View source for Social:Semi-presidential republic

{{Short description|System of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet}}
{{Executive}}
A '''semi-presidential republic''', or '''dual executive republic''', is a [[Social:Republic|republic]] in which a [[Social:President (government title)|president]] exists alongside a [[Social:Prime minister|prime minister]] and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the [[Earth:State (polity)|state]]. It differs from a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] in that it has an executive [[Social:Head of state|head of state]]; and from the [[Social:Presidential system|presidential system]] in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the [[Social:Legislature|legislature]], which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.<ref name="Duverger1980">{{Cite journal |last=Duverger|journal=European Journal of Political Research |type=quarterly |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=165–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x |doi-access=free |quote=The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered as semi-presidential if the constitution which established  it, combines three elements: (1) the president  of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) he possesses quite considerable powers; (3) he has opposite him, however, a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to them. |title=A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government|year=1980}}</ref><ref name="Veser1997">{{Cite journal |last=Veser |first=Ernst |year=1997 |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/app/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf |journal=Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=39–60 |access-date=21 August 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Pouvoirs1996">{{cite magazine |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |date=September 1996 |title=Les monarchies républicaines |trans-title=The Republican Monarchies |url=http://www.revue-pouvoirs.fr/IMG/pdf/78Pouvoirs_p107-120_monarchies_republicaines.pdf |language=fr |magazine=Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |oclc=909782158 |issn=0152-0768 |isbn=2-02-030123-7 |issue=78 |pages=107–120 |access-date=10 September 2016 }}</ref><ref name="DuvergerRevisited">{{cite journal |last1=Bahro |first1=Horst |last2=Bayerlein |first2=Bernhard H. |last3=Veser |first3=Ernst |author-link3=:de:Ernst Veser |date=October 1998 |title=Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited |journal=European Journal of Political Research |type=quarterly |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=201–224 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.00405 |s2cid=153349701 |quote=The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a general consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):<br />1. the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage,<br />2. he possesses quite considerable powers and<br />3. he has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to him. }}</ref>

While the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and {{wipe|Finland}} (from 1919 to 2000) exemplified early semi-presidential systems, the term "semi-presidential" was first introduced in 1959 in an article by journalist Hubert Beuve-Méry,<ref>''Le Monde'', 8 January 1959.</ref> and popularized by a 1978 work written by political scientist Maurice Duverger,<ref name="Duverger1978">{{Cite book |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |title=Échec au roi |publisher=A. Michel |location=Paris |year=1978 |isbn=9782226005809 }}</ref> both of whom intended to describe the French Fifth Republic (established in 1958).<ref name="Duverger1980" /><ref name="Veser1997" /><ref name="Pouvoirs1996" /><ref name="DuvergerRevisited" />

== Definition ==
Maurice Duverger's original definition of semi-presidentialism stated that the president had to be elected, possess significant power, and serve for a fixed term.<ref name = Elgie2013>{{cite journal |last1=Elgie |first1=Robert |title=Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-Presidentialism: Bringing Parties Back In |journal=Government and Opposition |date=2 January 2013 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=392–409 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.2011.01345.x|s2cid=145748468 |url=http://doras.dcu.ie/20746/1/G_and_O_Samuels_and_Shugart_DORAS.pdf }}</ref> Modern definitions merely declare that the head of state has to be elected, and that a separate prime minister that is dependent on parliamentary confidence has to lead the legislative.<ref name="Elgie2013"/>

== Subtypes ==
There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism.

Under the '''premier-presidential''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde,<ref name="Neto2010">{{cite journal |last1=Neto |first1=Octávio Amorim |last2=Lobo |first2= Marina Costa |year=2010 |title=Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics: Semi-Presidentialism in Portuguese-Speaking Countries |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1666842_code1512429.pdf |journal=APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper |ssrn=1644026 |access-date=18 August 2017 }}</ref> East Timor,<ref name="Neto2010" /><ref name="Beuman2016">{{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |oclc=983148216 |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books }}</ref> {{wipe|France}}, Lithuania, {{wipe|Madagascar}}, Mali, Mongolia, Niger, [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (2013–2018), {{wipe|Poland}} (''de facto'', however, according to the Constitution, Poland is a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]]),<ref name="McMenamin">{{cite journal |last=McMenamin |first=Iain |title=Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland |url= http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212225305/http://webpages.dcu.ie/~mcmenami/Poland_semi-presidentialism_2.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2012 |publisher=School of Law and Government, Dublin City University |access-date=11 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_2009?lang=en |website=www.constituteproject.org |access-date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="CIA-2021">{{cite web |title=Poland - The World Factbook |date=22 September 2021 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/#government |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> Portugal, Romania, São Tomé and Príncipe,<ref name="Neto2010" /> Sri Lanka, [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]] (''de facto'' between 2014–2018, until the constitutional amendment to switch the government to [[Social:Presidential system|presidential]] from [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]), and {{wipe|Ukraine}} (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010).<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |department=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |location=United States |publisher=[[Organization:University of California, San Diego|University of California, San Diego]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, [[Organization:University of California, San Diego|University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2017 }}</ref>

