View source for Social:Kannada

{{Short description|Dravidian language spoken in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Kannada
| nativename       = {{lang|kn|ಕನ್ನಡ}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA-kn|ˈkɐnːɐɖa|}}
| states           = {{wipe|India}}
| region           = Karnataka
| ethnicity        = Kannadiga
| speakers         = 43 million
| date             = 2011
| ref              = <ref name="Ethnologue_kan">{{e22|kan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother}} tongues – 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=7 July 2018}}</ref>
| speakers2        = L2 speakers: {{sigfig|12.9|2}} million<ref name="Ethnologue_kan"/>
| revived-category = Karavali Kannada, Havyaka Kannada, Kolara Kannada, Malenada Kannada, Mysuru Kannada
| familycolor      = Dravidian
| fam2             = Southern
| fam3             = [[Social:Tamil–Kannada languages|Tamil–Kannada]]<ref name="ta-ka">Zvelebil (fig. 36) and Krishnamurthy (fig. 37) in Shapiro and Schiffman (1981), pp. 95–96</ref>
| fam4             = Kannada–Badaga
| ancestor         = Old Kannada
| script           = [[Social:Kannada script|Kannada script]]<br/>Kannada Braille<br/>Tigalari script (formerly)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murthy|first1=Vaishnavi|title=Preliminary proposal to encode Tigalari script in Unicode|date=20 October 2017|page=3|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17378-tigalari.pdf}}</ref>
| nation           = {{flag|India}}
* Karnataka
| agency           = Various academies and the government of Karnataka<ref>{{cite book|title=The Karnataka official language act, 1963&nbsp;– Karnataka Gazette (Extraordinary) Part IV-2A|year=1963|publisher=Government of Karnataka|pages=33}}</ref>
| iso1             = kn
| iso2             = kan
| iso3             = kan
| lingua           = 49-EBA-a
| image            = Kannada in Kedage font.png
| imagesize        = 200px
| map              = Idioma kannada.png
| glotto           = nucl1305
| glottorefname    = Kannada
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Kannada''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑː|n|ə|d|ə|,_|ˈ|k|æ|n|-}};<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Kannada}}</ref><ref>{{Cite OED|Kannada}}</ref> ಕನ್ನಡ, {{IPA-kn|ˈkɐnːɐɖa|}}; less commonly known as '''Kanarese''')<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/kanarese|title = Kanarese &#124; Definition of Kanarese by Lexico}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kanarese|title=Definition of KANARESE|website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> is a [[Social:Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in the southwestern region of India. The language is also spoken by linguistic minorities in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala and Goa; and also by Kannadigas abroad. The language had roughly 43 million native speakers by 2011.<ref name="census">{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |title=Census 2011: Languages by state |publisher=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref> Kannada is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12.9 million non-native speakers in Karnataka, which adds up to 56.9 million speakers.<ref name="2001census">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms|title=Indiaspeak: English is our 2nd language|work=The Times of India}}</ref> It is one of the scheduled languages of India and the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka.<ref name="official">{{cite web|url=http://dpal.kar.nic.in/26%20of%201963%20(E).pdf|title=The Karnataka Official Language Act|work=Official website of Department of Parliamentary Affairs and Legislation|publisher=Government of Karnataka|access-date=29 June 2007}}</ref> Kannada was the court language of some of the most powerful empires of South and Central India, such as the [[History:Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya dynasty]], the [[History:Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta dynasty]], the Vijayanagara Empire and the [[History:Hoysala Empire|Hoysala Empire]].

The Kannada language is written using the [[Social:Kannada script|Kannada script]], which evolved from the 5th-century [[Social:Kadamba script|Kadamba script]]. Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20LAND%20HISTORY%20AND%20PEOPLE%20HTML/GANGAS%20OF%20TALAKADU%20HTML.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725175732/http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20LAND%20HISTORY%20AND%20PEOPLE%20HTML/GANGAS%20OF%20TALAKADU%20HTML.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=25 July 2011
|title=Gangas of Talakad
|work=Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, India
|publisher=classicalkannada.org
|access-date=12 May 2008}}</ref> and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20LAND%20HISTORY%20AND%20PEOPLE%20HTML/RASHTRAKUTA%20DYNASTY.htm 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110232151/http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20LAND%20HISTORY%20AND%20PEOPLE%20HTML/RASHTRAKUTA%20DYNASTY.htm 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-date=10 January 2011 |title=Rastrakutas 
 |publisher=Official website of the Central Institute of Indian Languages 
 |access-date=12 May 2008 }}</ref><ref name="tradition">Zvelebil (1973), p. 7 (Introductory, chart)</ref> Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years.<ref name="thousand">Garg (1992), p. 67</ref> Kannada literature has been presented with 8 Jnanapith awards, the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.karnatakavision.com/jnanpeeth-awardees.php|title=Jnanpeeth Awardees from Karnataka &#124; Jnanapeeta Awardees &#124; Jnanpith Award|website=www.karnatakavision.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsgram.com/eight-kannada-authors-who-have-won-prestigious-jnanpith-award/ |title=Jnanpith Award: Eight Kannada authors who have won 'Jnanpith Award'|date=5 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bestcurrentaffairs.com/jnanpith-awards-winners-full-list/ |title=Jnanpith Awards Winners Full List|date=27 July 2016}}</ref>

Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, the government of India designated Kannada a classical language of India.<ref name="tag">Kuiper (2011), p. 74</ref><ref name="oldest">R Zydenbos in Cushman S, Cavanagh C, Ramazani J, Rouzer P, ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition'', p. 767, Princeton University Press, 2012, {{ISBN|978-0-691-15491-6}}</ref> In July 2011, a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages in Mysore to facilitate research related to the language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ciil-to-head-centre-for-classical-kannada-study/169646-60-119.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111170247/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ciil-to-head-centre-for-classical-kannada-study/169646-60-119.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 January 2012 |title=IBNLive – CIIL to head Centre for classical Kannada study |publisher=ibnlive.in.com |date=23 July 2011 |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>

== Development ==

Kannada is a Southern [[Social:Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] and according to scholar Sanford B. Steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three stages: Old Kannada (''Halegannada'') from 450–1200 AD, Middle Kannada (''Nadugannada'') from 1200–1700 and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present.<ref name="steeve">Steever, S. B. (1998), p. 129</ref> Kannada is influenced to a considerable degree by Sanskrit. Influences of other languages such as [[Social:Prakrit|Prakrit]] and [[Social:Pali|Pali]] can also be found in Kannada. The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period, Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population.<ref name="civil">{{cite web|title=Classical Kannada, Antiquity of Kannada |url=http://www.classicalkannada.org/LanguageEng.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425022336/http://www.classicalkannada.org/LanguageEng.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 April 2010 |publisher=Central Institute for Indian Languages |work=Centre for classical Kannada |access-date=28 August 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Tamil_epigraphy1" /> The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language, with lesser influence from other languages.<ref name="civil" />

