View source for Social:Penutian languages

{{Short description|Proposed language family}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Penutian
| acceptance = controversial
| familycolor = American
| family = Proposed [[Social:Language family|language family]]
| region = North America
| child1 = [[Social:Chinookan languages|Chinookan]] †
| child2 = [[Social:Plateau Penutian languages|Plateau Penutian]]
| child3 = Takelma †
| child4 = [[Social:Kalapuyan languages|Kalapuyan]] †
| child5 = [[Social:Coast Oregon Penutian languages|Coast Oregon Penutian]] †
| child6 = [[Social:Wintuan languages|Wintuan]]
| child7 = [[Social:Maiduan languages|Maiduan]]
| child8 = [[Social:Yok-Utian languages|Yok-Utian]]
| child9 = [[Social:Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]]
| glotto = none
| map = Proposed Penutian langs.png
| mapcaption = Pre-contact distribution of proposed Penutian languages.
| map2 = Penutian eng.png
| ancestor = 
| glottoname = 
| glottorefname = 
| notes = 
}}

'''Penutian''' is a proposed grouping of [[Social:Language family|language families]] that includes many Native American languages of western [[Earth:North America|North America]], predominantly spoken at one time in British Columbia, {{wipe|Washington (state)}}, Oregon, and {{wipe|California}}.  The existence of a Penutian stock or phylum has been the subject of debate among specialists. Even the unity of some of its component families has been disputed. Some of the problems in the comparative study of languages within the phylum are the result of their early extinction and limited documentation.<ref>Campbell 1997; but see Delancey & Golla 1997, Golla 2007:81–82</ref>

Some of the more recently proposed subgroupings of Penutian have been convincingly demonstrated. The Miwokan and the Costanoan languages have been grouped into an [[Social:Utian languages|Utian]] language family by Catherine Callaghan.<ref>Callaghan 1967</ref> Callaghan has more recently provided evidence supporting a grouping of Utian and [[Social:Yokutsan languages|Yokutsan]] into a [[Social:Yok-Utian languages|Yok-Utian]] family.<ref>Callaghan 1997</ref><ref>Callaghan 2001</ref> There also seems to be convincing evidence for the [[Social:Plateau Penutian languages|Plateau Penutian]] grouping (originally named ''Shahapwailutan'' by J. N. B. Hewitt and John Wesley Powell in 1894) which would consist of Klamath–Modoc, Molala, and the [[Social:Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian languages]] (Nez Percé and Sahaptin).<ref>Delancey and Golla, 1997</ref>

==History of the hypothesis==
===Etymology and pronunciation===
The name ''Penutian'' is based on the words meaning "two" in the [[Social:Wintuan languages|Wintuan]], [[Social:Maiduan languages|Maiduan]], and [[Social:Yokutsan languages|Yokutsan languages]] (which is pronounced something like {{IPA|[pen]}}) and the [[Social:Utian languages|Utian languages]] (which is pronounced something like {{IPA|[uti]}}).<ref>Dixon & Kroeber 1913a, 1913b</ref>

Although perhaps originally intended to be pronounced {{IPAc-en|p|ɪ|ˈ|nj|uː|t|i|ə|n}}, which is indicated in some dictionaries, the term is pronounced {{IPAc-en|p|ɪ|ˈ|nj|uː|ʃ|ən}} by most if not all linguists.

===Initial concept of five core families===
The original Penutian hypothesis, offered in 1913 by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber,  was based on similarities observed between five California language families:
* [[Social:Maiduan languages|Maiduan languages]]
* Miwok
* Costanoan languages
* [[Social:Wintuan languages|Wintuan languages]]
* [[Social:Yokutsan languages|Yokutsan languages]]

That original proposal has since been called alternately ''Core Penutian'', ''California Penutian'', or the ''Penutian Kernel''. In 1919 the same two authors published their linguistic evidence for the proposal.<ref>Dixon & Kroeber 1919</ref> The grouping, like many of Dixon & Kroeber's other phylum proposals, was based mostly on shared typological characteristics and not the standard methods used to determine genetic relationships. Starting from this early date, the Penutian hypothesis was controversial.

