khmer_ceramics/khmer_ceramics.pdf |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=13 July 2015 |quote=The language of Funan was... |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107123649/http://rooneyarchive.net/books/khmer_ceramics/khmer_ceramics.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Cat Tien large lingam.jpg|thumb|Stone lingam found in Cát Tiên, southern Vietnam]] 
* '''Chenla''' was the successor polity of Funan that existed from around the late 6th century until the early 9th century in Indochina, preceding the Khmer Empire. Like its predecessor, Chenla occupied a strategic position where the maritime trade routes of the [[Social:Indosphere|Indosphere]] and the [[Place:East Asian cultural sphere|East Asian cultural sphere]] converged, resulting in prolonged socio-economic and cultural influence, along with the adoption of the Sanskrit epigraphic system of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and [[History:Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya dynasty]].<ref>Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture by Upendra Thakur p.2</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |title=Considerations on the Chronology and History of 9th Century Cambodia by Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Epigraphist – ...the realm called Zhenla by the Chinese. Their contents are not uniform but they do not contradict each other. |publisher=Khmer Studies |access-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140459/http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chenla's first ruler Vīravarman adopted the idea of divine kingship and deployed the concept of [[Philosophy:Harihara|Harihara]], the syncretistic Hindu "god that embodied multiple conceptions of power". His successors continued this tradition, thus obeying the code of conduct Manusmṛti, the ''Laws of Manu'' for the Kshatriya warrior caste and conveying the idea of political and religious authority.<ref name="academia edu"/>
* '''[[Place:Langkasuka|Langkasuka]]''': Langkasuka (-''langkha'' [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] for "resplendent land" -''sukkha'' of "bliss") was an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the [[Biology:Malay Peninsula|Malay Peninsula]]. The kingdom, along with the Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; Malay legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at Kedah, and later moved to Pattani.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |title=The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk-Road (100 BC-1300 AD) |author=Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h |pages=162–163 |others=Victoria Hobson (translator) |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004119734 |date=January 2002 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219073308/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Place:Champa|Champa]]''': The kingdoms of Champa controlled what is now south and central Vietnam. The earliest kingdom, Lâm Ấp was described by Chinese sources around 192. CE The dominant religion was [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]] and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the late fifteenth century, the Vietnamese – proponents of the [[Place:Sinosphere|Sinosphere]] – had eradicated the last remaining traces of the once powerful maritime kingdom of Champa.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|title= Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500–2000 By Ben Kiernan p. 102 The Vietnamese destruction of Champa 1390–1509|access-date= 27 June 2015|isbn= 9780522854770|last1= Kiernan|first1= Ben|year= 2008|publisher= Melbourne Univ.|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195118/https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|url-status= live}}</ref> The last surviving Chams began their diaspora in 1471, many re-settling in Khmer territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |title=The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines Written by Adam Bray |publisher=IOC-Champa |access-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101606/http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |archive-date=26 June 2015  }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |title= The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Part 2 Parts 1368–1644 By Denis C. Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote |date= 28 January 1998 |access-date= 26 June 2015 |isbn= 9780521243339 |last1= Twitchett |first1= Denis C. |last2= Mote |first2= Frederick W. |publisher= Cambridge University Press |archive-date= 26 March 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195126/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |url-status= live }}</ref>
* '''Kambuja''': The Khmer Empire was established by the early 9th century in a mythical initiation and [[Religion:Consecration|consecration]] ceremony by founder Jayavarman II at Mount Kulen (Mount Mahendra) in 802 CE<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolters |first=O. W. |date=1973 |title=Jayavarman II's Military Power: The Territorial Foundation of the Angkor Empire |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=105 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00130400 |jstor=25203407|s2cid=161969465 }}</ref> A succession of powerful sovereigns, continuing the Hindu [[Religion:Devaraja|devaraja]] tradition, reigned over the classical era of Khmer civilization until the 11th century. [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]] was then introduced temporarily into royal religious practice, with discontinuities and decentralisation resulting in subsequent removal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |title=The emergence and ultimate decline of the Khmer Empire – Many scholars attribute the halt of the development of Angkor to the rise of Theravada... |publisher=Studies of Asia |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225164254/https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The royal chronology ended in the 14th century. During this period of the Khmer empire, societal functions of [[Social:Administration (government)|administration]], agriculture, architecture, [[Earth:Hydrology|hydrology]], [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]], [[Engineering:Urban planning|urban planning]], literature and [[Art|the arts]] saw an unprecedented degree of development, refinement and accomplishment from the distinct expression of Hindu cosmology.<ref>{{cite web  |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/  |title=Khmer Empire  |publisher=[[Organization:World History Encyclopedia|World History Encyclopedia]]  |access-date=7 July 2015  |archive-date=17 April 2021  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417124558/https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/  |url-status=live  }}</ref>
* '''[[History:Mon kingdoms|Mon kingdoms]]''': From the 9th century until the abrupt end of the [[History:Hanthawaddy Kingdom|Hanthawaddy Kingdom]] in 1539, the Mon kingdoms (Dvaravati, Hariphunchai, Pegu) were notable for facilitating Indianized cultural exchange in lower Burma, in particular by having strong ties with Sri Lanka.<ref name=Coedes>{{harvtxt|Coedès|1968}}</ref>
* '''[[History:Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]]''': The first Tai peoples to gain independence from the Khmer Empire and start their own kingdom in the 13th century. Sukhothai was a precursor for the [[History:Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya Kingdom]] and the Kingdom of Siam. Though ethnically Thai, the Sukhothai kingdom in many ways was a continuation of the Buddhist Mon-Dvaravati civilizations, as well as the neighboring Khmer Empire.<ref name="sunnytantikumar736">{{Cite web |last=sunnytantikumar736 |title=भारत की कहानी |url=https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=Hindi Stories |language=en-US |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203183016/https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=พระราชพงษาวดาร ฉบับพระราชหัดถเลขา ภาค 1 |trans-title=Royal Chronicle: Royal Autograph Version, Volume 1 |publisher=Wachirayan Royal Library |location=Bangkok |year=1912 |page=278}}</ref>