== Sanskrit and Prakrit influence ==

The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three-fold: Pāṇini's grammar, non-Paninian schools of [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] grammar, particularly ''Katantra'' and ''Sakatayana'' schools, and [[Social:Prakrit|Prakrit]] grammar.<ref name=prak>{{cite book|last=Mythic Society (Bangalore, India)|title=The quarterly journal of the Mythic society (Bangalore)., Volume 76|year=1985|publisher=Mythic Society (Bangalore, India)|pages=Pages_197–210}}</ref> Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times. The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages.<ref name=prak/><ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|author1=B. K. Khadabadi |author2=Prākr̥ta Bhāratī Akādamī |title=Studies in Jainology, Prakrit literature, and languages: a collection of select 51 papers Volume 116 of Prakrit Bharti pushpa|year=1997|publisher=Prakrit Bharati Academy|pages=444 pages}}</ref>

Some naturalised (''[[Social:Tadbhava|tadbhava]]'') words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are: ''baṇṇa'' (colour) derived from  ''vaṇṇa'', {{lang|kn|hunnime}} (full moon) from ''puṇṇivā''. Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are: ''varṇa'' (colour), ''paurṇimā'', and ''rāya'' from ''rāja'' (king).<ref name=banna>{{cite book|last=Jha|first=Ganganatha|title=Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Volume 32|year=1976|publisher=Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha|pages=see page 319}}</ref>

Kannada also has borrowed (''[[Social:Tatsama|Tatsama]]'') words such as ''dina'' (day), ''kopa'' (anger), ''surya'' (sun), ''mukha'' (face), ''nimiṣa'' (minute).<ref name="tatsama">{{cite book|last=Kulli|first=Jayavant S|title=History of grammatical theories in Kannada|year=1991|publisher=Internationial School of Dravidian Linguistics|pages=330 pages}}</ref>

==History==

===Early traces===
[[File:Halmidi OldKannada inscription.JPG|left|upright|thumb|The Halmidi inscription at Halmidi village, in old-Kannada, is usually dated to AD 450 (Kadamba Dynasty)]]
[[File:6th century Kannada inscription in cave temple number 3 at Badami.jpg|thumb|right|Old-Kannada inscription dated AD 578 (Badami Chalukya dynasty), outside Badami cave no.3]]
[[File:TalakadInscription.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Old-Kannada inscription of c. AD 726, discovered in Talakad, from the rule of King Shivamara I or Sripurusha (Western Ganga Dynasty)]]
[[File:Old Kannada inscription from the Rashtrakuta period (9th century) at the Durga Devi temple in Virupaksha temple complex at Hampi.jpg|thumb|upright|Old-Kannada inscription of the 9th century (Rashtrakuta Dynasty) at Durga Devi temple in Hampi, Karnataka]]
[[File:Atakur memorial stone with inscription in old Kannada (949 C.E.).jpg|thumb|upright|The famous Atakur inscription (AD 949) from Mandya district, a classical Kannada composition in two parts; a fight between a hound and a wild boar, and the victory of the Rashtrakutas over the Chola dynasty in the famous battle of Takkolam]]
[[File:Old Kannada inscription (c.1057) in Kalleshvara temple at Hire Hadagali.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Old Kannada inscription dated AD 1057 of Western Chalukya King Someshvara I at Kalleshwara Temple, Hire Hadagali in Bellary district]]
[[File:Old Kannada inscription (1112 CE) of King Vikramaditya VI in the Mahadeva temple at Itagi.jpg|thumb|upright|Old-Kannada inscription ascribed to King Vikramaditya VI (Western Chalukya Empire), dated AD 1112, at the Mahadeva Temple in Itagi, Koppal district of Karnataka state]]
[[File:Old-Kannada inscription at Arasikere Ishwara temple.jpg|left|thumb|Old-Kannada inscription of AD 1220 (Hoysala Empire) at Ishwara temple of Arasikere town in the Hassan district]]
[[File:Kannada inscription (1509 AD) of Krishnadeva Raya at entrance to mantapa of Virupaksha temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|upright|Kannada inscription dated 1509, of King Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara Empire), at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi describes his coronation]]
[[File:Kannada inscription (17th century) at Gaurishvara temple at Yelandur 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Kannada inscription dated 1654, at Yelandur with exquisite relief]]

Purava Hale Gannada: This Kannada term literally translated means "Previous form of Old Kannada" was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana, [[History:Chutu dynasty|Chutu Satakarni]] (Naga) and Kadamba periods and thus has a history of over 2500 years.<ref name="Tamil_epigraphy1">{{Cite book |title=Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century AD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZBkAAAAMAAJ|author=Iravatham Mahadevan|work=Harvard University Press |access-date=12 April 2007|isbn=9780674012271|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHaVqNy-V6UC&pg=PA11|title=Origin of Saivism and Its History in the Tamil Land|last=K R|first=Subramanian|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2002|isbn=9788120601444|pages=11}}</ref><ref>Kamath (2001), p. 5–6</ref><ref>Wilks in Rice, B.L. (1897), p490</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vG1mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=A HISTORY OF FREEDOM AND UNIFICATION MOVEMENT IN KARNATAKA|last=Shashidhar|first=Dr. Melkunde|publisher=Lulu publication|year=2016|isbn=978-1-329-82501-7|location=United States|pages=7}}</ref><ref name="pai">Pai and Narasimhachar in Bhat (1993), p103</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA360|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980|location=India|pages=360}}</ref> The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated to 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada.<ref name="isila">The word ''Isila'' found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to shoot an arrow, is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BCE (D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)</ref>

In some 3rd–1st century BCE Tamil inscriptions, words of Kannada influence such as ''nalliyooraa'', ''kavuDi'' and ''posil'' were found. The use of the vowel ''a'' as an adjective is not prevalent in Tamil but its usage is available in Kannada. Kannada words such as ''gouDi-gavuDi'' transform into Tamil's ''kavuDi'' for lack of the usage of ''Ghosha svana'' in Tamil. Hence the Kannada word 'gavuDi' becomes 'kavuDi' in Tamil. 'Posil' ('hosilu') was introduced into Tamil from Kannada and colloquial Tamil uses this word as 'Vaayil'. In a 1st-century CE Tamil inscription, there is a personal reference to ''ayjayya'', a word of Kannada origin. In a 3rd-century CE Tamil inscription there is usage of ''oppanappa vIran''. Here the honorific ''appa'' to a person's name is an influence from Kannada. Another word of Kannada origin is ''taayviru'' and is found in a 4th-century CE Tamil inscription. S. Settar studied the ''sittanvAsal'' inscription of first century CE as also the inscriptions at ''tirupparamkunram'', ''adakala'' and ''neDanUpatti''. The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also. Mahadevan argues that the words ''erumi'', ''kavuDi'', {{lang|oty|poshil}} and ''tAyiyar'' have their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available. Settar adds the words ''nADu'' and ''iLayar'' to this list. Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil. Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions. These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BCE and fourth century CE. These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in early [[Social:Tamil language|Tamil]] inscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZBkAAAAMAAJ&q=posil|title=Early Tamil Epigraphy|isbn=9780674012271|last1=Mahadevan|first1=Iravatham|year=2003}}</ref>