Prior to the 1913 Penutian proposal of Dixon and Kroeber, Albert S. Gatschet had grouped Miwokan and Costanoan into a ''Mutsun'' group (1877).  That grouping, now termed [[Social:Utian languages|Utian]], was later conclusively demonstrated by Catherine Callaghan.  In 1903 Dixon & Kroeber noted a "positive relationship" among Costanoan, Maidu, Wintun, and Yokuts within a "Central or Maidu Type", from which they excluded Miwokan (their Moquelumnan).<ref>Dixon & Kroeber 1903</ref> In 1910 Kroeber finally recognized the close relationship between the Miwokan and Costanoan languages.<ref>Goddard 1996:296–297, 311</ref>

===Sapir's expansion===
In 1916 Edward Sapir expanded Dixon and Kroeber's California Penutian family with a sister stock, Oregon Penutian, which included the Coosan languages and also the [[Social:Language isolate|isolates]] Siuslaw and Takelma:

{{tree list}}
* '''''Oregon Penutian'''''
** [[Social:Coosan languages|Coosan languages]]
** Siuslaw
** Takelma
{{tree list/end}}

Later Sapir and Leo Frachtenberg added the [[Social:Kalapuyan languages|Kalapuyan]] and the [[Social:Chinookan languages|Chinookan languages]] and then later the Alsean and [[Social:Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]] families, culminating in Sapir's four-branch classification (Sapir 1921a:60):

{{tree list}}
** '''''California Penutian grouping'''''
*** Maiduan &nbsp; <small>(Maidu)</small>
*** Utian &nbsp; <small>(Miwok–Costanoan)</small>
*** Wintuan &nbsp; <small>(Wintu)</small>
*** Yokutsan &nbsp; <small>(Yokuts)</small>
** '''''Oregon Penutian grouping'''''
*** Coosan &nbsp; <small>(Coos)</small>
*** Siuslaw
*** Takelma
*** [[Social:Kalapuyan languages|Kalapuyan]] &nbsp; <small>(Kalapuya)</small>
*** Alsean &nbsp; <small>(Yakonan)</small>
** '''''[[Social:Chinookan languages|Chinookan]] family''''' &nbsp; <small>(Chinook)</small>
** '''''[[Social:Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]] family''''' &nbsp; <small>(Tsimshian)</small>
{{tree list/end}}

By the time Sapir's 1929 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' article was published, he had added two more branches:

{{tree list}}
** '''''[[Social:Plateau Penutian languages|Plateau Penutian]] family'''''
*** Klamath–Modoc &nbsp; <small>(Lutuami)</small>
*** Waiilatpuan
**** [[Social:Cayuse language|Cayuse]]
**** Molala
*** [[Social:Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian]]  &nbsp; <small>(Sahaptin)</small>
** '''''Mexican Penutian grouping'''''
*** [[Social:Mixe–Zoque languages|Mixe–Zoque]], a non-[[Social:Mayan languages|Mayan language]] spoken in populations in Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco and Veracruz
*** Huave, a [[Social:Language isolate|language isolate]] spoken in four villages on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
{{tree list/end}}

resulting in a six-branch family:

{{tree list}}
* '''Penutian'''
** California Penutian
** Oregon Penutian
** Chinookan
** Tsimshianic
** Plateau Penutian
** Mexican Penutian
{{tree list/end}}

<small>(Sapir's full 1929 classification scheme including the Penutian proposal can be seen here: [[Social:Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas#Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica|Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas]].)</small>

===Further expansions===
Other linguists have suggested other languages be included within the Penutian grouping:
* Macro-Penutian hypothesis (Benjamin Whorf)

Or have produced hypotheses of relationships between Penutian and other large-scale families:
* [[Social:Amerind languages|Amerind]] hypothesis (Joseph Greenberg)