===Island kingdoms===
[[File:Avalokiteçvara, Malayu Srivijaya style.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden [[Religion:Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteśvara]] from Malayu-Srivijaya, Indonesia]]
[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini Prambanan.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue [[Religion:Durga|Durga]] dated to the 9th-century Mataram from Central Java]]
[[File:Pura Ulandanu Temple, Batur, Bali, Indonesia 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Ganesha shrine in Bali, a widely present custom from Majapahit]]
* '''Salakanagara''': Salakanagara kingdom is the first historically recorded Indianized kingdom in Western Java, established by an Indian trader after marrying a local Sundanese princess. This Kingdom existed between 130 and 362 CE.<ref name="Nusantara">{{cite web|title=Salakanagara, Kerajaan "Tertua" di Nusantara|url=http://www.wacananusantara.org/salakanagara-kerajaan-tertua-di-nusantara/|language=id|access-date=25 January 2015|archive-date=23 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723200420/http://www.wacananusantara.org/salakanagara-kerajaan-tertua-di-nusantara/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''Tarumanagara''' was an early Sundanese Indianized kingdom, located not far from modern Jakarta, and according to Tugu inscription ruler Purnavarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
* '''[[History:Kalingga Kingdom|Kalingga]]''': Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
* '''Malayu''' was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are the New History of the Tang, and the memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing who visited in 671 CE, and states that it was "absorbed" by Srivijaya by 692 CE, but had "broken away" by the end of the eleventh century according to Chao Jukua. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians.
* '''Srivijaya''': From the 7th to 13th centuries Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers from Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa to the Sailendras. A stronghold of [[Philosophy:Vajrayana|Vajrayana]] Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars. A notable Buddhist scholar of local origin, [[Philosophy:Dharmakirti|Dharmakirti]], taught Buddhist philosophy in Srivijaya and [[Organization:Nalanda|Nalanda]] (in India), and was the teacher of Atisha. Most of the time, this Buddhist Malay empire enjoyed cordial relationship with China and the [[History:Pala Empire|Pala Empire]] in [[Place:Bengal|Bengal]], and the 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at [[Organization:Nalanda|Nalanda]] university near Pala territory. The Srivijaya kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the expansion of the Javanese, Singhasari, and Majapahit empires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=87|title=Thailand's World : The Srivijaya Kingdom in Thailand|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120002507/http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=87|archive-date=20 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''Tambralinga''' was an ancient kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula that at one time came under the influence of Srivijaya. The name had been forgotten until scholars recognized Tambralinga as Nagara Sri Dharmaraja (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Early records are scarce but its duration is estimated to range from the seventh to the fourteenth century. Tambralinga first sent tribute to the emperor of the Tang dynasty in 616 CE. In Sanskrit, Tambra means "red" and linga means "symbol", typically representing the divine energy of Shiva.
* '''[[History:Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]]''': The Mataram Kingdom flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was first centered in central Java before moving later to east Java. This kingdom produced numbers of Hindu-Buddhist temples in Java, including [[Astronomy:Borobudur|Borobudur]] Buddhist mandala and the Prambanan [[Philosophy:Trimurti|Trimurti]] Hindu temple dedicated mainly to [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]]. The Sailendras were the ruling family of this kingdom at an earlier stage in central Java, before being replaced by the Isyana Dynasty.
* '''[[History:Kediri Kingdom|Kadiri]]''': In the 10th century, Mataram challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by King Airlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death; the new state of Kediri, in eastern Java, became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries, spreading its influence to the eastern parts of Southeast Asia. The spice trade was now becoming increasingly important, as demand from European countries grew. Before they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the Maluku Islands (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and so Kediri became a strong trading nation.
* '''[[Social:Singhasari|Singhasari]]''': In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, and [[Social:Singhasari|Singhasari]] arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of its warrior-king Kertanegara. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, [[Social:Majapahit|Majapahit]]. By the middle of the 14th century Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, part of Borneo, the southern Celebes and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on the mainland.
* '''[[Social:Majapahit|Majapahit]]''': The Majapahit empire, centered in East Java, succeeded the [[Social:Singhasari|Singhasari]] empire and flourished in the Indonesian archipelago between the 13th and 15th centuries. Noted for their naval expansion, the Javanese spanned west–east from Lamuri in Aceh to Wanin in Papua. Majapahit was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in [[Place:Maritime Southeast Asia|Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Most of [[Place:Bali|Bali]]nese Hindu culture, traditions and civilisations were derived from Majapahit legacy. A large number of Majapahit nobles, priests, and artisans found their home in Bali after the decline of Majapahit to Demak Sultanate.
* '''Galuh''' was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the eastern Tatar Pasundan (now west Java province and Banyumasan region of central Java province), Indonesia. It was established following the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century. Traditionally the kingdom of Galuh was associated with the eastern Priangan cultural region, around the Citanduy and Cimanuk rivers, with its territory spanning from Citarum river on the west, to the Pamali (present-day Brebes river) and Serayu rivers on the east. Its capital was located in Kawali, near present-day Ciamis city.
* '''Sunda''': The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom located in western Java from 669 CE to around 1579 CE, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the eastern border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River (Ci Pamali, the present day Brebes River) and the Serayu River (Ci Sarayu) in Central Java.

==Indianized kingdoms of South West Asia==
[[File:Corinthian Capital with Sun God Surya Riding a Chariot (Quadriga) Gandhara 100-200 CE.jpg|thumb|[[Religion:Surya|Surya]] sitting on a Corinthian chariot from ancient Afghanistan]]

The eastern regions of Afghanistan were considered politically as parts of India. Buddhism and Hinduism held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest.<ref name="Unwin">{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|year=1951|page=635|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> Kabul and Zabulistan which housed Buddhism and other Indian religions, offered stiff resistance to the Muslim advance for two centuries, with the [[Place:Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] and Zunbils remaining unconquered until the Saffarid and Ghaznavid conquests.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|pages=43, 44|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195039/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|url-status=live}}</ref> The significance of the realm of Zun and its rulers Zunbils had laid in them blocking the path of Arabs in invading the Indus Valley.<ref name="Hind">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|author=André Wink|page=120|publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill Publishers]]|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

According to historian André Wink, "In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of Zamindawar (Zamin I Datbar or land of the justice giver, the classical [[Place:Arachosia|Arachosia]]) and Zabulistan or Zabul (Jabala, [[History:Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisha]], Kia pi shi) and [[Place:Kabul|Kabul]], the Arabs were effectively opposed for more than two centuries, from 643 to 870 AD, by the indigenous rulers the Zunbils and the related Kabul-Shahs of the dynasty which became known as the Buddhist-Shahi. With Makran and Baluchistan and much of Sindh this area can be reckoned to belong to the cultural and political frontier zone between India and Persia."<ref name="wink">{{citation |last=Wink |first=André |title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol 1: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |edition=Third |orig-year=first published 1990 |isbn=0391041738 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC |pages=112–114}}</ref> He also wrote, "It is clear however that in the seventh to ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persianate realm. The Arab geographers, in effect, commonly speak of 'that king of al-Hind ... (who) bore the title of Zunbil."<ref name=wink/>

Archaeological sites such as the 8th-century Tapa Sardar and Gardez show a blend of Buddhism with strong Shaivst iconography.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog|website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at|access-date=19 December 2018|archive-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204758/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|url-status=dead}}</ref> Around 644 CE, the Chinese travelling monk Xuanzang made an account of Zabul (which he called by its Sanskrit name ''Jaguda''), which he describes as mainly pagan, though also respecting [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]] Buddhism, which although in the minority had the support of its royals. In terms of other cults, the god Śuna,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto|last=Morgenstierne|first=Georg|publisher=Reichert Verlag|year=2003|isbn=9783895003646|location=Wiesbaden, Germany}}</ref> is described to be the prime deity of the country.<ref name="Ronxi Li">{{citation |title=The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions |last=Li |first=Rongxi |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |year=1995 |isbn=1-886439-02-8 |location=Berkeley, California }}</ref>

The Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 A.D.) led the last Arab expeditions on Kabul and Zabul, after which the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire. Rutbil were made to pay double the tribute to the Caliph.<ref name="Majumdar1">{{cite book|title=Readings in Political History of India, Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=223|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> The king of Kabul was captured by him and converted to Islam.<ref name="ba1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA470|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750|author=Ahmad Hasan Dani, B.A. Litvinsky|publisher=UNESCO|page=470|isbn=9789231032110|date=January 1996|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195020/https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA470|url-status=live}}</ref> The last Zunbil was killed by Ya'qub bin al-Layth along with his former overlord Salih b. al-Nadr in 865.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA99|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=99|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Hindu Shahi of Kabul were defeated under Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name="Afghanistan Page 15">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15|title=Afghanistan - A New History|author=Martin Ewans|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|page=15|isbn=978-0-415-29826-1|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195007/https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15|url-status=live}}</ref> Indian soldiers were a part of the Ghaznavid army, Baihaki mentioned Hindu officers employed by Ma'sud.<ref name="Fadl">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PnBMFaGMabYC&pg=PA40|title= Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History|publisher= Verso|author= Romila Thapar|page= 40|author-link= Romila Thapar|isbn= 9781844670208|year= 2005|access-date= 26 March 2023|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195030/https://books.google.com/books?id=PnBMFaGMabYC&pg=PA40|url-status= live}}</ref> The 14th-century scholar Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta described the Hindu Kush as meaning "slayer of Indians", because large numbers of slaves brought from [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|India]] died from its treacherous weather.<ref name="Ransom">{{cite book|author=Christoph Witzenrath|title=Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LG1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-14002-3 |page=45|quote=Ibn Battuta, the renowned Moroccan fourteenth century world traveller remarked in a spine-chilling passage that Hindu Kush means slayer of the Indians, because the slave boys and girls who are brought from India die there in large numbers as a result of the extreme cold and the quantity of snow.}}</ref>