In the 150 CE Prakrit book ''Gaathaa Saptashati'', written by Haala Raja, Kannada words like ''tIr or Teer (''meaning ''to be able)'', ''tuppa'', ''peTTu'', ''poTTu, poTTa, piTTu (''meaning ''to strike), Pode (Hode)'' have been used. On the Pallava Prakrit inscription of 250 CE of Hire Hadagali's Shivaskandavarman, the Kannada word ''kOTe'' transforms into ''koTTa''. In the 350 CE Chandravalli Prakrit inscription, words of Kannada origin like ''punaaTa'', ''puNaDa'' have been used. In one more Prakrit inscription of 250 CE found in Malavalli, Kannada towns like ''vEgooraM'' (''bEgooru''), ''kundamuchchaMDi'' find a reference.<ref name="Tamil_epigraphy1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/131873/7/07_chapter%202.pdf|title=Karnataka history|website=ShodhGanga}}</ref>

Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, wrote about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias (Netravati River), called Nitran by Ptolemy. He also mentions Barace (Barcelore), referring to the modern port city of Mangaluru, upon its mouth. Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78I5lDHU2jQC&q=ptolemy+nitran&pg=PA74|title=Some Early Dynasties of South India|last=Chattopadhyaya|first=Sudhakar|date=1 January 1974|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120829411}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.muzirisheritage.org/history.php|title=Muziris Heritage Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India|last=Warmington|first=E. H.|publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2014|year=1928|isbn=9781107432147|pages=112–113}}</ref>

The Greek geographer [[Biography:Ptolemy|Ptolemy]] (150 CE) mentions places such as Badiamaioi (Badami), Inde (Indi), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai), Soubouttou or Sabatha (Savadi), Banaouase (Banavasi), Thogorum (Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige) indicating prosperous trade between Egypt, Europe and Karnataka. He also mentions Pounnata (Punnata) and refers to beryls, i.e., the ''Vaidhurya'' gems of that country. He mentions Malippala (Malpe), a coastal town of Karnataka. In this work Larika and Kandaloi are identified as Rastrika and Kuntala. Ptolemy writes that "in the midst of the false mouth and the Barios, there is a city called Maganur" (Mangalore). He mentions inland centres of pirates called Oloikhora (Alavakheda). He mentions Ariake Sadinon, meaning Aryaka Satakarni, and Baithana as the capital of Siro(e) P(t)olmaios, i.e., Sri Pulimayi, clearly indicating his knowledge of the Satavahana kings. The word ''Pulimayi'' means ''One with body of Tiger'' in Kannada, which bears testimony to the possible Kannada origin of Satavahana kings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://storyofkannada.blogspot.in/2009/04/greece-and-kannada-in-classical-era.html#.Vtr_mvl94sk|title=Story of Kannadiga, Kannada and Karnataka. Glimpses of Kannada History and Greatness|date=8 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&q=Siro+Polemaios&pg=PA193|title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century B.C. to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great|last1=A. Smith|first1=Vincent|last2=Williams Jackson|first2=A. V.|publisher=Cosimo, Inc., 2008|date=1 January 2008|isbn=9781605204925|pages=193–196}}</ref>

A possibly more definite reference to Kannada is found in the 'Charition Mime' ascribed to the late 4th century BCE to early 2nd century CE.<ref>Suryanatha Kamath – Karnataka State Gazetteer – South Kanara (1973), Printed by the Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Govt. Press</ref><ref>Manohar Laxman Varadpande – History of Indian theatre, Volume 3 (1987), Abhinav Publications, New Delhi.</ref><ref name=":1" /> The farce, written by an unknown author, is concerned with a Greek lady named Charition who has been stranded on the coast of a country bordering the Indian Ocean. The king of this region, and his countrymen, sometimes use their own language, and the sentences they speak could be interpreted as Kannada, including {{lang|kn|Koncha madhu patrakke haki}} ("Having poured a little wine into the cup separately") and {{lang|kn|paanam beretti katti madhuvam ber ettuvenu}} ("Having taken up the cup separately and having covered it, I shall take wine separately.").<ref name="ReferenceA">D. R. Bhandarkar – Lectures on the Ancient History of India on the Period From 650 To 320 B.C. (1919), University of Calcutta.</ref> The language employed in the papyrus indicates that the play is set in one of the numerous small ports on the western coast of India, between Karwar and Kanhangad (presently in Kerala).<ref name="ReferenceA" /> The character of the king in this farce refers to himself as 'the Nayaka of Malpe (Malpi-naik)'. B. A. Saletore identifies the site of this play as Odabhandeshwara or Vadabhandeshwara (ship-vessel-Ishwara or God), situated about a mile from Malpe, which was a Shaivite centre originally surrounded by a forest with a small river passing through it. He rejects M. Govinda Pai's opinion that it must have occurred at Udyavara (Odora in Greek), the capital of Alupas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre|last=Varadpande|first=Manohar Laxman|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1981|isbn=8170171474|pages=98–110}}</ref> Stavros J. Tsitsiridis mentions in his research work that ''Charition'' is not an exclusively prose or verse text, but a mixed form. The corrupt lines indicate that the text found at Oxyrhynchus (Egypt) has been copied, meaning that the original was even earlier in date. Wilamowitz (1907) and Andreassi (2001) say that for more precise dating of the original, some place the composition of the work as early as in the Hellenistic period (332–30 BCE), others at a later date, up to the early 2nd century CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Tsitsiridis|first=Stavros J.|date=2011|title=GREEK MIME IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE (P.Oxy. 413)|url=https://www.academia.edu/1786731|journal=Greek Mime in the Roman Empire|pages=184–189}}</ref>