Under the '''president-parliamentary''' system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president and to the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet, but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence''. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It is used in: Guinea-Bissau,<ref name="Neto2010" /> Mozambique, {{wipe|Russia}}, and Taiwan. It was also used in Ukraine (first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014), Georgia (from 2004 to 2013), South Korea under the Fourth and Fifth republics, and in {{wipe|Germany}} during the Weimar Republic.<ref name="Shugart2005-Draft" /><ref name="Shugart2005" />

== Cohabitation ==
{{Further|Social:Cohabitation (government)}}
In a semi-presidential system, the president and the prime minister may sometimes be from different political parties. This is called "[[Social:Cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]", a term which originated in France after the situation first arose in the 1980s. Cohabitation can create either an effective system of [[Philosophy:Separation of powers|checks and balances]], or a period of bitter and tense stonewalling, depending on the attitudes of the two leaders, the ideologies of themselves/their parties, and the demands of their supporters.<ref name="JVPoulard1990">{{cite journal |last=Poulard |first=Jean V. |name-list-style=vanc |date=Summer 1990 |title=The French Double Executive and the Experience of Cohabitation |url=http://www.psqonline.org/article.cfm?IDArticle=12601 |access-date=7 October 2017 |url-access=subscription |format=PDF |journal=Political Science Quarterly |type=quarterly |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=243–267 |doi=10.2307/2151025 |doi-access=free |issn=0032-3195 |jstor=2151025 |jstor-access=free |oclc=4951242513 }}</ref>

== Division of powers ==
The distribution of power between the president and the prime minister can vary greatly between countries.

In {{wipe|France}}, for example, in the case of cohabitation, the president oversees foreign policy and defense policy (these are generally called ''les prérogatives présidentielles'', presidential prerogatives) and the prime minister is in charge of domestic policy and [[Finance:Economic policy|economic policy]].<ref>See article 5, title II, of the French Constitution of 1958. Jean Massot, [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/documentation-publications/dossiers-thematiques/2008-cinquantenaire-la-constitution-en-20-questions/la-constitution-en-20-questions-question-n-6.17355.html Quelle place la Constitution de 1958 accorde-t-elle au Président de la République?], Constitutional Council of France website (in French).</ref> In this case, the division of responsibilities between the [[Social:Prime minister|prime minister]] and the [[Social:President (government title)|president]] is not explicitly stated in the constitution, but has evolved as a [[Social:Constitutional convention (political custom)|political convention]] based on the constitutional principle that the prime minister is appointed (with the subsequent approval of a parliament majority) and dismissed by the president.<ref name="Larousse">Le Petit Larousse 2013 p. 880</ref> On the other hand, whenever the president and the prime minister represent the same political party, which leads the cabinet, they tend to exercise ''de facto'' control over all fields of policy via the prime minister. However, it is up to the president to decide how much autonomy is left to said prime minister.

In most cases, cohabitation results from a system in which the two executives are not elected at the same time or for the same term. For example, in 1981, France elected both a Socialist president and legislature, which yielded a Socialist premier. But while the president's term of office was for seven years, the National Assembly only served for five. When, in the 1986 legislative election, the French people elected a right-of-centre assembly, Socialist president François Mitterrand was forced into cohabitation with right-wing premier Jacques Chirac.<ref name="JVPoulard1990" />

However, in 2000, amendments to the French constitution reduced the length of the French president's term to five years. This has significantly lowered the chances of cohabitation occurring, as parliamentary and presidential elections may now be conducted within a shorter span of each other.

== Advantages and disadvantages ==
The incorporation of elements from both presidential and parliamentary republics can bring certain advantageous elements; however, it also creates  disadvantages, often related to the confusion produced by mixed authority patterns.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLLuWYL8gTsC&pg=PA169|title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices|first=Lowell|last=Barrington|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1111341930}}</ref><ref name="Barrington2009">{{cite book |last1=Barrington |first1=Lowell |last2=Bosia |first2=Michael J. |last3=Bruhn |first3=Kathleen |last4=Giaimo |first4=Susan |last5=McHenry, Jr. |first5=Dean E. |year=2012 |orig-year=2009 |title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLLuWYL8gTsC&pg=PA169 |edition=2nd |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning |pages=169–170 |isbn=9781111341930 |lccn=2011942386 |access-date=9 September 2017 |via=[[Google Books]] }}</ref>

'''Advantages'''
* Parliament has the ability to remove an unpopular prime minister, therefore maintaining stability throughout the president's [[Philosophy:Mandate (politics)|fixed term]].
* In most semi-presidential systems, important segments of bureaucracy are taken away from the president, creating additional checks and balances where the running of the day-to-day government and its issues are separate from the head of state, and as such, its issues tend to be looked at on their own merits, with their ebbs and flows and not necessarily tied to who the head of state is.
* Having a separate head of government who needs to command the confidence of the parliament is seen as being more in tune to the political and economic development of the country. Because the head of government is elected from the parliament, there is little potential for political gridlock to occur, since the parliament has the power to remove the head of government if needed.