===Zabulistan===
Zabulistan, a historical region in southern Afghanistan roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of Zabul and Ghazni,<ref>{{citation |last=Minorsky |first=V. |title=Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (The Regions of the World) |publisher=The E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-906094-03-7  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ct1CQAAQBAJ |location=Great Britain}}</ref><ref name="Leyden">{{Cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |title=Events Of The Year 910 (1525) |year=1921 |editor=John Leyden, Esq. |editor2=William Erskine, Esq. |work=Memoirs of Babur |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113215245/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |archive-date=13 November 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=2010-08-22 }}</ref> was a collection of loose suzerains of the Hindu rulers when it fell to the Turk Shahis in the 7th century, though the suzerainty continued up to the 11th century. The Hindu kingdom of Kapisha had split up as its western part formed a separate state called the kingdom of Zabul. It was a family division because there were consanguineous and political relationships between the states of Kabul and Zabul.<ref>Abdur Rahman, ''Last Two Dynasties of the Shahis:'' "In about AD 680, the Rutbil was a brother of the Kabul Shahi. In AD 726, the ruler of Zabulistan (Rutbil) was the nephew of Kabul Shah. Obviously the Kabul Shahs and the Rutbils belonged to the same family" – pp. 46 and 79, quoting Tabri, I, 2705-6 and Fuch, von W.</ref>

The Zunbils, a royal dynasty south of the Hindu Kush in present-day southern Afghanistan region, worshiped the Zhuna, possibly a sun god connected to the Hindu god Surya and is sometimes referred to as Zoor or Zoon. He is represented with flames radiating from his head on coins. Statues were adorned with gold and used rubies for eyes. Huen Tsang calls him "sunagir".<ref name="Habibi">{{Cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Zoor_or_zoon_temple.htm |title=The Temple of Zoor or Zoon in Zamindawar |work=Abdul Hai Habibi |year=1969 |publisher=alamahabibi.com |access-date=14 August 2012 |archive-date=29 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629104229/http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Zoor_or_zoon_temple.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been linked with the Hindu god [[Religion:Surya|Aditya]] at Multan, pre-Buddhist religious and kingship practices of [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]] as well as Shaivism.<ref name="CE">{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 344|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> His shrine lay on a sacred mountain in Zamindawar. Originally it appears to have been brought there by Hepthalites, displacing an earlier god on the same site. Parallels have been noted with the pre-Buddhist monarchy of Tibet, next to Zoroastrian influence on its ritual. Whatever its origins, it was certainly superimposed on a mountain and on a pre-existing mountain god while merging with Shaiva doctrines of worship.<ref name="Wink118">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA118|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest – Volume I|year=1991|publisher=Brill|pages=118, 119|isbn=9004095098}}</ref>

===Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty of Kabul===
[[File:Mes Aynak stupa.jpg|thumb|Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Province. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northern Samangan Province.]]

The area had been under the rule of the Turk Shahi who took over the rule of Kabul in the seventh century and later were attacked by the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=The Huns|author=Hyun Jin Kim|publisher=Routledge|pages=58–59|isbn=9781317340911|date=2015-11-19|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195008/https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref> The Turk Shahi dynasty was Buddhist and were followed by a Hindu dynasty shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 A.D.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World – Volume I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries|author=André Wink|publisher=Brill|page=125|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

The Turk Shahi were a Buddhist Turkic dynasty that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa in the 7th to 9th centuries. They replaced the [[Social:Nezak|Nezak]] – the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers. Kabulistan was the heartland of the Turk Shahi domain, which at times included Zabulistan and [[Biology:Gandhara|Gandhara]].<ref name="Turk Shahi">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-date=2 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204758/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by a Brahmin minister, possibly named Vakkadeva,<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224"/><ref name="Raizada Harichand Vaid pp. 83">Raizada Harichand Vaid, ''Gulshane Mohyali'', II, pp. 83 and 183-84.</ref><ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82"/> in c. 850, signaling the end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of the [[Place:Hindu Shahi|Hindu Shahi]] dynasty of Kabul.<ref name="Zabul">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |title=16. The Hindu Shahis in Kabulistan and Gandhara and the Arab conquest |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310235911/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul===
[[File:AMB Temple in Soon Sakasar Valley by Usman Ghani.JPG|thumb|The Amb Hindu Temple complex was built between the 7th and 9th centuries CE during the reign of the Hindu Shahi Empire<ref>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Attock District, 1930, Part 1|date=1932|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|isbn=9789693514131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfdtAAAAMAAJ&q=amb+temple|access-date=21 September 2017|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195023/https://books.google.com/books?id=gfdtAAAAMAAJ&q=amb+temple|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The Hindu Shahi (850–1026 CE) was a Hindu dynasty that held sway over the Kabul Valley, [[Biology:Gandhara|Gandhara]] (modern-day Pakistan and northeastern Afghanistan), and present-day northwestern India, during the early medieval period in the Indian subcontinent. They succeeded the Turk Shahis. There were two successive dynasties in Kabul Valley and [[Biology:Gandhara|Gandhara]] &ndash; the Kshatriya dynasty and the Brahmana dynasty which replaced it.<ref name="Samad2011"/> Both used the title of ''Shahi''. Details about these rulers have been assembled from chronicles, coins and stone inscriptions by researchers as no consolidated account of their history has become available.<ref name="Samad2011">{{cite book|author=Rafi U. Samad|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA275|year=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-860-8|pages=275–|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195107/https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA275|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1973, Historian Yogendra Mishra proposed that according to [[Religion:Rajatarangini|Rajatarangini]], Hindu Shahis were Kshatriyas.<ref>Yogendra Mishara, ''The Hindu Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab AD 865-1026'', p. 4.</ref>

According to available inscriptions following are the names of Hindu Shahi kings: Vakkadeva, Kamalavarman, Bhimadeva, Jayapala, Anandapala, [[Biology:Trilochanapala|Trilochanapala]] and Bhimpala.<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224">D. W. Macdowall, "The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara" ''Numismatic Chronicle'', Seventh Series, Vol. III, 1968, pp. 189–224, see extracts in R. T. Mohan, ''AFGHANISTAN REVISITED'' …  Appendix –B, pp. 164–68</ref><ref name="Raizada Harichand Vaid pp. 83"/><ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82">H. G. Raverty, Tr. ''Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'' of Maulana Minhaj-ud-din, Vol. I, p. 82</ref>
* '''Vakkadeva:''' According to ''The Mazare Sharif Inscription of the Time of the Shahi Ruler Veka'', recently discovered from northern Afghanistan and reported by the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, [[Place:Islamabad|Islamabad]], Veka (sic.) conquered northern region of Afghanistan 'with eightfold forces' and ruled there. He established a [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]] temple there which was inaugurated by ''Parimaha Maitya'' (the Great Minister).<ref>See R. T. Mohan, ''AFGHANISTAN REVISITED'' … Appendix – A, pp. 162–163.</ref> He also issued copper coins of the Elephant and Lion type with the legend Shri Vakkadeva. Nine principal issues of Bull and Horseman silver coins and only one issue of corresponding copper coins of Spalapatideva have become available. As many as five Elephant and Lion type of copper coins of Shri Vakkadeva are available and curiously the copper issues of Vakka are ''contemporaneous'' with the silver issues of Spalapati.<ref name="W. Macdowall 1968, pp. 189-224"/>
* '''Kamalavarman:''' During the reign of Kamalavarman, the Saffarid rule weakened precipitately and ultimately Sistan became a part of the [[Place:Samanid Empire|Samanid Empire]]. The disorder generally prevailed and the control of Zabulistan changed hands frequently. Taking advantage of the situation, the Shahis stepped up activities on their western frontier. The result was the emergence of a small Hindu power at Ghazni, supported by the Shahis. "The authorities either themselves of early date or enshrining early information mention Lawik", a Hindu, as the ruler at Ghazni, before this place was taken over by the Turkish slave governor of the Samanids.<ref>C. E. Bosworth, 'Notes on Pre-Ghaznavid History of Eastern Afghanistan, ''Islamic Quarterly'', Vol. XI, 1965.</ref>
* '''Jayapala:''' With Jayapala, a new dynasty started ruling over the former Shahi kingdom of southeastern Afghanistan and the change over was smooth and consensual. On his coronation, Jayapala used the additional name-suffix ''Deva'' from his predecessor's dynasty in addition to the ''pala'' name-ending of his own family. (With Kabul lost during the lifetime of Jayapaladeva, his successors – Anandapala, Trilochanapala and Bhimapala – reverted to their own family ''pala''-ending names.) Jayapala did not issue any coins in his own name. Bull and Horseman coins with the legend Samantadeva, in billon, seem to have been struck during Jayapala's reign. As the successor of Bhima, Jayapala was a Shahi monarch of the state of Kabul, which now included Punjab. Minhaj-ud-din describes Jayapala as "the greatest of the Rais of Hindustan."<ref name="Tabaqat-i-Nasiri' p. 82"/>

