View source for Social:Proto-Niger–Congo language

{{Short description|Reconstructed ancestor of the Niger-Congo language family}}
{{Infobox proto-language
| name       = Proto-Niger–Congo
| acceptance = hypothetical
| familycolor= Niger-Congo
| region     = [[Earth:Africa|Africa]]
| era        = Early {{MILLENNIUM|-8000}}
| target     = [[Social:Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo languages]]
| child1     = [[Social:Proto-Bantu language|Proto-Bantu]]; [[Social:Proto-Yoruboid language|Proto-Yoruboid]]
| child2     = 
}}

'''Proto-Niger–Congo''' is the hypothetical reconstructed [[Social:Proto-language|proto-language]] of the proposed Niger–Congo language family.

==Validity==
Unlike [[Social:Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]], the Niger–Congo language phylum is accepted by mainstream linguists and Africanists.<ref name="Guldemann"/> [[Social:Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]] (roughly, Niger–Congo but excluding the [[Social:Mande languages|Mande]], [[Social:Kru languages|Kru]], Siamou, Kordofanian, [[Social:Dogon languages|Dogon]] and [[Social:Ijoid languages|Ijoid languages]]) is accepted by ''[[Social:Glottolog|Glottolog]]'' 4.4.

==Origin==
{{see|Niger–Congo languages#Origin|Linguistic homeland#Niger–Congo|Haplogroup E-V38|Haplogroup E-M2|Bantu expansion}}
Blench (2006,<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast">{{Cite book|title=Archaeology, language, and the African past|last=Blench|first=Roger|publisher=AltaMira Press|year=2006|isbn=9780759104655}}</ref> 2016<ref>Blench, Roger. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/discussions/Can_we_visit_the_graves_of_the_first_Niger.pdf Can we visit the graves of the first Niger-Congo speakers?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.</ref>) proposes that Proto-Niger-Congo originated about 11-10,000 years before present in the western part of the "Green Sahara" of Africa (roughly the [[Place:Sahel|Sahel]] and southern Sahara), and that its dispersal can be correlated with the spread of the [[Bow and arrow|bow and arrow]] by migrating [[Biology:Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer]]s.

==Phonology==
===Tones===
Larry Hyman (2016) reconstructs two contrastive level [[Social:Tone (linguistics)|tones]] for Proto-Niger–Congo, which are:<ref name="Hyman2016">{{cite journal|last1=Hyman|first1=Larry M.|title=On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo|journal=UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Reports|volume=12|year=2016|issn=2768-5047|doi=10.5070/P7121040722|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Hyman, Larry. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/Hyman%20Paris%20Niger-Congo%20HO2.pdf Can we visit the graves of the first Niger-Congo speakers?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.</ref>

* *H (high tone)
* *L (low tone)

===Syllabic structure===
Proto-Niger–Congo is traditionally assumed to have had a disyllabic root structure similar to that of [[Social:Proto-Bantu language|Proto-Bantu]], namely (C)V-CVCV<ref name="BlenchWrong"/> (Williamson 2000,<ref>Williamson, Kay. 2000. Proto-Niger-Congo. In: H. Ekkehard Wolff, Orin D. Gensler (eds). ''Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress of African Linguistics, Leipzig 1997'', pp.49-70. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. ISBN 9783896451248.</ref> etc.). However, Roger Blench (2016) proposes a trisyllabic (CVCVCV) syllabic structure for Proto-Niger–Congo roots,<ref name="BlenchWrong">Blench, Roger. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/Blench-NC%20three%20consonant%20roots.pdf Supposing we have been completely wrong about the shape of early Niger-Congo roots?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.</ref> while Konstantin Pozdniakov (2016) suggests that the main prototypical structure of Proto-Niger–Congo roots is *CVC, along with disyllabic, trisyllabic, and other variations.<ref>Pozdniakov, Konstantin. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/pozdniakov-word_structure.pptx Proto-Niger-Congo root structures]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.</ref>

==Morphology==
===Noun classes===
Noun classes can be reconstructed for Proto-Niger–Congo. Noun class prefixes in Proto-Niger–Congo include:<ref name="Guldemann"/>

*''noun class 1'': prefix for human singular
*''noun class 2'': prefix for human plural
*''noun class 6A'': prefix for liquid and mass nouns ("uncountables")