===Epigraphy===
The earliest examples of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (''shilaashaasana'') containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto-Kannada in ''Hale Kannada'' (''lit'' Old Kannada) script can be found in the Halmidi inscription, usually dated c. AD 450, indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time. The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka.<ref name="admin">Ramesh (1984), p10</ref><ref name="hal">Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2, Sahitya Akademi (1988), p1717, p 1474</ref><ref name="Oldest inscription">A report on Halmidi inscription, {{cite news |title=Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031124063238/http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 November 2003 |author=Muralidhara Khajane |access-date=25 November 2006 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |date=3 November 2003}}</ref><ref name="ind">Kamath (2001), p10</ref> The Kannada Lion balustrade inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370–380 CE is now considered the earliest Kannada inscriptions replacing the Halmidi inscription of 450 CE.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/591046/kannada-inscription-talagunda-may-replace.html|title=Kannada inscription at Talagunda of 370 CE may replace Halmidi inscription as the oldest|work=Deccan Herald}}</ref> The 5th century Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga and the Siragunda inscription from Chikkamagaluru Taluk of 500 AD are further examples.<ref name="chikka">Narasimhacharya (1988), p6</ref><ref name="rice">Rice (1921), p13</ref><ref name="tamate">Govinda Pai in Bhat (1993), p102</ref> Recent reports indicate that the Old Kannada ''Nishadi'' inscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill, Shravanabelagola, is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350–400.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://hindu.com/2008/09/20/stories/2008092054690500.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922145102/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/20/stories/2008092054690500.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=22 September 2008
|title= Mysore scholar deciphers Chandragiri inscription |access-date=20 September 2008
|location=Chennai, India
|newspaper=The Hindu
|date=20 September 2008
}}</ref> The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the Western Ganga King Kongunivarma Madhava (c. 350–370) found at Tagarthi (Tyagarthi) in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 CE and is also older than the Halmidi inscription.<ref name="konga">{{cite web |title=HALMIDI INSCRIPTION|url=http://www.classicalkannada.org/DataBase/KannwordHTMLS/CLASSICAL%20KANNADA%20INSCRIPTIONS%20HTML/HALMIDI%20INSCRIPTION%20HTML.htm|publisher=Central Institute for Indian Languages |work=Centre for classical Kannada|access-date=25 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bangaloremirror.com/bangalore/cover-story/Historians-study-pushes-earliest-record-of-Kannada-writing-back-by-a-century/articleshow/21220551.cms|title=HISTORIAN'S STUDY PUSHES EARLIEST RECORD OF KANNADA WRITING BACK BY A CENTURY|date=10 March 2013|work=The antiquity of Kannada}}</ref>

Current estimates of the total number of existing epigraphs written in Kannada range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by the Amaresh Datta of the Sahitya Akademi.<ref name="current">Datta, Amaresh; ''Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 2'', p.1717, 1988, Sahitya Akademi, {{ISBN|81-260-1194-7}}</ref><ref name="dense">Sheldon Pollock in Dehejia, Vidya; ''The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art'', p.5, chapter:''The body as Leitmotif'', 2013, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-14028-7}}</ref> Prior to the Halmidi inscription, there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words, phrases and sentences, proving its antiquity. The 543 AD Badami cliff inscription of Pulakesi I is an example of a Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script.<ref name="cliff">Kamath (2001), p58</ref><ref name="cliff1">{{cite web |title=Badami: Chalukyans' magical transformation |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp |author=Azmathulla Shariff |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=25 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061007040120/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 7 October 2006|date=14 February 2018 }}</ref>
Kannada inscriptions are not only discovered in Karnataka but also quite commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Some inscriptions were also found in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The northernmost Kannada inscription of the Rashtrakutas of 964 CE is the Jura record found near Jabalpur in present-day Madhya Pradesh, belonging to the reign of Krishna III. This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages, especially during the rule of large Kannada empires.<ref name="jura">Kamath (2001), p83</ref> Pyu sites of Myanmar yielded variety of Indian scripts including those written in a script especially archaic, most resembling the Kadamba (Kannada-speaking Kadambas of 4th century CE Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{cite book|title=Sircar 1965|pages=202–4}}</ref>) form of common Kannada-Telugu script from Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite book|title=Luce 1985|pages=62, n.16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1991/JSS_085_0g_Guy_WarriorRulerSteleFromSriKsetra.pdf|title=A WARRIOR-RULER STELE FROM SRI KSETRA, PYU, BURMA|last=Guy|first=John|date=1996|website=Journal of The Siam Society – Siamese Heritage|publisher=Journal of The Siam Society}}</ref>

The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language, dated to the early 8th century AD, are associated with Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu (the Dakshina Kannada district), and display the double crested fish, his royal emblem.<ref name="Kannada copperplate">Gururaj Bhat in Kamath (2001), p97</ref> The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript in ''Old Kannada'' is that of ''Dhavala''. It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, Dakshina Kannada district.<ref name="Palm leaf manuscript">{{cite web |title=Preserving voices from the past  |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/sundayherald101012005820.asp|author=Mukerjee, Shruba|work=Sunday Herald |date=21 August 2005|access-date=11 April 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061022233151/http://deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/sundayherald101012005820.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 22 October 2006}}</ref> The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink.<ref name="Palm leaf manuscript" />

=== Coins ===
Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription ''Vira'' and ''Skandha'' were found in Satara collectorate.<ref name="sat">The coins are preserved at the Archaeological Section, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes (1931), p382</ref> A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of ''Sri'' and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha's name called ''bhagi'' (c. AD 390–420) in old Kannada exists.<ref name="bhagi">The coin is preserved at the Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes (1938), p&nbsp;382</ref> A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription ''Srimanaragi'' in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi, Uttara Kannada district.<ref name="Kadamba coin">{{cite news |title=5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/06/stories/2006020609090400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526191104/http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/06/stories/2006020609090400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 May 2007|author=Dr Gopal, director, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History |date=6 February 2006|work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Badami Chalukyas, the Alupas, the Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom, the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery.<ref name="coins">Kamath (2001), p12, p57</ref><ref name="coins1">{{cite web |title=Indian coins-Dynasties of South |url=http://prabhu.50g.com/ |author=Govindaraya Prabhu, S |publisher=Prabhu's Web Page on Indian Coinage, 1 November 2001 |access-date=27 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901102258/http://prabhu.50g.com/ |archive-date=1 September 2006 }}</ref><ref name="coins2">{{cite web |title=Vijayanagar Coins-Catalogue |url=http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/history.htm |author1=Harihariah Oruganti-Vice-President |author2=Madras Coin Society |access-date=27 November 2006}}</ref> The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate,<ref name="triple">This shows that the native vernacular of the Goa Kadambas was Kannada – Moraes (1931), p384</ref> a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available.<ref name="han">Two coins of the Hangal Kadambas are preserved at the Royal Asiatic Society, Mumbai, one with the Kannada inscription ''Saarvadhari'' and other with ''Nakara''. Moraes (1931), p385</ref>

==Literature==

===Old Kannada===
[[File:Jain Basadi in Lakshmeshwar.jpg|thumb|Shankha Jain Basadi at Lakshmeshwar where the famous Adikavi Pampa wrote the Adipurana in Kannada language]]
The oldest existing record of Kannada poetry in ''Tripadi'' metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of AD 700.<ref name="poetry">Kamath (2001), p67</ref> ''Kavirajamarga'' by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I (AD 850) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Airhole record of 636 AD.<ref name="extinct_works6">Sastri (1955), p355</ref><ref>Kamath (2001), p90</ref> Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier.<ref name="extinct_works6"/><ref name="extinct_works5">{{cite web |title=History of the Kannada Literature-I |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm |author=Jyotsna Kamat |publisher=Kamat's Potpourri |work=Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006 |access-date=25 November 2006}}</ref> An early extant prose work, the ''Vaddaradhane'' (ವಡ್ಡಾರಾಧನೆ) by Shivakotiacharya of AD 900 provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola.<ref name="kavirajamarga">Sastri (1955), p356</ref>

Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced. Some ancient texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are ''Prabhrita'' (AD 650) by Syamakundacharya, ''Chudamani'' (Crest Jewel—AD 650) by Srivaradhadeva, also known as Tumbuluracharya, which is a work of 96,000 verse-measures and a commentary on logic (''Tatwartha-mahashastra'').<ref name="extint_works">The seventeenth-century Kannada grammarian Bhattakalanka wrote about the ''Chudamani'' as a milestone in the literature of the Kannada language (Sastri (1955), p355)</ref><ref name="extinct_works1">{{cite web |title=History of the Kannada Literature – I |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm |author=Jyotsna Kamat |publisher=Kamat's Potpourri |work=Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006 |access-date=25 November 2006}}</ref><ref name="extinct_works2">Narasimhacharya (1988), pp 4–5</ref> Other sources date ''Chudamani'' to the 6th century or earlier.<ref name="god2">Rice, B.L. (1897), p497</ref><ref name="dandin">6th century Sanskrit poet Dandin praised Srivaradhadeva's writing as "having produced [[Religion:Saraswati|Saraswati]] from the tip of his tongue, just as [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]] produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot (Rice E.P., 1921, p27)</ref> The ''Karnateshwara Katha'', a eulogy for King Pulakesi II, is said to have belonged to the 7th century; the ''Gajastaka'', a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II, belonged to the 8th century,<ref name="early_works3">Kamath (2001), p50, p67</ref> and the ''Chandraprabha-purana'' by Sri Vijaya, a court poet of King Amoghavarsha I, is ascribed to the early 9th century.<ref name="extinct_works4">The author and his work were praised by the latter-day poet Durgasimha of AD 1025 (Narasimhacharya 1988, p18.)</ref> Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD (in the commentary on ''Nemrinatham'', a Tamil grammatical work) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the BC 4th century.<ref name="greek_roman">{{cite web |title=The place of Kannada and Tamil in India's national culture |url=http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415154722/http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm |archive-date=15 April 2007 |author=K. Appadurai |publisher=INTAMM|access-date=25 November 2006}}</ref>

Around the beginning of the 9th century, Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari. The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled.<ref name="{{ISBN|9788120605596}}">{{Cite book|last1=Narasimhacharya|first1=R.|title=History of Kannada Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yhXRDSgBuL0C&q=tulu&pg=PA49|publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1942|isbn=9788120605596|year=1999}}</ref>

The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including ''Ragale'' (a form of blank verse) and meters like ''Sangatya'' and ''Shatpadi''. The works of this period are based on [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jain]] and [[Religion:Hinduism|Hindu]] principles. Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the ''Ragale'' form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the ''Shatpadi'' (six-lined stanza) meter.<ref name="hari">Sastri (1955), pp&nbsp;361–2</ref> A famous [[Philosophy:Jainism|Jaina]] writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works.<ref name="jan">Narasimhacharya (1988), p20</ref>

The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature, and the sum of contributions by all sections of society. Vachanas were pithy poems on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi.<ref name="akka">Sastri (1955), p361</ref>

Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 CE recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was ''Margi'' (formal or written form of language) and ''Desi'' (folk or spoken form of language) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada. In 1112 CE, Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda, Dharwad district, in his Champu work ''Dharmamrita'' (ಧರ್ಮಾಮೃತ), a book on morals, warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil. He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada. In 1235 CE, Jain poet Andayya, wrote ''Kabbigara Kava''- ಕಬ್ಬಿಗರ ಕಾವ (Poet's Defender), also called ''Sobagina Suggi'' (Harvest of Beauty) or ''Madana-Vijaya and'' ''Kavana-Gella'' (Cupid's Conquest)'','' a ''Champu'' work in pure Kannada using only indigenous (''desya'') Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – ''tadbhavas'', without the admixture of Sanskrit words. He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words. Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates. Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature (like Tamil), but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary (like Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu, etc.) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqGojPpe8DIC|title=Indian Literature|last=Nagendra|first=Dr.|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan, 1988|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489059|quote=andayya pure kannada.|title=History of Kannada Literature: Readership Lectures|last=Narasimhacharya|first=Ramanujapuram|publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1988|isbn=9788120603035|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&q=andayya|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo|last=Datta|first=Amaresh|publisher=Sahitya Akademi, 1987|isbn=9788126018031|year=1987}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2noBgAAQBAJ|title=Gods, Heroes and their Story Tellers: Intangible cultural heritage of South India|last=Hari Saravanan|first=V.|publisher=Notion Press, 2014|isbn=9789384391492|year=2014}}</ref><ref name="kannada literature">Rice, Edward. P (1921), "A History of Kannada Literature", Oxford University Press, 1921: 14–15</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fhCH-NRatUC&pg=PA101|title=A History of Kannada Literature|last=Rice|first=Edward P.|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1982|isbn=9788120600638|pages=15, 44}}</ref>

===Middle Kannada===
During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries, [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]] had a great influence on Middle Kannada (''Nadugannada''- ನಡುಗನ್ನಡ) language and literature. Kumara Vyasa, who wrote the ''Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari'' (ಕರ್ಣಾಟ ಭಾರತ ಕಥಾಮಂಜರಿ), was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period. His work, entirely composed in the native ''Bhamini Shatpadi'' (hexa-meter), is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the [[Religion:Mahabharata|Mahabharata]].<ref name="kumar">Sastri (1955), p364</ref> 
During this period, the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract, religious, scientific and rhetorical terms.<ref name="influence">"Literature in all Dravidian languages owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised each of the languages from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom". (Sastri 1955, p309)</ref><ref name="inf">Takahashi, Takanobu. 1995. Tamil love poetry and poetics. Brill's Indological library, v. 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, p16,18</ref><ref name="sang">"The author endeavours to demonstrate that the entire Sangam poetic corpus follows the "Kavya" form of Sanskrit poetry"-Tieken, Herman Joseph Hugo. 2001. Kāvya in South India: old Tamil Caṅkam poetry. Groningen: Egbert Forsten</ref> During this period, several [[Social:Hindi|Hindi]] and [[Social:Marathi language|Marathi]] words came into Kannada, chiefly relating to feudalism and militia.<ref>{{Cite book | year=1899 | title = A Kannaḍa-English school-dictionary: chiefly based on the labours of the Rev. Dr. F. Kittel | author1=J. Bucher | author2=Ferdinand Kittel | publisher=Basel Mission Book & Tract Depository | url=https://archive.org/details/kannadaenglishsc00buchrich}}</ref>

Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa, Purandaradasa, Naraharitirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, Vijaya Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period.<ref name="bhakti">Sastri (1955), pp&nbsp;364–365</ref> Kanakadasa's ''Ramadhanya Charite'' (ರಾಮಧಾನ್ಯ ಚರಿತೆ ) is a rare work, concerning with the issue of class struggle.<ref name="ragi">The writing exalts the grain Ragi above all other grains that form the staple foods of much of modern Karnataka (Sastri 1955, p365)</ref> This period saw the advent of ''[[Religion:Haridasa|Haridasa]] Sahitya'' (''lit'' Dasa literature) which made rich contributions to ''[[Philosophy:Bhakti|Bhakti]]'' literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa is widely considered the ''Father of Carnatic music''.<ref name="pura">{{cite book
|last=Moorthy
|first=Vijaya
|title=Romance of the Raga
|publisher=Abinav publications
|year=2001
|page=67
|isbn=978-81-7017-382-3
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2s2xJetsy0wC&q=Romance+of+the+Raga&pg=PP1}}</ref><ref name="tattu">Iyer (2006), p93</ref><ref name="kana">Sastri (1955), p365</ref>