===Balkh===
From historical evidence, it appears [[Biology:Tokharistan|Tokharistan]] (Bactria) was the only area heavily colonized by Arabs where [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]] flourished and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest.<ref name="Musk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA47|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=46–48|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011}}</ref> Hui'Chao, who visited around 726, mentions that the Arabs ruled it and all the inhabitants were Buddhists.<ref name="MuskHui">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA53|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=51, 53|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195027/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref> Balkh's final conquest was undertaken by Qutayba ibn Muslim in 705.<ref name="Gibb32">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|title=The Arab Conquests in Central Asia|publisher=Read Books Ltd.|author=H.A.R. Gibb|year=2013|page=32|isbn=9781446545638|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195023/https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|url-status=live}}</ref> Among Balkh's Buddhist monasteries, the largest was ''Nava Vihara'', later Persianized to ''Naw Bahara'' after the Islamic conquest of Balkh.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|page=44|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205028/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not known how long it continued to serve as a place of worship after the conquest. Accounts of early Arabs offer contradictory narratives.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Sacred Landscape in Medieval Afghanistan: Revisiting the Faḍā'il-i Balkh|author=Arezou Azad|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=85|isbn=9780199687053|date=November 2013|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195010/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ghur===
Amir Suri, a king of the Ghurid dynasty, in the Ghor region of present-day central Afghanistan, and his son Muhammad ibn Suri, despite bearing Arabic names were Buddhists.<ref name="Chandra">Medieval India Part 1 Satish Chandra Page 22</ref> During their rule from the 9th-century to the 10th-century, they were considered [[Religion:Paganism|pagans]] by the surrounding Muslim people, and it was only during the reign of Muhammad's son Abu Ali ibn Muhammad that the Ghurid dynasty became an Islamic dynasty. Amir Suri was a descendant of the Ghurid king Amir Banji, whose rule was legitimized by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. He is known to have fought the Saffarid ruler Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar, who managed to conquer much of Khurasan except Ghur.<ref>''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', C.E. Bosworth, M.S. Asimov, p. 184.</ref> Ghur remained a pagan enclave until the 11th century. Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided it, left Muslim precepts to teach Islam to the local population. The region became Muslim by 12th century though the historian Satish Chandra states that Mahayana Buddhism is believed to have existed until the end of the century.<ref name="Satish2">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA22|title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One|publisher= Har-Anand Publishers|author= Satish Chandra|page= 22|isbn= 9788124110645|year= 2004|access-date= 26 March 2023|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195019/https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA22|url-status= live}}</ref>

===Nuristan===
The vast area extending from modern Nuristan to Kashmir (styled "Peristan" by A. M. Cacopardo) containing host of "Kafir" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby [[Place:Badakhshan|Badakhshan]] began in the 8th century and Peristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with Islamization of [[Place:Baltistan|Baltistan]]. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.<ref name="academia">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/35077429|journal=Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia|title=Fence of Peristan – The Islamization of the "Kafirs" and Their Domestication|publisher=Società Italiana di Antropologia e Etnologia|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo|year=2016|pages=69, 77|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=10 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610175404/https://www.academia.edu/35077429|url-status=live}}</ref>

Successive wave of Pashtun immigration, before or during 16th and 17th centuries, displaced the original Kafirs and Pashayi people from Kunar Valley and Laghman valley, the two eastern provinces near [[Place:Jalalabad|Jalalabad]], to the less fertile mountains.<ref name="DostMuhammad1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA160|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863)|publisher=Psychology Press|author=Christine Noelle|page=160|isbn=9780700706297|year=1997|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195036/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA160|url-status=live}}</ref> Before their conversion, the ''Kafir'' people of [[Place:Kafiristan|Kafiristan]] practiced a form of ancient Hinduism infused with locally developed accretions.<ref name="nuristan.info">{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180243/http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The region from Nuristan to [[Place:Kashmir|Kashmir]] (styled ''Peristan'' by A. M. Cacopardo) was host to a vast number of "Kafir" cultures.<ref name=academia/> They were called Kafirs due to their enduring paganism, remaining politically independent until being conquered and forcibly converted by Afghan Amir Abdul Rahman Khan in 1895–1896<ref name="Pellat1">{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition – Volume I|editor=H. A. R. Gibb |editor2=J. H. Kramers |editor3=E. Lévi-Provençal |editor4=J. Schact |editor5=Bernard Lewis |editor6=Charles Pellat|page=852|publisher=[[Company:Brill Publishers|Brill]]|year=1986}}</ref> while others also converted to avoid paying ''[[Religion:Jizya|jizya]]''.<ref name="Katib">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|pages=142–143|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195025/https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1020–21, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna led a campaign against Kafiristan and the people of the "pleasant valleys of Nur and Qirat" according to Gardizi.<ref name="Saran">{{cite book|title= A Comprehensive History of India|publisher=Orient Longmans|author=Ram Sharan Sharma|page=357|author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma}}</ref> These people worshipped the lion.<ref name="Nazim">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title=The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Muhmmad Nazim|page=75|isbn=9781107456594|date=2014-08-13|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195029/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|url-status=live}}</ref> Mohammad Habib however considers they might have been worshipping Buddha in form of a lion (''Sakya Sinha'').<ref name="Habib2">{{cite book|title= Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib, Volume 2|publisher=People's Publishing House|author=Mohammad Habib|pages=58–59, 100|author-link=Mohammad Habib}}</ref> Ramesh Chandra Majumdar states they had a Hindu temple which was destroyed by Mahmud's general.<ref name="amirrc">{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=13|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref>

==Indian cultural influence==
[[File:006 Bujang Valley Candi.jpg|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of Bujang Valley. A Hindu-Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient Kedah possibly as early as 110 CE, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the Kedahan Malays.]]
The use of ''Greater India'' to refer to an Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society.  The movement's early leaders included the historian R. C. Majumdar (1888–1980); the philologists Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1890–1977) and P. C. Bagchi (1898–1956), and the historians Phanindranath Bose and Kalidas Nag (1891–1966).<ref name="Bayley 2004 710">{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|p=710}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gopal |first1=Ram |last2=Paliwal |first2=KV |date=2005 |title=Hindu Renaissance: Ways and Means|location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Hindu Writers Forum |page=83| quote=We may conclude with a broad survey of the Indian colonies in the Far East.  For nearly fifteen hundred years, and down to a period when the Hindus had lost their independence in their own home, Hindu kings were ruling over Indo-China and the numerous islands of the Indian Archipelago, from Sumatra to New Guinea.  Indian religion, Indian culture, Indian laws, and Indian government moulded the lives of the primitive races all over this wide region, and they imbibed a more elevated moral spirit and a higher intellectual taste through the religion, art, and literature of India.  In short, the people were lifted to a higher plane of civilisation.}}</ref> Some of their formulations were inspired by concurrent excavations in Angkor by French archaeologists and by the writings of French Indologist Sylvain Lévi.  The scholars of the society postulated a benevolent ancient Indian cultural colonisation of Southeast Asia, in stark contrast – in their view – to the Western colonialism of the early 20th century.<ref>{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|p=712}}</ref><ref>Review by 'SKV' of ''The Hindu Colony of Cambodia'' by Phanindranath Bose [Adyar, Madras: Theosophical Publishing House 1927] in The Vedic Magazine and Gurukula Samachar 26: 1927, pp. 620–1.</ref><ref>Lyne Bansat-Boudon, Roland Lardinois, and Isabelle Ratié, ''Sylvain Lévi (1863–1935)'', page 196, Brepols, 2007, {{ISBN|9782503524474}} Quote: "The ancient Hindus of yore were not simply a spiritual people, always busy with mystical problems and never trouble themselves with the questions of 'this world'... India also has its Napoleons and Charlemagnes, its Bismarcks and Machiavellis. But the real charm of Indian history does not consist in these aspirants after universal power, but in its peaceful and benevolent Imperialism – a unique thing in the history of mankind. The colonisers of India did not go with sword and fire in their hands; they used... the weapons of their superior culture and religion... The Buddhist age has attracted special attention, and the French savants have taken much pains to investigate the splendid monuments of the Indian cultural empire in the Far East."</ref>