Note: Some linguists link the Penutian hypothesis to the Zuni language. This link, proposed by Stanley Newman,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Newman|first=Stanley|date=1964|title=Comparison of Zuni and California Penutian|jstor=1263831|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=30|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1086/464754|s2cid=144850208}}</ref> is now generally rejected, and may have even been intended as a hoax by Newman.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=Jane H.|date=2002|title=Toward a linguistic prehistory of the Southwest: 'Azteco-Tanoan' and the arrival of maize cultivation.|jstor=3630675|journal=Journal of Anthropological Research|volume=58|issue=4|pages=457–475|doi=10.1086/jar.58.4.3630675|s2cid=163477187}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hill|first=Jane H.|date=2010|chapter=The Zuni language in Southwestern Areal Context |chapter-url=https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1643069 |editor=David A. Gregory, David R. Wilcox |title=Zuni Origins: Toward a New Synthesis of Southwestern Archaeology |place=Tucson |publisher=University of Arizona Press}}</ref>

===Mid-twentieth century doubts===
Scholars in the mid-twentieth century became concerned that similarities among the proposed Penutian language families may be the result of borrowing that occurred among neighboring peoples, not of a shared proto-language in the distant past. Mary Haas states the following regarding this borrowing:
<blockquote>Even where genetic relationship is clearly indicated ... the evidence of diffusion of traits from neighboring tribes, related or not, is seen on every hand.  This makes the task of determining the validity of the various alleged [[Social:Hokan languages|Hokan languages]] and the various alleged Penutian languages all the more difficult ... [and] point[s] up once again that diffusional studies are just as important for prehistory as genetic studies and what is even more in need of emphasis, it points up the desirability of pursuing diffusional studies along with genetic studies.  This is nowhere more necessary than in the case of the Hokan and Penutian languages wherever they may be found, but particularly in California where they may very well have existed side by side for many millennia.<cite>(Haas 1976:359)</cite></blockquote>

Despite the concern of Haas and others, the Consensus Classification produced at a 1964 conference in Bloomington, Indiana, retained all of Sapir's groups for North America north of Mexico within the Penutian Phylum. The opposite approach was taken following a 1976 conference at Oswego, New York, when Campbell and Mithun dismissed the Penutian phylum as undemonstrated in their resulting classification of North American language families.<ref>Goddard 1996:317–320</ref>

===Recent hypotheses===
Consensus was reached at a 1994 workshop on Comparative Penutian at the [[Organization:University of Oregon|University of Oregon]] that the families within the proposed phylum's California, Oregon, Plateau, and Chinookan clusters would eventually be shown to be genetically related.<ref>Mithun 1999:308–310</ref> Subsequently, Marie-Lucie Tarpent reassessed Tsimshianic, a geographically isolated family in northern British Columbia, and concluded that its affiliation within Penutian is also probable.<ref>Tarpent 1996, 1997</ref>


{{tree list}}
* '''Penutian'''
** '''Maritime Penutian'''
*** [[Social:Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshian]]
*** [[Social:Chinookan languages|Chinook]]
*** '''[[Social:Coast Oregon Penutian languages|Coast Oregon Penutian]]'''
**** Alsea
**** Siuslaw
**** [[Social:Coosan languages|Coos]]
** '''Inland Penutian'''
*** [[Social:Yok-Utian languages|Yok-Utian]] (from the Great Basin)
**** [[Social:Utian languages|Utian]]
**** [[Social:Yokutsan languages|Yokuts]]
*** [[Social:Maiduan languages|Maidu]] (from the Great Basin or Oregon)
*** [[Social:Plateau Penutian languages|Plateau Penutian]]
**** [[Social:Sahaptian languages|Sahaptian]]
**** Molala
**** Klamath
{{tree list/end}}

The [[Social:Wintuan languages|Wintuan languages]], Takelma, and Kalapuya, absent from this list, continue to be considered Penutian languages by most scholars familiar with the subject, often in an Oregonian branch, though Takelma and Kalapuya are no longer considered to define a branch of Penutian.<ref>Tarpent & Kendall 1998</ref>