===Modern Kannada===
The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as ''Hosagannada'' or Modern Kannada. Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the "Dawn of Modern Kannada", though generally, linguists treat ''Indira Bai'' or ''Saddharma Vijayavu'' by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada. The first modern movable type printing of "Canarese" appears to be the ''Canarese Grammar'' of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817, and the "Bible in Canarese" of John Hands in 1820.<ref>Report on the administration of Mysore – Page 90 Mysore – 1864 "There is no authentic record of the casting of the first Early Canarese printing. Canarese type, but a Canarese Grammar by Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 is extant. About the same time a translation of the Scriptures was printed</ref> The first novel printed was John Bunyan's ''Pilgrim's Progress'', along with other texts including ''Canarese Proverbs'', ''The History of Little Henry and his Bearer'' by Mary Martha Sherwood, Christian Gottlob Barth's ''Bible Stories'' and "a Canarese hymn book."<ref>Missions in south India – Page 56 Joseph Mullens – 1854 "Among those of the former are tracts on Caste, on the Hindu gods; Canarese Proverbs; Henry and his Bearer; the Pilgrim's Progress; Barth's Bible Stories; a Canarese hymn book"</ref>

Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notably ''Navodaya'', ''Navya'', ''Navyottara'', ''Dalita'' and ''Bandaya''. Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society. Further, Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu, Bendre, and V K Gokak. Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards,<ref>{{Cite newspaper|author=Special Correspondent |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/books/article2468374.ece |title=Jnanpith for Kambar|date=20 September 2011|newspaper=The Hindu }}</ref> the highest number awarded to any Indian language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |title=Welcome to: Bhartiya Jnanpith |publisher=jnanpith.net |access-date=7 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013122739/http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html |archive-date=13 October 2007 }}</ref>

==Areas of influence==
Besides being the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka, Kannada language is present in other areas:
*Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu's 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1.23 million which is 2.2% of Tamil Nadu's total population.<ref name="TimesofIndia">{{cite news
| first = Rema
| last = Nagarajan
| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Kannadigas-TNs-3rd-biggest-group/articleshow/2954903.cms	
| title = Kannadigas TN's 3rd biggest group
| newspaper = The Times of India
| date = 16 April 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2uPAgAAQBAJ&q=Kannada&pg=PA84|title=The Territories and States of India|last1=Boland-Crewe|first1=Tara|last2=Lea|first2=David|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9781135356255|pages=224–226}}</ref> 
*Goa has 7% Kannada speakers which accounts for 94,360 Kannadigas.
*The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has many Kannada words.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zbKesmg97PAC&q=amindivi+kannada+island&pg=PA5|title=Dynamics of New Panchayati Raj System in India: Select states|last=Palanithurai|first=Ganapathy|date=2002|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=9788180691294}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm|title=DISTRIBUTION OF 10,000 PERSONS BY LANGUAGE – INDIA, STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES – 2001|year=2001|website=Census Data 2001|publisher=Government of India}}</ref>
*There are about 150,000 Kannadigas in North America (USA and Canada).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akkaonline.org/|title=North America Kannadigas|date=2016|website=AKKA|publisher=teksource}}</ref>
*Gulf countries of Middle-East, UK and Australia have minority numbers of Kannada speakers.

==Dialects==
There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. The [[Social:Ethnologue|Ethnologue]] reports "about 20 dialects" of Kannada. Among them are Kundagannada (spoken exclusively in Kundapura, Brahmavara, Bynduru and Hebri), Nadavar-Kannada (spoken by Nadavaru), Havigannada (spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins), Are Bhashe (spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada), Malenadu Kannada (Sakaleshpur, Coorg, Shimoga, Chikmagalur), Sholaga, Gulbarga Kannada, Dharawad Kannada etc. All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background. The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada, known as Halegannada. They are settled throughout Goa state, throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district, Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. Volume 3|last=Buchanan|first=Francis Hamilton|publisher=Cadell|year=1807|isbn=9781402146756|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hindu-kshatriya-komarpanth.blogspot.in/2010/02/wapedia-kshatriyakomarpant.html|title=HISTORY OF KOMARPANTHS|last1=Naik|first1=Vinayak K.|last2=Naik|first2=Yogesh|date=6 April 2007|website=hindu-kshatriya-komarpanth|publisher=Atom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/32126/6/06_chapter%201.pdf|title=GOA ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 20TH CENTURY|date=1995|website=ShodhGanga}}</ref> The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada. Their population estimate is about 75,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/halakki.htm|title=Halakki Farmers of Uttara Kannada|last=Kamat|first=K. L.|website=Kamat's Potpourri}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://buda-honnavar.blogspot.in/2010/08/tribes-of-uttara-kannada.html|title=Tribes of Uttara Kannada-The Halakki Tribe|last=Uday|first=Savita|date=18 August 2010|website=Buda Folklore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/events/photographer-k-venkatesh-documents-the-halakki-vokkaliga-womens-traditional-dress-and-jewellery/article6533134.ece|title=Beauty in all its glory|last=K.|first=Bhumika|date=29 October 2014|via=The Hindu}}</ref>

Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada, which are, besides Kannada proper, Badaga, Holiya, Kurumba and Urali.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kannada|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=4&pages=701#page/404/mode/2up|website=The Record News|publisher=DSAL, Chicago}}</ref>

Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called 'Hatkar Kaanadi' people who speak a Kannada (Kaanadi) dialect with lot of old Kannada words. Per Chidananda Murthy, they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times which shows that North Maharashtra's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|last1=S.|first1=Kiran Kumar|title=The Kannada History of Maharashtra|url=http://kiranasis.blogspot.in/2015/07/the-kannada-history-of-maharashtra.html|date=17 July 2015}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news|title=Region between Godavari, Cauvery was once Karnataka|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/439873/039region-godavari-cauvery-once-karnataka039.html|newspaper=Deccan Herald|date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
Kannada speakers formed 0.12% of Nasik district's population as per 1961 census.<ref>{{cite web|title=The People – Population|url=https://cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Nasik/006%20ThePeople/001%20Population.htm|website=Nasik District Gazetteers|publisher=Government of Maharashtra}}</ref>

==Status==

The Director of the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Udaya Narayana Singh, submitted a report in 2006 to the Indian government arguing for Kannada to be made a classical language of India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/04/stories/2006100419510100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061013180836/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/04/stories/2006100419510100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 October 2006|title=Kannada likely to get classical tag|last=K.N. Venkatasubba Rao|date=4 October 2006|work=The Hindu|access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> In 2008 the Indian government announced that Kannada was to be designated as one of the classical languages of India.<ref name="tag"/><ref name="oldest"/>

==Writing system==

The language uses forty-nine phonemic letters, divided into three groups: ''swaragalu'' (vowels – thirteen letters); ''vyanjanagalu'' (consonants – thirty-four letters); and ''yogavaahakagalu'' (neither vowel nor consonant – two letters: ''anusvara'' {{lang|kn|ಂ}} and ''visarga'' {{lang|kn|ಃ}})<!--Swaragalu+Yogavaahakagalu=vowels?-->. The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages. The Kannada script is almost entirely phonetic, but for the sound of a "half n" (which becomes a half m). The number of written symbols, however, is far more than the forty-nine characters in the alphabet, because different characters can be combined to form ''compound'' characters ''(ottakshara)''. Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable, as opposed to one [[Social:Phoneme|phoneme]] in languages like English. The Kannada script is syllabic.