Below are some Niger-Congo noun class markers (Good 2020:145,<ref name="Good">Good, Jeff. 2020. Niger-Congo, with a special focus on Benue-Congo. In: Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. ''The Oxford Handbook of African Languages'', pp. 139-160. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> from Schadeberg 1989:72<ref>Schadeberg, Thilo C. (1989). ‘Kordofanian’, in J. Bendor-Samuel (ed.). ''The Niger-Congo Languages: A classification and description of Africa's largest language family'', 66-80. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.</ref>):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Branch !! 1 !! 1 (semantic category) !! 3 !! 4 !! 4  (semantic category)!! 5 !! 6 !! 6 (semantic categories) !! 6a !! 6a (semantic category)
|-
| Kordofanian || *gu- || humans || *gu- || *j- || ‘tree’ || *li- || *ŋu- || ‘egg’ || *ŋ- || liquids
|-
| Atlantic || *gu- || humans || *gʊ- || *Ci- || ‘trees’ || *de- || *ga- || ‘head, name’ || *ma- || liquids
|-
| Oti–Volta (Gur) || *-ʊ || humans || *-bʊ || *-Ci || ‘tree’ || *-ɖɪ || *-a || ‘egg, head’ || *-ma || liquids
|-
| Ghana–Togo (Kwa) || *o- || humans || *o- || *i- || ‘firewood’ || *li- || *a- || ‘egg, head, name’ || *N- || liquids
|-
| Benue–Congo || *u- || humans || *u- || *(t)i- || ‘tree’ || *li- || *a- || ‘egg, head, name’ || *ma- || liquids
|-
| Bantu (noun) || *mu- || humans || *mu- || *mi- || ‘tree’ || *i̧- || *ma- || ‘egg, name’ || *ma- || liquids
|-
| Bantu (pronoun) || *ju- ||  || *gu- || *gi- ||  || *di- || *ga- ||  || *ga- || 
|}

===Verbal extensions===
Below are some Proto-Niger-Congo, Proto-Bantu, and Proto-Atlantic verbal extensions (Good 2020:146,<ref name="Good"/> from Hyman 2007:157<ref>Hyman, L. M. (2007). ‘Niger-Congo verb extensions: overview and discussion’, in D. L. Payne and J. Pena (eds.), ''Selected Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference on African Linguistics''. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla, 149-63.</ref>):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Type of suffix !! Proto-Niger-Congo !! Proto-Bantu !! Proto-Atlantic
|-
! applicative
| *-de || *-ɪd || *-ed
|-
! causative
| *-ci, *-ti || *-ic-i || *-an
|-
! passive
| *-o || *-ɪb-ʊ || *-V[+back]
|-
! reciprocal
| *-na || *-an || *-ad
|-
! reversive
| *-to || *-ʊd || *-ɪt
|}

For example, in [[Social:Swahili language|Swahili]]:
*verb root: ''penda'' 'to love'
**reciprocal: ''pendana'' 'to love each other'
**applicative: ''pendea'' 'to love for'
**[[Social:Causative|causative]]: ''pendeza'' 'to please'

==Pronouns==
Güldemann's (2018) Proto-Niger–Congo pronoun reconstructions, for the first and second person pronouns (singular and plural), are given below.<ref name="Guldemann">{{Cite book|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa|last=Güldemann|first=Tom|editor-last=Güldemann|editor-first=Tom|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa|year=2018|isbn=978-3-11-042606-9|doi=10.1515/9783110421668-002|location=Berlin|pages=58–444|series=The World of Linguistics series|volume=11|s2cid=133888593 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!  !! singular !! plural
|-
! 1st person
| *mV<sup>front</sup> || *TV<sup>close</sup>
|-
! 2nd person
| *mV<sup>back</sup> || *NV<sup>close</sup>
|}

Babaev (2013) is a detailed survey of pronouns in Niger–Congo languages, along with detailed reconstructions.<ref name="Babaev">{{cite book|last=Babaev|first=Kirill Vladimirovich|title=Нигеро-конголезский праязык: Личные местоимения|publisher=Языки славянской культуры (ЯСК)|publication-place=Moscow|year=2013|isbn=978-5-9551-0642-7|oclc=861922684|language=ru}}</ref>