A lexicostatistical classification and list of probable Penutian cognates has also been proposed by Zhivlov (2014).<ref>Zhivlov, Mikhail. 2014. ''[https://starling.rinet.ru/confer/Zhivlov-2014.pdf Калифорнийские пенути: группа, семья или макросемья?]''. The 9th Annual Sergei Starostin Memorial Conference on Comparative Historical Linguistics. Moscow: RSUH. {{in lang|ru}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==Evidence for the Penutian hypothesis==
Perhaps because many Penutian languages have ablaut, vowels are difficult to reconstruct. However, consonant correspondences are common. For example, the proto-Yokuts (Inland Penutian) retroflexes {{IPA|*/ʈ/ */ʈʼ/}} correspond to Klamath (Plateau Penutian) {{IPA|/t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ/}}, whereas the Proto-Yokuts dental {{IPA|*/t̪/ */t̪ʰ/ */t̪ʼ/}} correspond to Klamath alveolar {{IPA|/d t tʼ/}}. Kalapuya, Takelma, and Wintu do not show such obvious connections.

Below are some Penutian sound correspondence proposed by William Shipley,<ref>Shipley, William (1966). The Relation of Klamath to California Penutian. ''Language, 42(2)'', 489-498.</ref> cited in Campbell (1997).<ref>Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America'', pg. 314. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ California Penutian and Klamath Sound Correspondences
!c=pen| Proposed <br />Proto-Penutian
!c=klm| Klamath
!c=mai| Maidu
!c=win| Wintu
!c=pat| Patwin
!c=yok| Yokuts
!c=miw| Miwok
!c=ohl| Costanoan <br />(Ohlone)
|-
|c=pen| '''**p''', '''**ph'''
|c=klm| p, ph
|c=mai| p
|c=win| p, ph
|c=pat| p, ph
|c=yok| p, ph
|c=miw| p
|c=ohl| p
|-
|c=pen| '''**k'''
|c=klm| k
|c=mai| k
|c=win| k
|c=pat| k
|c=yok| k
|c=miw| k
|c=ohl| k
|-
|c=pen| '''**q''', '''**qh'''
|c=klm| q, qh
|c=mai| k
|c=win| q
|c=pat| k
|c=yok| x (-k)
|c=miw| k
|c=ohl| k
|-
|c=pen| '''**m'''
|c=klm| m
|c=mai| m
|c=win| m
|c=pat| m
|c=yok| m
|c=miw| m
|c=ohl| m
|-
|c=pen| '''**n'''
|c=klm| n
|c=mai| n
|c=win| n
|c=pat| n
|c=yok| n
|c=miw| n
|c=ohl| n
|-
|c=pen| '''**w'''
|c=klm| w-
|c=mai| w-
|c=win| w-
|c=pat| w-
|c=yok| w-
|c=miw| w-
|c=ohl| w-
|-
|c=pen| '''(l)'''
|c=klm| -l-
|c=mai| -l-
|c=win| -l-, -l
|c=pat| -l-, -l
|c=yok| -l-
|c=miw| -l-
|c=ohl| -l-. -r
|-
|c=pen| '''#**r'''
|c=klm| s[C, L[V
|c=mai| h
|c=win| tl, s
|c=pat| tl
|c=yok| ṭh
|c=miw| n
|c=ohl| l, r
|-
|c=pen| '''**-r-'''
|c=klm| d, l
|c=mai| d
|c=win| (r?)
|c=pat| r
|c=yok| ṭh
|c=miw| (n?)
|c=ohl| r
|-
|c=pen| '''**-r'''
|c=klm| ʔ
|c=mai| ʔ
|c=win| r
|c=pat| r
|c=yok| ṭh
|c=miw| n
|c=ohl| r
|-
|c=pen| '''**s'''
|c=klm| s-
|c=mai| s-
|c=win|
|c=pat|
|c=yok| s-
|c=miw| s-
|c=ohl|
|}