The term ''Greater India'' and the notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both Indian nationalism<ref>{{harvtxt|Keenleyside|1982|pp=213–214}} Quote: "Starting in the 1920s under the leadership of Kalidas Nag – and continuing even after independence – a number of Indian scholars wrote extensively and rapturously about the ancient Hindu cultural expansion into and colonisation of South and Southeast Asia.  They called this vast region "Greater India" – a dubious appellation for a region which to a limited degree, but with little permanence, had been influenced by Indian religion, art, architecture, literature and administrative customs. As a consequence of this renewed and extensive interest in Greater India, many Indians came to believe that the entire South and Southeast Asian region formed the cultural progeny of India; now that the sub-continent was reawakening, they felt, India would once again assert its non-political ascendancy over the area... While the idea of reviving the ancient Greater India was never officially endorsed by the Indian National Congress, it enjoyed considerable popularity in nationalist Indian circles. Indeed, Congress leaders made occasional references to Greater India while the organisation's abiding interest in the problems of overseas Indians lent indirect support to the Indian hope of restoring the alleged cultural and spiritual unity of South and Southeast Asia."</ref> and [[Religion:Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalism]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Thapar|1968|pp=326–330}} Quote: "At another level, it was believed that the dynamics of many Asian cultures, particularly those of Southeast Asia, arose from Hindu culture, and the theory of Greater India derived sustenance from Pan-Hinduism. A curious pride was taken in the supposed imperialist past of India, as expressed in sentiments such as these: "The art of Java and Kambuja was no doubt derived from India and fostered by the Indian rulers of these colonies." (Majumdar, R. C. et al. (1950), ''An Advanced History of India'', London: Macmillan, p. 221) This form of historical interpretation, which can perhaps best be described as being inspired by Hindu nationalism, remains an influential school of thinking in present historical writings."</ref> However, many Indian nationalists, like Jawaharlal Nehru and [[Biography:Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath Tagore]], although receptive to "an idealisation of India as a benign and uncoercive world civiliser and font of global enlightenment,"<ref>{{harvtxt|Bayley|2004|pp=735–736}} Quote:"The Greater India visions which Calcutta thinkers derived from French and other sources are still known to educated anglophone Indians, especially but not exclusively Bengalis from the generation brought up in the traditions of post-Independence Nehruvian secular nationalism.  One key source of this knowledge is a warm tribute paid to Sylvain Lévi and his ideas of an expansive, civilising India by Jawaharlal Nehru himself, in his celebrated book, ''The Discovery of India'', which was written during one of Nehru's periods of imprisonment by the British authorities, first published in 1946, and reprinted many times since.... The ideas of both Lévi and the Greater India scholars were known to Nehru through his close intellectual links with Tagore. Thus Lévi's notion of ancient Indian voyagers leaving their invisible 'imprints' throughout east and southeast Asia was for Nehru a recapitulation of Tagore's vision of nationhood, that is an idealisation of India as a benign and uncoercive world civiliser and font of global enlightenment. This was clearly a perspective which defined the Greater India phenomenon as a process of religious and spiritual tutelage, but it was not a Hindu supremacist idea of India's mission to the lands of the Trans-Gangetic ''Sarvabhumi'' or ''Bharat Varsha''."</ref> stayed away from explicit "Greater India" formulations.<ref>{{harvtxt|Narasimhaiah|1986}} Quote: "To him (Nehru), the so-called practical approach meant, in practice, shameless expediency, and so he would say, "the sooner we are not practical, the better".  He rebuked a Member of Indian Parliament who sought to revive the concept of ''Greater India'' by saying that 'the honorable Member lived in the days of Bismarck; Bismarck is dead, and his politics more dead!'  He would consistently plead for an idealistic approach and such power as the language wields is the creation of idealism—politics' arch enemy—which, however, liberates the leader of a national movement from narrow nationalism, thus igniting in the process a dead fact of history, in the sneer, "For him the Bastille has not fallen!" Though Nehru was not to the language born, his utterances show a remarkable capacity for introspection and sense of moral responsibility in commenting on political processes."</ref> In addition, some scholars have seen the Hindu/Buddhist acculturation in ancient Southeast Asia as "a single cultural process in which Southeast Asia was the matrix and South Asia the mediatrix."<ref>{{harvtxt|Wheatley|1982|pp=27–28}} Quote: "The tide of revisionism that is currently sweeping through Southeast Asian historiography has in effect taken us back almost to the point where we have to consider reevaluating almost every text bearing on the protohistoric period and many from later times. Although this may seem a daunting proposition, it is nonetheless supremely worth attempting, for the process by which the peoples of western Southeast Asia came to think of themselves as part of ''Bharatavarsa'' (even though they had no conception of "India" as we know it) represents one of the most impressive instances of large-scale acculturation in the history of the world. Sylvain Levi was perhaps overenthusiastic when he claimed that India produced her definitive masterpieces – he was thinking of Angkor and the Borobudur – through the efforts of foreigners or on foreign soil.  Those masterpieces were not strictly Indian achievements: rather were they the outcome of a Eutychian fusion of natures so melded together as to constitute a single cultural process in which Southeast Asia was the matrix and South Asia the mediatrix."</ref> In the field of art history, especially in American writings, the term survived due to the influence of art theorist [[Biography:Ananda Coomaraswamy|Ananda Coomaraswamy]]. Coomaraswamy's view of pan-Indian art history was influenced by the "Calcutta cultural nationalists."<ref>{{harvtxt|Guha-Thakurta|1992|pp=159–167}}</ref>

By some accounts Greater India consists of "lands including Burma, Java, Cambodia, [[Place:Bali|Bali]], and the former [[Place:Champa|Champa]] and Funan polities of present-day Vietnam,"<ref name=bayley2004-p713>{{Harv|Bayley|2004|p=713}}</ref> in which Indian and Hindu culture left an "imprint in the form of monuments, inscriptions and other traces of the historic "Indianizing" process."<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> By some other accounts, many Pacific societies and "most of the Buddhist world including Ceylon, Tibet, Central Asia, and even Japan were held to fall within this web of Indianizing ''culture colonies''"<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> This particular usage – implying cultural "sphere of influence" of India – was promoted by the Greater India Society, formed by a group of Bengali men of letters,<ref>{{harvtxt|Handy|1930|p=364}} Quote: "An equally significant movement is one that brought about among the Indian intelligentsia of Calcutta a few years ago the formation of what is known as the "Greater India Society," whose membership is open "to all serious students of the Indian cultural expansion and to all sympathizers of such studies and activities." Though still in its infancy, this organisation has already a large membership, due perhaps as much as anything else to the enthusiasm of its Secretary and Convener, Dr. Kalidas Nag, whose scholarly affiliations with the Orientalists in the University of Paris and studies in Indochina, Insulindia and beyond, have equipped him in an unusual way for the work he has chosen, namely stimulating interest in and spreading knowledge of Greater Indian culture of the past, present and future. The Society's President is Professor Jadunath Sarkar, Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, and its Council is made up largely of professors on the faculty of the University and members of the staff of the Calcutta Museum, as well as of Indian authors and journalists. Its activities have included illustrated lecture series at the various universities throughout India by Dr. Nag, the assembling of a research library, and the publication of monographs of which four very excellent examples have already been printed: 1) ''Greater India'', by Kalidas Nag, M.A., D.Litt. (Paris), 2) ''India and China'', by Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, M.A., D.Litt., 3) ''Indian Culture in Java and Sumatra'', by Bijan Raj Chatterjee, D.Litt. (Punjab), PhD (London), and 4) ''India and Central Asia'', by Niranjan Prasad Chakravarti, M.A., PhD(Cantab.)."</ref> and is not found before the 1920s. The term ''Greater India'' was used in historical writing in India into the 1970s.<ref>{{harvtxt|Majumdar|1960|pp=222–223}}<!--this book was written in 1960, so how can it cite examples of what occurred in the 1970s?--></ref>