==Numerals==
Konstantin Pozdniakov (2018) has published a detailed reconstruction of Proto-Niger–Congo numerals, as well as comprehensive reconstructions for the lower-order branches of the Niger–Congo phylum. Pozdniakov (2018: 293)<ref name="Pozdniakov">{{Cite book|last=Pozdniakov|first=Konstantin|title=The numeral system of Proto-Niger-Congo: A step-by-step reconstructio |series=Niger-Congo Comparative Studies |place=Berlin|publisher=Language Science Press|date=2018|format=pdf|url=http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/191|doi=10.5281/zenodo.1311704 |doi-access=free|isbn=978-3-96110-098-9}}</ref> and Güldemann (2018: 147) reconstruct the following numerals for Proto-Niger–Congo.<ref name="Guldemann"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Numeral !! Proto-Niger–Congo<br/>(Pozdniakov 2018) !! Proto-Niger–Congo<br/>(Güldemann 2018)
|-
! 1
| *ku-(n)-di (> ni/-in), *do, *gbo/*kpo || 
|-
! 2
| *ba-di || *Ri
|-
! 3
| *tat / *tath || *ta(C)
|-
! 4
| *na(h)i || *na(C)
|-
! 5
| *tan, *nu(n) || *nU
|-
! 6
| 5+1 || 
|-
! 7
| 5+2 || 
|-
! 8
| *na(i)nai (< 4 reduplicated) || 
|-
! 9
| 5+4 || 
|-
! 10
| *pu / *fu || 
|-
! 20
| < ‘person’ || 
|}

The numerals 6-9 are formed by combining lower numerals, while ‘20’ is derived from ‘person’.

==Lexicon==
There is currently no comprehensive, systematic reconstruction for Proto-Niger–Congo lexical roots. Nevertheless, quasi-reconstructions (preliminary, tentative reconstructions, which are marked using the number sign #) have been attempted by Roger Blench, who is currently compiling a Niger–Congo etymological dictionary. Some examples from Blench (2016):<ref name="BlenchWrong"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Proto-Niger–Congo !! Gloss
|-
| *keɗeri || to split, cut, break
|-
| *suŋguri || to wash (transitive)
|-
| #tokori || chew
|-
| *siŋguri || rub, smear
|-
| *ɗumigbi || bury, dig, grave, plant
|-
| #tɪ́gbʊ́rɪ́ || head
|-
| #gbukuru || tortoise, turtle
|-
| #goŋgboro || chest
|-
| #kpagara || leg, foot
|-
| #ku(n)duŋo || knee
|-
| #-bugbulu || hole
|-
| #kVnV || one
|-
| *tunuru || five
|}

{{ill|Hans Günther Mukarovsky|de|Hans Günther Mukarovsky}}'s reconstruction of Proto-Western Nigritic (roughly equivalent to Proto-[[Social:Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]<ref>Blench, Roger. ''[http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/Westermann%20complete.pdf Kordofanian and Niger-Congo: new and revised lexical evidence]''. Cambrdige: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.</ref>) was published in 2 volumes in 1976 and 1977.<ref>Mukarovsky, Hans. 1976-1977. ''A study of Western Nigritic'' (2 vols). Wien: Institut für Ägyptologie und Afrikanistik, Universität Wien.</ref>

===Plants===
Blench (2009) lists various Niger–Congo quasi-reconstructions for plants with important economic uses (note that not all of them necessarily reconstruct to Proto-Niger–Congo). These roots are generally widespread areal forms (''[[Social:Wanderwort|Wanderwort]]s''), with some of them also found in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages.<ref>Blench, Roger. 2009. [https://www.academia.edu/4345929/New_reconstructions_of_West_African_economic_plants New reconstructions of West African economic plants]. In: Jörg Adelberger & Rudolf Leger (eds.): ''Language, History and Reconstructions''. Frankfurter Afrikanistische Blätter 21 (2009) XX-XX. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln.</ref> A few forms are also added from some of Blench's other works (2006, 2012, 2016).