== Dictionary ==
Kannada–Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar. The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet 'Ranna' called 'Ranna Kanda' (ರನ್ನ ಕಂದ) in 996 ACE. Other dictionaries are '[[Religion:Abhidhana|Abhidhana]] Vastukosha' (ಅಭಿದಾನ ವಾಸ್ತುಕೋಶ) by Nagavarma (1045 ACE), 'Amarakoshada Teeku'(ಅಮರಕೋಶದ ತೀಕು) by Vittala (1300), 'Abhinavaabhidaana'(ಅಭಿನವಾಭಿದಾನ) by Abhinava Mangaraja (1398 ACE) and many more.<ref>N Ucida and B B Rajpurohit, http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/data/kandic/kannada-english_dictionary.pdf, Kannada-English Etymological Dictionary</ref> A Kannada–English dictionary consisting of more than 70,000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel.<ref name="kittel">{{cite web |title=Kannada Dialect Dictionaries and Dictionaries in Subregional Languages of Karnataka|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/sep2005/kannadadictionary1.html|author=Manjulakshi & Bhat|publisher=Central Institute of Indian Languages, University of Mysore|work=Language in India, Volume 5: 9 September 2005|access-date=11 April 2007}}</ref>

G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada–Kannada dictionary, a 9,000-page, 8-volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat. He also wrote a Kannada–English dictionary and a ''kliṣtapadakōśa'' (ಕ್ಲಿಷ್ಟಪಾದಕೋಶ), a dictionary of difficult words.<ref>{{Cite newspaper|author=Muralidhara Khajane |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/article3805517.ece |title=Today's Paper / NATIONAL: 100 years on, words never fail him|date=22 August 2012|newspaper=The Hindu }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Johnson Language |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2012/08/language-india |title=Language in India: Kannada, threatened at home |newspaper=The Economist |date=20 August 2012 |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
[[File:Deepadadi 25.ogg|thumb|Spoken Kannada]]
Kannada has 34 consonants and 13 vowels.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center href="V K Gokak"
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Dental/<br/>Alveolar
!Retroflex
! href="Kavirajamarga" |Post-alv./<br/>Palatal
! href="Adipurana" |Velar
!Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|{{IPA|m}} (ಮ)
|{{IPA|n}} (ನ)
|{{IPA|ɳ}} (ಣ)
|{{IPA|ɲ}} (ಞ)
|{{IPA|ŋ}} (ಙ)
|
|- href="Eastern Chalukyas#Connection between Kannada and Telugu literature"
! rowspan="4" href="Kadambas of Goa" |Stop/<br/>Affricate
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA|p}} (ಪ)
|{{IPA|t̪}} (ತ)
|{{IPA|ʈ}} (ಟ)
|{{IPA|tʃ}} (ಚ)
|{{IPA|k}} (ಕ)
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|{{IPA|pʰ}} (ಫ)
|{{IPA|t̪ʰ}} (ಥ)
|{{IPA|ʈʰ}} (ಠ)
|{{IPA|tʃʰ}} (ಛ)
|{{IPA|kʰ}} (ಖ)
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA|b}} (ಬ)
|{{IPA|d̪}} (ದ)
|{{IPA|ɖ}} (ಡ)
|{{IPA|dʒ}} (ಜ)
|{{IPA|ɡ}} (ಗ)
|
|-
!<small>breathy</small>
|{{IPA|bʱ}} (ಭ)
|{{IPA|d̪ʱ}} (ಧ)
|{{IPA|ɖʱ}} (ಢ)
|{{IPA|dʒʱ}} (ಝ)
|{{IPA|ɡʱ}} (ಘ)
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|
|{{IPA|s}} (ಸ)
|{{IPA|ʂ}} (ಷ)
|{{IPA|ʃ}} (ಶ)
|
|{{IPA|h}} (ಹ)
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|{{IPA|ʋ}} (ವ)
|{{IPA|l}} (ಲ)
|{{IPA|ɭ}} (ಳ)
|{{IPA|j}} (ಯ)
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|{{IPA|r}} (ರ)
|
|
|
|
|}

Additionally, Kannada included the following phonemes, which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively:
* {{IPA|ɽ}} ಱ (ṟ), the retroflex tap.
* {{IPA|ɻ}} ೞ (ḻ), the retroflex central approximant.

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Back
|-
! <small>short</small>
! <small>long</small>
! <small>short</small>
! <small>long</small>
|- style="text-align: center;" data-ve-attributes="{"style":"text-align: center;"}"
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} (ಇ)
| {{IPA|iː}} (ಈ)
| {{IPA|u}} (ಉ)
| {{IPA|uː}} (ಊ)
|- style="text-align: center;" data-ve-attributes="{"style":"text-align: center;"}"
!Mid
| {{IPA|e}} (ಎ)
| {{IPA|eː}} (ಏ)
| {{IPA|o}} (ಒ)
| {{IPA|oː}} (ಓ)
|- style="text-align: center;" data-ve-attributes="{"style":"text-align: center;"}"
! Open
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|ɐ}} (ಅ)
| {{IPA|aː}} (ಆ)
|}

* {{IPA|/ɐ/}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} are phonetically central {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɐ}}, {{IPAplink|äː}}]}}. {{IPA|/ɐ/}} may be as open as {{IPA|/aː/}} ({{IPAblink|ä}}) or higher {{IPAblink|ɐ}}.

==Grammar==

The canonical word order of Kannada is [[Social:Subject–object–verb|SOV]] (subject–object–verb) as is the case with Dravidian languages.
Kannada is a highly [[Social:Inflection|inflected]] language with three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter or common) and two numbers (singular and plural). It is inflected for gender, number and tense, among other things. The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is ''Shabdhamanidarpana'' by Keshiraja. The first available Kannada book, a treatise on poetics, rhetoric and basic grammar is the ''Kavirajamarga'' from 850 C.E.