===Cultural expansion===
[[File:Atashgah Fire Temple.jpg|thumb|Atashgah of Baku, a fire temple in Azerbaijan used by both Hindus<ref name="jackson1911">{{Citation | title=From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam: travels in Transcaucasia and northern Persia for historic and literary research | author=Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson | year=1911 | publisher=The Macmillan company | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ | quote="... they are now wholly substantiated by the other inscriptions.... They are all Indian, with the exception of one written in Persian... dated in the same year as the Hindu tablet over it... if actual Gabrs (i.e. Zoroastrians, or Parsis) were among the number of worshipers at the shrine, they must have kept in the background, crowded out by Hindus, because the typical features Hanway mentions are distinctly Indian, not Zoroastrian... met two Hindu Fakirs who announced themselves as 'on a pilgrimage to this Baku Jawala Ji'...." | access-date=15 December 2015 | archive-date=26 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="delacy1998">{{Citation | title=Hindi & Urdu phrasebook | author=Richard Delacy, Parvez Dewan | year=1998 | publisher=Lonely Planet | isbn=978-0-86442-425-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkJH90HBlekC | quote=... The Hindu calendar (Vikramaditya) is 57 years ahead of the Christian calendar. Dates in the Hindu calendar are prefixed by the word: samvat संवत ...}}</ref> and Persian Zoroastrians]]
[[File:Sculpture and mural from cave 254. Pillar and north wall. Northern Wei. Mogao.jpg|thumb|Hindu-Buddhist icongraphy from Mogao Caves in the Gobi Desert]]

Culture spread via the trade routes that linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, the Malay peninsula and Sumatra to Java, lower Cambodia and [[Place:Champa|Champa]]. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with [[Philosophy:Theravada|Theravada]] and [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayana]] [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], Brahmanism and [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature. Southeast Asia had developed some prosperous and very powerful colonial empires that contributed to Hindu-Buddhist artistic creations and architectural developments. Art and architectural creations that rivaled those built in India, especially in its sheer size, design and aesthetic achievements. The notable examples are Borobudur in Java and Angkor monuments in Cambodia. The Srivijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence in the region.

A defining characteristic of the cultural link between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent was the adoption of ancient Indian [[History:Vedic period|Vedic]]/Hindu and Buddhist culture and philosophy into Myanmar, [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]], Thailand, Indonesia, [[Biology:Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], Laos and Cambodia. Indian scripts are found in Southeast Asian islands ranging from Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi and the [[Social:Baybayin|Philippines]].<ref>Martin Haspelmath, [https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 The World Atlas of Language Structures] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529081333/https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 |date=29 May 2016 }}, page 569, Oxford University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-19-925591-1}}</ref> The [[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]] and the [[Religion:Mahabharata|Mahabharata]] have had a large impact on South Asia and Southeast Asia. One of the most tangible evidence of dharmic Hindu traditions is the widespread use of the ''Añjali Mudrā'' gesture of greeting and respect. It is seen in the Indian ''namasté'' and similar gestures known throughout Southeast Asia; its cognates include the Cambodian ''sampeah'', the Indonesian ''sembah'', the Japanese ''gassho'' and Thai ''wai''.

Beyond the {{wipe|Himalaya}} and Hindukush mountains in the north, along the Silk Route, Indian influence was linked with Buddhism. [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]] and Khotan were direct heirs of Gangetic Buddhism, despite the difference in languages. Many Tibetan monks even used to know Sanskrit very well.<ref name="college">{{cite journal |last=Fussman |first=Gérard |title=History of India and Greater India |journal=La Lettre du Collège de France |issue=4 |pages=24–25 |year=2008–2009 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/lettre-cdf/756 |access-date=20 December 2016 |doi=10.4000/lettre-cdf.756 |doi-access=free |archive-date=16 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116222243/http://lettre-cdf.revues.org/756 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Khotan the Ramayana was well cicrulated in Khotanese language, though the narrative is slightly different from the Gangetic version.<ref name="Puri">{{cite book |author=Baij Nath Puri |year=1987 |title=Buddhism in Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA135 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=134–137 |isbn=978-81-208-0372-5 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195014/https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA135 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan many Buddhist monasteries were established. These countries were used as a kind of springboard for the monks who brought Indian Buddhist texts and images to China.<ref name="college"/> Further north, in the [[Earth:Gobi Desert|Gobi Desert]], statues of [[Biology:Ganesha|Ganesha]] and Kartikeya were found alongside Buddhist imagery in the Mogao Caves.<ref name=Puri/>

===Cultural commonalities===
====Religion, mythology and folklore====
[[File:Rama, Sita, and Laksmana - Museu do Oriente - Lisbon, Portugal - DSC06731.JPG|thumb|[[Biology:Rama|Rama]], Sita and Lakshmana in Thai shadow play]]
	
* Hinduism is practised by the majority of Bali's population.<ref>[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/balin.html Balinese Religion<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310103951/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/balin.html |date=10 March 2010 }}</ref> The Cham people of Vietnam still practice Hinduism as well. Though officially Buddhist, many Thai, Khmer, and Burmese people also worship Hindu gods in a form of syncretism.
* Brahmins have had a large role in spreading Hinduism in Southeast Asia. Even today many monarchies such as the royal court of Thailand still have Hindu rituals performed for the King by Hindu Brahmins.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGovern|first1=Nathan |editor1-last=Jacobsen |editor1-first=Knut A. |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |year=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=371–378 |edition=Volume 2 |chapter=Sacred Texts, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts: "Thailand" }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0128.xml#obo-9780195393521-0128-bibItem-0004 |title=Intersections Between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thailand |last=McGovern |first=Nathan |date=31 August 2015 |website=Oxford Bibliographies Online |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0128 |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-date=31 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731154858/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0128.xml#obo-9780195393521-0128-bibItem-0004 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Unsolved:Garuda|Garuda]], a Hindu mythological figure, is present in the coats of arms of Indonesia, Thailand and [[Place:Ulaanbaatar|Ulaanbaatar]].
* Muay Thai, a fighting art that is the Thai version of the Hindu Musti-yuddha style of martial art.
* [[Philosophy:Kaharingan|Kaharingan]], an indigenous religion followed by the Dayak people of Borneo, is categorised as a form of Hinduism in Indonesia.
* Philippine mythology includes the supreme god [[Religion:Bathala|Bathala]] and the concept of ''[[Religion:Anito|Diwata]]'' and the still-current belief in ''[[Philosophy:Karma|Karma]]''—all derived from Hindu-Buddhist concepts.
* Malay folklore contains a rich number of Indian-influenced mythological characters, such as Bidadari, Jentayu, [[Unsolved:Garuda|Garuda]] and [[Unsolved:Nāga|Naga]].
* Wayang shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas of Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand took stories from episodes of ''[[Biology:Ramayana|Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Religion:Mahabharata|Mahabharata]]''.