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Niger–Congo form !! Common name !! Scientific name(s) !! Notes
|-
| #-bal- || palm spp. || ''Raphia sudanica''; ''[[Biology:Elaeis guineensis|Elaeis guineensis]]'' || 
|-
| #-kundi- || dryzone palm || ''Phoenix reclinata''; ''[[Biology:Borassus aethiopum|Borassus aethiopum]]''; ''[[Biology:Raphia (plant)|Raphia]]'' sp. || 
|-
| #-bila- || oil-palm (?) || ''[[Biology:Elaeis guineensis|Elaeis guineensis]]'' || 
|-
| #-eli- || oil-palm || ''[[Biology:Elaeis guineensis|Elaeis guineensis]]'' || 
|-
| #-ten- || oil-palm || ''[[Biology:Elaeis guineensis|Elaeis guineensis]]'' || 
|-
| #(n)gbaŋ- || fan-palm || ''[[Biology:Borassus aethiopum|Borassus aethiopum]]'' || 
|-
| #lona<ref name="BlenchAgrarian">Blench, Roger. 2016. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience/Plants/General/Blench%20IWAA%207%20paper.pdf Reconstructing African agrarian prehistory by combining different sources of evidence: methodological considerations and examples for west African economic plants]. In: ''News from the Past; Progress in African Archaeobotany. Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on African Archaeobotany, Vienna, 2-5th July, 2012''. U. Thanheiser ed. 13-26. Groningen: Barkhuis.</ref> || locust bean tree || ''[[Biology:Parkia biglobosa|Parkia biglobosa]]'' || 
|-
| #-(g)be || cola nut || ''Cola nitida'', ''Cola acuminata'' || 
|-
| #goro || cola nut || ''Cola nitida'', ''Cola acuminata'' || 
|-
| #kum || silk-cotton tree || ''[[Biology:Ceiba pentandra|Ceiba pentandra]]'' || 
|-
| #kom- || African mahogany || ''[[Biology:Khaya senegalensis|Khaya senegalensis]]'' || 
|-
| #ŋ-kpunu || shea tree; ‘oil, fat’ || ''Vitellaria paradoxa'' || 
|-
| #-par || African olive, bush-candle || ''Canarium schweinfurthii'' || 
|-
| #kVN- || [[Biology:Sorghum|sorghum]], guinea-corn || ''[[Biology:Sorghum bicolor|Sorghum bicolor]]'' || 
|-
| #mar(d)a || [[Biology:Pearl millet|pearl millet]] || ''[[Biology:Pennisetum glaucum|Pennisetum glaucum]]'' || also widespread in West Chadic
|-
| #fundi<ref name="BlenchAfricanMillets">{{cite journal|last1=Blench|first1=Roger M.|title=Vernacular names for African millets and other minor cereals and their significance for agricultural history|journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences|volume=8|issue=1|year=2012|pages=1–8|issn=1866-9557|doi=10.1007/s12520-012-0104-5|s2cid=128906570 }}</ref> || [[Biology:Fonio|fonio]] || ''[[Biology:Digitaria exilis|Digitaria exilis]]'' || in Mande, Atlantic, Gur, etc.
|-
| #ku; #ji<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || yam || ''[[Biology:Dioscorea|Dioscorea]]'' spp. || 
|-
| #-tom || aerial yam || ''[[Biology:Dioscorea bulbifera|Dioscorea bulbifera]]'' || widespread in Nigeria and western Cameroon<ref name="BlenchAgrarian"/>
|-
| #koko || cocoyam, [[Biology:Taro|taro]] || ''[[Biology:Colocasia esculenta|Colocasia esculenta]]'' || 
|-
| #zo(ko) || [[Biology:Cowpea|cowpea]] || ''[[Biology:Vigna unguiculata|Vigna unguiculata]]'' || in Central Nigeria; Benue-Congo has *kón (Proto-Manenguba) and *-kʊ́ndè (Proto-Bantu)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
|-
| #-kpa<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || Bambara groundnut || ''[[Biology:Vigna subterranea|Vigna subterranea]]'' || West Benue-Congo
|-
| #-gunu<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || Bambara groundnut || ''[[Biology:Vigna subterranea|Vigna subterranea]]'' || East Benue-Congo
|-
| #-wi || Bambara groundnut || ''[[Biology:Vigna subterranea|Vigna subterranea]]'' || Plateau languages
|-
| #-kora || [[Biology:Calabash|calabash]], gourd || ''[[Biology:Lagenaria siceraria|Lagenaria siceraria]]''; ''[[Biology:Cucurbita|Cucurbita]]'' spp. || 
|-
| #kom- || enset, [[Biology:Banana|banana]] || ''[[Biology:Musa (genus)|Musa]]'' spp. || 
|-
| #konde || [[Biology:Cooking banana|plantain]] || ''Musa paradisiaca'' || 
|-
| #màaló (?) || rice || ''[[Biology:Oryza glaberrima|Oryza glaberrima]]'' || Proto-Manding reconstruction; widespread form across West Africa<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
|}