The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja's ''Shabdamanidarpana'' (c. AD 1260).<ref name="GS Gai">''Studies in Indian History, Epigraphy, and Culture'' – By Govind Swamirao Gai, pp. 315</ref><ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language'">''A Grammar of the Kannada Language''. F. Kittel (1993), p. 3.</ref> The earlier grammatical works include portions of ''Kavirajamarga'' (a treatise on ''alańkāra'') of the 9th century, and ''Kavyavalokana'' and ''Karnatakabhashabhushana'' (both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century).<ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language'" />

===Compound bases===
Compound bases, called ''samāsa'' in Kannada, are a set of two or more words compounded together.<ref>Ferdinand Kittel, pp. 30</ref> There are several types of compound bases, based on the rules followed for compounding. The types of compound bases or samāsas: tatpurusha, karmadhāraya, dvigu, bahuvreehi, anshi, dvandva, kriya and gamaka samāsa.{{Clarify|date=January 2010}} Examples: ''taṅgāḷi'', ''hemmara'', ''kannusanne''.

===Pronouns===
In many ways the third-person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns. They are pluralised like nouns and the first- and second-person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number.<ref>Bhat, D.N.S. 2004. ''Pronouns''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 13–14</ref>

== Sample text ==
The given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights Declaration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html |website=www.un.org |access-date=29 March 2020 |language=en |date=6 October 2015}}</ref>

=== ''Kannada script''===
{{lang|kn|ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಮಾನವರೂ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರರಾಗಿಯೇ ಹುಟ್ಟಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ಹಾಗೂ ಘನತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಾನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ತಿಳಿವು ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಕರಣಗಳನ್ನು ಪಡೆದವರಾದ್ದರಿಂದ, ಅವರು ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು ಸಹೋದರ ಭಾವದಿಂದ ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕು.}}

=== ''Transliteration'' ===
{{transl|kn|Ellā mānavarū svatantrarāgiyē huttiddare. Hāgū ghanate mattu adhikāragaḷalli samānarāgiddāre. Thilivu mattu antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu paḍedavarāddarinda avaru obbarigobbaru sahōdara bhāvadinda nadedhukollabeku.}}

=== ''Translation'' ===
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

== See also ==
* Bangalore Kannada
* Gokak agitation
* Hermann Mögling
* Kannada cinema
* Kannada dialects
* Kannada flag
* Kannada in computing
* Kuvempu
* List of Kannada-language radio stations
* List of Karnataka literature
* List of languages by number of native speakers in India
* [[Philosophy:Siribhoovalaya|Siribhoovalaya]]
* Timeline of Karnataka
* Yakshagana

==Notes==
{{Refbegin|40em}} 
*{{cite book |last= Garg|first= Ganga Ram|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: A-Aj, Volume 1|chapter=Kannada literature|orig-year=1992|year=1992|location=New Delhi|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-374-0}}
* {{Cite book | contribution = Dravidian Studies: Kannada | editor-last = Kuiper | editor-first = Kathleen| title = Understanding India-The Culture of India| year = 2011| place = New York| publisher = Britannica educational Printing| isbn =978-1-61530-203-1 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Steever | first = S. B. | contribution = Kannada | editor-last = Steever | editor-first = S. B.| title = The Dravidian Languages (Routledge Language Family Descriptions) | year = 1998 | pages = 129–157 | place = London | publisher = Routledge. Pp. 436 | isbn = 978-0-415-10023-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Kloss and McConnell|first=Heinz and Grant D.|title= The Written languages of the world: a survey of the degree and modes of use-vol 2 part1 |year=1978|publisher=Université Laval|isbn=978-2-7637-7186-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Narasimhacharya|first=R|title= History of Kannada Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489059|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi, Madras|isbn=978-81-206-0303-5}}
* Narasimhacharya, R. (1934) [https://archive.org/details/HistoryKannadaLanguage History of Kannada Language]. University of Mysore. 
* {{cite book |last=Rice|first=E.P.|title= Kannada Literature|orig-year=1921|year=1982|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-206-0063-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Rice|first=B.L.|title= Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government-vol 1|orig-year=1897|year=2001|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi, Madras|isbn=978-81-206-0977-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Kamath|first=Suryanath U.|title=  A concise history of Karnata.k.a. from pre-historic times to the present|orig-year=2001|year=2002|publisher=Jupiter books|location=Bangalore|oclc= 7796041 |lccn=80905179}}
* {{cite book |last=Various|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian literature-vol 2|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1194-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Sastri|first=Nilakanta K.A.|title=  A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher=Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-560686-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramesh|first=K.V.|title= Chalukyas of Vatapi |orig-year=1984|year=1984|publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan|location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |last=Kittel|first=F|title= A Grammar of the Kannada Language Comprising the Three Dialects of the Language (Ancient, Medieval and Modern)|orig-year=1993|year=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi, Madras|isbn=978-81-206-0056-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Bhat|first=Thirumaleshwara|title=Govinda Pai|orig-year=1993|year=1993|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-7201-540-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first=Kamil|title=Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|orig-year=1973|year=1973|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-03591-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Shapiro and Schiffman|first=Michael C., Harold F.|title=Language And Society in South Asia|orig-year=1981|year=1981|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-2607-6}}
{{Refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin P.|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages  |orig-year=1991|year=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Thapar|first=Romila|title=  The Penguin History of Early India|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-14-302989-2}}
* George M. Moraes (1931), The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1990 {{ISBN|81-206-0595-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Varadpande|first=Manohar Laxman|title=History of Indian Theatre|orig-year=1987|year=1987|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5}}
* Robert Zydenbos (2020): ''A Manual of Modern Kannada.'' Heidelberg: XAsia Books ([https://crossasia-books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/xasia/catalog/book/736 Open Access publication in PDF format])

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=kn}}
* {{Britannica|311191}}
* {{Curlie|Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Dravidian/Kannada/}} 
* {{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031124063238/http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 November 2003 |title=Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition, Muralidhara Khajane |access-date=25 November 2006 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |date=3 November 2003}}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/27/stories/2005052703230500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105151817/http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/27/stories/2005052703230500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 January 2007 |title=Declare Kannada a classical language, Staff reporter |access-date=25 November 2006 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |date=27 May 2005}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm |title=The place of Kannada and Tamil in Indias National Culture |access-date=25 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415154722/http://www.intamm.com/journalism/ta-jour3.htm |archive-date=15 April 2007 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm |title=History of the Kannada Literature (by Jyotsna Kamat) |access-date=25 November 2006 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/lr/2003/08/03/stories/2003080300280400.htm |title=Records and revelations, Indira Parathasarathy |access-date=25 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021044255/http://www.hinduonnet.com/lr/2003/08/03/stories/2003080300280400.htm |archive-date=21 October 2010 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040218052747/http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2004 |title=Ancient inscriptions unearthed, N. Havalaiah |access-date=25 November 2006 |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |date=24 January 2004}}
* {{cite web |url=http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com |title=Indian inscriptions-South Indian inscriptions, Vol 20, 18, 17, 15, 11 and 9, Archaeological survey of India, What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bdword.com/english-to-kannada-dictionary- |title=English to Kannada Dictionary}}




[[Category:Ancient languages]]

{{Sourceattribution|Kannada|1}}