==See also==

* [[Social:Hokan languages|Hokan languages]]
* [[Social:Macro-Mayan languages|Macro-Mayan languages]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Howard |year=1996 |title=The position of Molala in Plateau Penutian |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1086/466273 |jstor=1265945 |s2cid=143787821 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Callaghan |first=Catherine A. |year=1967 |title=Miwok–Costanoan as a Subfamily of Penutian |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=33 |issue=3 |jstor=1264214 |pages=224–227 |doi=10.1086/464964 |s2cid=144821404 }}
* Callaghan, Catherine. (1997). Evidence for Yok-Utian. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', pages 18–64
* Callaghan, Catherine. (2001). More evidence for Yok-Utian: A reanalysis of the Dixon and Kroeber sets ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''67'' (3), pages 313–346
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509427-1}}
* DeLancey, Scott; & Golla, Victor. (1997). The Penutian hypothesis: Retrospect and prospect. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', 171–202
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1903). The native languages of California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''5'', 1–26
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913a). New linguistic families in California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''15'', 647–655
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913b). Relationship of the Indian languages of California. ''Science'', ''37'', 225
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1919). ''Linguistic families of California'' (pp.&nbsp;47–118) Berkeley: University of California
* Goddard, Ives. (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America" In ''Languages'', Ives Goddard, ed., pp.&nbsp;290–324. Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 17, W. C. Sturtevant, general ed. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|0-16-048774-9}}
* Golla, Victor. (2007). "Linguistic Prehistory" in ''California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity'', pp.&nbsp;71–82. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York: Altamira Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7591-0872-1}}
* Golla, Victor. (2011). ''California Indian Languages''. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5202-6667-4}}
* Grant, Anthony. (1997). Coast Oregon Penutian. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', 144–156
* Kroeber, Alfred L. (1910). The Chumash and Costanoan languages. ''University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology'', ''9'', 259–263
* Liedtke, Stefan. (1995). ''Wakashan, Salishan and Penutian and Wider Connections Cognate Sets. Linguistic data on diskette series, no. 09. Munich: Lincom Europa, z\v1995''. {{ISBN|3-929075-24-5}}
* Liedtke, Stefan. (2007).''The Relationship of Wintuan to Plateau Penutian''. LINCOM studies in Native American linguistics, 55. Munich: Lincom Europa. {{ISBN|978-3-89586-357-8}}
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-23228-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-521-29875-X}}.
* Sapir, Edward. (1921a). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1263181 A Characteristic Penutian Form of Stem.] ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', 2(1/2): 58–67
* Sapir, Edward. (1921b). A bird's-eye view of American languages north of Mexico. ''Science'', ''54'', 408
* Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (14th ed.; Vol. 5; pp.&nbsp;138–141)
* Sutton, Imre, (2002)  "The Ob-Ugrian/Cal-Ugrian Connection: Rediscovering 'The Discovery of California"", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,26(4): 113–120
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1996). Reattaching Tsimshianic to Penutian. ''Survey of California and Other Indian Languages'' 9:91–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1997). Tsimshianic and Penutian: problems, methods, results, and implications. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 63:65–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie & Daythal Kendall. (1998). "On the relationship between Takelma and Kalapuyan: another look at 'Takelman'. Paper presented to the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas: Annual Meeting, Linguistic Society of America, New York
* Von Sadovszky, Otto J., (1996)  The Discovery of California: A Cal-Ugrian Comparative Study,  Istor Books 3 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiadó and Los Angeles: International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research)

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050411233252/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~delancey/penutian.html Penutian (Scott DeLancey's site)] (has online papers)
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20050316172031/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~delancey/bib/penbib.html Bibliography of comparative Penutian]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001061344/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~delancey/papers/bls96.html The Bipartite Stem Belt: Disentangling Areal and Genetic Correspondences]
* [http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/lang.html Tribal Language Groups of Northern and Central California]
** [http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc_images/bibs/maps/lingmap.gif California Tribal Linguistics Groups map (.gif)]
** [http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc_images/bibs/maps/tribemap.gif California Indian Tribal Groups Map (.gif)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050406184804/http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/Oregon/genetic.html List of proposed Penutian languages in Oregon]
* [http://www.californiaprehistory.com/tribmap.html Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California in 1770] (map after Kroeber)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080123180422/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200402/ai_n9373568 Mitochondrial DNA and Prehistoric Settlements: Native Migrations on the Western Edge of North America]

{{language families}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Penutian Languages}}
[[Category:Proposed language families]]

{{Sourceattribution|Penutian languages}}