Other plant names with widespread areal distributions in West Africa:
*''[[Biology:Milicia excelsa|Milicia excelsa]]'': odum, iroko (in Ghana and Nigeria)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
*''[[Biology:Funtumia elastica|Funtumia elastica]]'' (bush rubber tree): o-fruntum (in Ghana)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
*''[[Biology:Sesamum indicum|Sesamum indicum]]'' (sesame): #-sVwa (Benue-Congo)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
*''[[Biology:Abelmoschus esculentus|Abelmoschus esculentus]]'' (okra): ɔ́kʊrʊ, ɪkɪabʊ, akɛnɛta (in southern Nigeria)<ref name="BlenchAgrarian"/>

===Animals===
Below are some quasi-reconstructions of Niger–Congo areal forms for animal names given by Blench (2007<ref>Blench, Roger. 2007. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience/Animals/Mammals/Blench%20Paris%202007%20final%20published.pdf Lexical avoidance taboos and the reconstruction of names for large animals in Niger-Congo, an African language phylum]. In: Edmond Dounias, Elisabeth Motte-Florac and Margaret Dunham (eds). ''Le symbolisme des animaux - l’animal “clef de voûte” dans la tradition orale et les interactions homme-nature''. 545-569 + unpaginated appendices. Paris: Editions IRD.</ref>), with some reconstructions also based on Blench (2006).<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Niger–Congo form !! Common name !! Distribution
|-
| #jata || lion || Mande-Congo
|-
| #guni || lion || areal form
|-
| #-bungu || hyena || Volta-Congo
|-
| #-biti || hyena || Proto-Benue-Kwa
|-
| #murum || hyena || Central Nigeria
|-
| #gbali || elephant || Mande-Congo
|-
| #-nyi || elephant || Benue-Kwa ?; also means 'tusk'
|-
| #-solu || elephant || Volta-Congo
|-
| #-bu || dog || Proto-Niger-Congo
|-
| #kuru<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || crocodile || Niger-Congo (Proto-Bantu has #-gandu)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
|-
| #budi<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || goat || Niger-Congo (Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan have #k-r-)<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
|-
| #-ga<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/> || [[Biology:Village weaver|village weaver]] || Benue-Congo<ref name="BlenchAfricanPast"/>
|}

==See also==
*[[Social:Proto-Bantu language|Proto-Bantu language]]
*[[Social:Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic language]]
*[[Biology:Haplogroup E-M2|Haplogroup E-M2]]

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Güldemann|first1=Tom|title=Geographical Typology and Linguistic Areas |chapter=Proto-Bantu and Proto-Niger-Congo: Macro-areal Typology and Linguistic Reconstruction|series=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies |volume=2|year=2011|pages=109|issn=1877-6248|doi=10.1075/tufs.2.09gul|isbn=978-90-272-0769-2 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Sim|first1=Galina|title=Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction, Paris, LLACAN, September 1–3, 2016|journal=Journal of Language Relationship|volume=14|issue=3–4|year=2017|pages=207–210|issn=2219-4029|doi=10.31826/jlr-2017-143-408|doi-access=free}}
*Grollemund, Rebecca, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016. ''[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/abstracts/Grollemund_Hombert_Pagel-Genetic%20Unity%20of%20the%20Niger-Congo%20family.pdf Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family]''. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]
*[http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/ Niger-Congo Reconstruction] project at LLACAN


{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Niger-Congo Language}}
[[Category:Proto-languages|Niger-Congo]]

{{Sourceattribution|Proto-Niger–Congo language}}