====Caste system====
Indians spread their religion to Southeast Asia, beginning the Hindu and Buddhist cultures there. They introduced the caste system to the region, especially to Java, Bali, Madura, and Sumatra. The adopted caste system was not as strict as in India, tempered to the local context.<ref name="coedes" /> There are multiple similarities between the two caste systems such that both state that no one is equal within society and that everyone has his own place. It also promoted the upbringing of highly organized central states. Indians were still able to implement their religion, political ideas, literature, mythology, and art.<ref name="coedes" />

====Architecture and monuments====
[[File:Prambanan Complex 1.jpg|thumb|The 9th-century Shivaistic temple of Prambanan in Central Java near Yogyakarta, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia]]
* The same style of Hindu temple architecture was used in several ancient temples in South East Asia including [[Astronomy:Angkor Wat|Angkor Wat]], which was dedicated to Hindu god [[Religion:Vishnu|Vishnu]] and is shown on the flag of Cambodia, also Prambanan in Central Java, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, is dedicated to [[Philosophy:Trimurti|Trimurti]]&nbsp;— [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]], [[Religion:Vishnu|Vishnu]] and [[Religion:Brahma|Brahma]].
* [[Astronomy:Borobudur|Borobudur]] in Central Java, Indonesia, is the world's largest Buddhist monument. It took shape of a giant stone [[Philosophy:Mandala|mandala]] crowned with stupas and believed to be the combination of Indian-origin Buddhist ideas with the previous megalithic tradition of native Austronesian step pyramid.
* The minarets of 15th- to 16th-century mosques in Indonesia, such as the Great Mosque of Demak and Kudus mosque resemble those of [[Social:Majapahit|Majapahit]] Hindu temples.
* The [[Earth:Batu Caves|Batu Caves]] in Malaysia are one of the most popular Hindu shrines outside India. It is the focal point of the annual Thaipusam festival in Malaysia and attracts over 1.5 million pilgrims, making it one of the largest religious gatherings in history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.tv/Clip.aspx?key=993E148C861864E9 |title=Batu Caves Inside and Out, Malaysia |website=lonelyplanet.tv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207115645/http://www.lonelyplanet.tv/Clip.aspx?key=993E148C861864E9 |archive-date=7 December 2008 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>
* Erawan Shrine, dedicated to Brahma, is one of the most popular religious shrines in Thailand.<ref>[http://buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=52,2733,0,0,1,0 Buddhist Channel | Buddhism News, Headlines | Thailand | Phra Prom returns to Erawan Shrine<!-- Bot generated title -->]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030709/http://buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=52%2C2733%2C0%2C0%2C1%2C0 |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

==== Sport ====
It is conjectured that certain traditional Indian games spread throughout Southeast Asia, as variations of Indian games such as atya-patya and gilli danda can be found throughout the region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arasu |first=S. T. |date=2020-07-04 |title=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots |url=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah-panjang-and-its-indian-roots/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=On the sport. Be part of it |language=en}}</ref> Also, the Indonesian hom pim pa (a method of selecting players before a game) may involve the use of a Sanskrit phrase.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Twenties: Reminiscing the dying art of Indonesian traditional children's games |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/culture/2022/08/28/twenties-reminiscing-the-dying-art-of-indonesian-traditional-childrens-games.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=The Jakarta Post |language=en}}</ref>

==Linguistic influence==
[[File:Character-sphere.png|thumb|A map of East, South and Southeast Asia. '''Red''' signifies current and historical (northern Vietnam) distribution of [[Social:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]]. '''Green''' signifies current and historical (Malaysia, Pakistan, the Maldives, Indonesia, the Philippines, and southern Vietnam) distribution of Indic scripts. '''Blue''' signifies current and historical (northeastern China) use of non-Sinitic and non-Indic scripts.]]
Scholars like Sheldon Pollock have used the term ''Sanskrit Cosmopolis'' to describe the region and argued for millennium-long cultural exchanges without necessarily involving migration of peoples or colonisation. Pollock's 2006 book ''The Language of the Gods in the World of Men'' makes a case for studying the region as comparable with Latin Europe and argues that the Sanskrit language was its unifying element.

Scripts in [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language.

The spread of Buddhism to Tibet allowed many Sanskrit texts to survive only in Tibetan translation (in the Tanjur).  Buddhism was similarly introduced to China by [[Philosophy:Mahayana|Mahayanist]] missionaries mostly through translations of [[Social:Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were transliterated<ref name="sunnytantikumar736"/> directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary.

In Southeast Asia, languages such as [[Social:Thai language|Thai]] and [[Social:Lao language|Lao]] contain many loan words from Sanskrit, as does [[Social:Khmer language|Khmer]] to a lesser extent. For example, in Thai, Rāvaṇa, the legendary emperor of Sri Lanka, is called 'Thosakanth' which is derived from his Sanskrit name 'Daśakaṇṭha' ("having ten necks").

Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [[Social:Austronesian languages|Austronesian languages]], such as [[Social:Javanese language|Javanese]] particularly the [[Social:Old Javanese|old form]] from which nearly half the vocabulary is derived from the language.<ref>See this page from the Indonesian Wikipedia for a list</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zoetmulder|1982|p=ix}}</ref> Other Austronesian languages, such as [[Social:Malay language|traditional Malay]], [[Social:Indonesian language|modern Indonesian]], also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit, albeit to a lesser extent, with a large proportion of words being derived from [[Social:Arabic language|Arabic]].  Similarly, Philippine languages such as [[Social:Tagalog language|Tagalog]] have many Sanskrit loanwords.

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word ''[[Social:Indonesian language|bhāṣā]]'', or spoken language, which is used to mean language in general, for example ''bahasa'' in Malay, Indonesian and Tausug, ''basa'' in Javanese, [[Social:Sundanese language|Sundanese]], and [[Social:Balinese language|Balinese]], ''phasa'' in Thai and Lao, ''bhasa'' in [[Social:Burmese language|Burmese]], and ''phiesa'' in [[Social:Khmer language|Khmer]].

===Literature===
[[File:Kakawin ramayana Or 14022 f2-4.jpg|thumb|300px|Pages of Kakawin Ramayana, the version of ''Ramayana'' from Java and Bali]]
Scripts in [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language.<ref name="smith">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Monica L.|date=1999 |title="Indianization" from the Indian Point of View: Trade and Cultural Contacts with Southeast Asia in the Early First Millennium C.E. |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=42 |issue=11–17|pages=1–26 |jstor=3632296|doi=10.1163/1568520991445588 }}</ref>

The utilization of Sanskrit has been prevalent in all aspects of life including legal purposes.  Sanskrit terminology and vernacular appears in ancient courts to establish procedures that have been structured by Indian models such as a system composed of a code of laws. The concept of legislation demonstrated through codes of law and organizations particularly the idea of "God King" was embraced by numerous rulers of Southeast Asia.<ref name=coedes>{{harvtxt|Coedes|1967}}</ref> The rulers amid this time, for example, the Lin-I Dynasty of Vietnam once embraced the Sanskrit dialect and devoted sanctuaries to the Indian divinity, [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]]. Many rulers following even viewed themselves as "reincarnations or descendants" of the Hindu Gods. However, once Buddhism began entering the nations, this practiced view was eventually altered.

===Linguistic commonalities===
* In the [[Place:Malay Archipelago|Malay Archipelago]]: [[Social:Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Social:Javanese language|Javanese]] and [[Social:Malay language|Malay]] have absorbed a large amount of [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] loanwords into their respective lexicons (see: Sanskrit loan words in Indonesian). Many languages of native lowland Filipinos such as [[Social:Tagalog language|Tagalog]], Ilocano<ref>{{cite news
 |last=Khatnani
 |first=Sunita
 |date=11 October 2009
 |title=The Indian in the Filipino
 |url=http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20091011-229561/The-Indian-in-the-Filipino
 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424164434/http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20091011-229561/The-Indian-in-the-Filipino
 |archive-date=24 April 2015
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> and Visayan<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Kuizon |first=Jose G. |year=1962 |title=The Sanskrit loan-words in Cebuano-Bisayan language and the Indian elements to Cebuano-Bisayan culture |publisher=University of San Carlos, Cebu |oclc=3061923}}</ref> contain numerous Sanskrit loanwords.
* In [[Place:Mainland Southeast Asia|Mainland Southeast Asia]]: [[Social:Thai language|Thai]], [[Social:Lao language|Lao]], [[Social:Burmese language|Burmese]], and [[Social:Khmer language|Khmer]] language have absorbed a significant amount of Sanskrit as well as [[Social:Pali|Pali]] words.
* Many Indonesian names have Sanskrit origin (e.g. Dewi Sartika, Megawati Sukarnoputri, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Teuku Wisnu).
* Southeast Asian languages are traditionally written with Indic alphabets and therefore have extra letters not pronounced in the local language, so that original Sanskrit spelling can be preserved. An example is how the name of the late King of Thailand, Bhumibol Adulyadej, is spelled in Sanskrit as "Bhumibol"ภูมิพล, yet is pronounced in Thai as "Phumipon" พูมิพน using Thai-Sanskrit pronunciation rules since the original Sanskrit sounds do not exist in Thai. <!--the source says: "which in Sanskrit would be written Bhumibal Atulyatej"--><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2003/08/15/Culture/3595 |title=King Bhumibol and King Janak |last1=Sharma |first1=Sudhindra |work=nepalitimes.com |publisher=Himalmedia Private Limited |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-date=1 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801193924/http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2003/08/15/Culture/3595 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Toponyms===
[[File:Ayutthaya 2.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[History:Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] in Thailand; Ayutthaya derives its name from the ancient Indian city of Ayodhya, which has had wide cultural significance]]
* Suvarnabhumi is a toponym that has been historically associated with Southeast Asia. In Sanskrit, it means "The Land of Gold". Thailand's Suvarnabhumi Airport is named after this toponym.
* Several of Indonesian toponyms have Indian parallel or origin, such as Madura with [[Place:Mathura|Mathura]], Serayu and Sarayu river, [[Earth:Semeru|Semeru]] with Sumeru mountain, Kalingga from [[Place:Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga Kingdom]], and [[Place:Yogyakarta|Ngayogyakarta]] from [[Place:Ayodhya|Ayodhya]].
* Siamese ancient city of Ayutthaya also derived from Ramayana's Ayodhya.
* Names of places could simply render their Sanskrit origin, such as [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]], from Singapura (''Singha-pura'' the "lion city"), [[Place:Jakarta|Jakarta]] from ''Jaya'' and ''kreta'' ("complete victory").
* Some of the Indonesian regencies such as Indragiri Hulu and Indragiri Hilir derived from Indragiri River, Indragiri itself means "mountain of [[Religion:Indra|Indra]]".
* Some Thai toponyms also often have Indian parallels or Sanskrit origin, although the spellings are adapted to the Siamese tongue, such as Ratchaburi from ''Raja-puri'' ("king's city"), and Nakhon Si Thammarat from ''Nagara Sri Dharmaraja''.
* The tendency to use Sanskrit for modern neologism also continued to modern day. In 1962 Indonesia changed the colonial name of New Guinean city of Hollandia to [[Place:Jayapura|Jayapura]] ("glorious city"), Orange mountain range to Jayawijaya Mountains.
* Malaysia named their new government seat as [[Place:Putrajaya|Putrajaya]] ("prince of glory") in 1999.

==See also==
* South Asian diaspora
* Global Southeast, a significantly coterminous region
* Indus–Mesopotamia relations
* Indo-Roman trade relations
* Sanskrit-related topics

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{Citation|last1=Ali|first1=Jason R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=Jonathan C.|title=Greater India|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=72 |issue=3–4|year=2005|pages=169–188|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A}}
* {{Citation|last1=Azurara|first1=Gomes Eannes de|title=Chronica do Discobrimento e Conquista de Guiné (eds. Carreira and Pantarem, 1841)|place=Paris|year=1446}}
* {{Citation|last=Bayley|first=Susan|title=Imagining 'Greater India': French and Indian Visions of Colonialism in the Indic Mode|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=3|year=2004|pages=703–744|doi=10.1017/S0026749X04001246|s2cid=145353715}}
* {{Citation|last1=Beazley| first1=Raymond|date=December 1910|title=Prince Henry of Portugal and the Progress of Exploration|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449266|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=36|issue=6|pages=703–716| doi=10.2307/1776846|jstor=1776846| bibcode=1910GeogJ..36..703B}}
* {{Citation|last1=Caverhill|first1=John|title=Some Attempts to Ascertain the Utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies|journal=Philosophical Transactions|volume=57|year=1767|pages=155–178|doi=10.1098/rstl.1767.0018|s2cid=186214598}}
* {{citation |last1=Coedes |first1=George |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |publisher=Australian National University Press |date=1967  |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/115019/2/b11055005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043031/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/115019/2/b11055005.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2019}}
* {{citation |first=George |last=Coedès |title=The Indianized States of South-East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC&pg=PA14 |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{Citation|last1=Guha-Thakurta|first1=Tapati|title=The making of a new 'Indian' art. Artists, aesthetics and nationalism in Bengal, c. 1850–1920|year=1992|publisher=Cambridge University Press|place=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{Citation|last1=Handy|first1=E. S. Craighill|year=1930|title=The Renaissance of East Indian Culture: Its Significance for the Pacific and the World|journal=Pacific Affairs|publisher=University of British Columbia|volume=3|issue=4|pages=362–369|doi=10.2307/2750560 |jstor=2750560}}
* {{Citation|last1=Keenleyside|first1=T. A.|date=Summer 1982|title=Nationalist Indian Attitudes Towards Asia: A Troublesome Legacy for Post-Independence Indian Foreign Policy|journal=Pacific Affairs|publisher=University of British Columbia|volume=55|issue=2 |pages=210–230|doi=10.2307/2757594|jstor=2757594}}
* {{Citation|last1=Majumdar|first1=R. C., H. C. Raychaudhuri, and Kalikinkar Datta|title=An Advanced History of India|year=1960|publisher=Macmillan and Co., 1122 pages|place=London|title-link=An Advanced History of India}}
* {{Citation|last1=Narasimhaiah|first1=C. D.|title=The cross-cultural dimensions of English in religion, politics and literature|journal=World Englishes|volume=5|issue=2–3|year=1986|pages=221–230|doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1986.tb00728.x}}
* {{Citation|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|date=1968|title=Interpretations of Ancient Indian History|journal=History and Theory|publisher=Wesleyan University|volume=7|issue=3|pages=318–335|doi=10.2307/2504471|jstor=2504471}}
* {{Citation|last1=Wheatley|first1=Paul|date=November 1982|title=Presidential Address: India Beyond the Ganges—Desultory Reflections on the Origins of Civilisation in Southeast Asia|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|publisher=Association for Asian Studies|volume=42|issue=1|pages=13–28|doi=10.2307/2055365|jstor=2055365|s2cid=161697583 }}

==Further reading==
* Language variation: Papers on variation and change in the Sinosphere and in the Indosphere in honour of James A. Matisoff, David Bradley, Randy J. LaPolla and Boyd Michailovsky eds., pp.&nbsp;113–144. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
* {{citation|author=Bijan Raj Chatterjee|title=Indian Cultural Influence in Cambodia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLZAAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=University of Calcutta}}
* {{citation|last=Cœdès|first= George|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
* R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
* R. C. Majumdar, ''India and South-East Asia'', I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, {{ISBN|81-7018-046-5}}.
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Champa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. {{ISBN|0-8364-2802-1}}
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Suvarnadvipa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.II, Calcutta,
* R. C. Majumdar, ''Kambuja Desa or an Ancient Hindu Colony in Cambodia'', Madras, 1944
* {{citation|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6}}
* Hoadley, M. C. (1991). Sanskritic continuity in Southeast Asia: The ṣaḍātatāyī and aṣṭacora in Javanese law. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* {{citation|last=Zoetmulder|first=P. J.|title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary|year=1982|url=http://sealang.net/ojed/}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071120043520/http://www.questhimalaya.com/journal/turin-tibeto-burman-02.htm Rethinking Tibeto-Burman&nbsp;– Lessons from Indosphere] (archived 20 November 2007)
* [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/sozant/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf THEORIES OF INDIANISATION] Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia), by Dr. Helmut Lukas.
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]

{{Sourceattribution|Greater India}}