'''Disadvantages'''
* The system provides [[Philosophy:Separation of powers|cover]] for the president, as unpopular policies could be blamed on the prime minister, who runs the day-to-day operations of the government.
* It creates a sense of confusion towards [[Social:Accountability|accountability]], as there is no relatively clear sense of who is responsible for policy successes and failures.
* It creates both confusion and inefficiency in the [[Social:Legislature|legislative process]], since the capacity of votes of confidence makes the prime minister respond to the parliament.

== Republics with a semi-presidential system of government ==
''Italics'' indicate states with limited recognition.

=== Premier-presidential systems ===
The president has the authority to choose the prime minister and the cabinet, but only the parliament may remove them from office through a ''vote of no confidence''. However, even though the president does not have the power to directly dismiss the prime minister or the cabinet, they can dissolve parliament. 
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
* {{flag|Burkina Faso}}  (suspended while the government is controlled by a military junta since the January 2022 coup
* {{flag|Cape Verde}}
* {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
* {{flag|East Timor}}

* {{flag|France}}{{efn|In France, the president chooses the prime minister (if they do not have a majority in the National Assembly, they have to choose the leader of the opposition) but can only dismiss them if they have a majority in the National Assembly. The National Assembly can remove the prime minister from office with a ''vote of no confidence''. The president can also dissolve the National Assembly once a year.}}
* {{flag|Haiti}}
* {{flag|Lithuania}}
* {{flag|Madagascar}}
* {{flag|Mongolia}}
* {{flag|Niger}}
* {{flag|Poland}} (de facto; de jure a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]]){{efn|Poland has been identified as a ''de facto'' semi-presidential republic as the President does exercise some form of governance and appoints the Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence.<ref name="Veser1997b">{{cite web |last=Veser |first=Ernst |date=23 September 1997 |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/publication/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf |access-date=21 August 2017 |publisher=Department of Education, School of Education, [[Organization:University of Cologne|University of Cologne]] |language=en, zh |pages=39–60 |quote=Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's ''pléiade'' as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87). }}</ref><ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=21 August 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Shugart2005b">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 August 2017 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account. }}</ref><ref name="McMenamin"/>}}
* {{flag|Portugal}}
* {{flag|Romania}}
* {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
* {{flag|Serbia}} (de facto; de jure a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]]){{efn|Current Prime Minister Ana Brnabić has been cited by political scientist Krzysztof Zuba as an example of a head of government with extensive political dependence on a leader of the governing party.<ref name=Zuba>{{cite journal|last1=Zuba|first1=Krzysztof|title=Leaders without Leadership: Surrogate Governments in Poland |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2019|volume=72|pages=33–54|doi=10.1080/09668136.2019.1673321|s2cid=211437470}}</ref> Opposition leaders and some observers describe Brnabić as a mere puppet of President Aleksandar Vučić, whose presidency, according to the Constitution is largely ceremonial with no significant executive power.<ref name=Surk>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/28/world/europe/serbia-ana-brnabic-prime-minister.html|title=Serbia Gets Its First Female, and First Openly Gay, Premier|last=Surk|first=Barbara|date=28 June 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=30 June 2017|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=Zuba /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dn.pt/mundo/servia-escolhe-primeira-mulher-para-liderar-governo-e-agradar-a-ue-8621224.html | title=Serbia chooses first woman to lead government and please EU | work=Diário de Notícias | date=7 July 2017 | access-date=16 October 2019 | author=Gouveia, José Fialho | language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/most-pavicevic-popovic/29167687.html | title=Ana Brnabić: Premijerka ili Vučićeva marioneta | publisher=Radio Free Europe | date=15 April 2018 | access-date=16 October 2019 | author=Karabeg, Omer | newspaper=Radio Slobodna Evropa | language=sh}}</ref> Brnabić never denied this, and even said that Vučić should act as a "mentor" of the prime minister.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.danas.rs/politika/brnabic-vucic-da-ima-ulogu-mentora-nad-premijerom/ | title=Brnabić: Vučić da ima ulogu mentora nad premijerom | publisher=Danas | date=6 June 2017 | access-date=16 October 2019 | language=sr}}</ref>}}
* {{flag|Sri Lanka}}
* {{flag|Ukraine}}

{{colend}}

=== President-parliamentary systems ===
The president chooses the prime minister without a confidence vote from the parliament. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a ''vote of no confidence.'' The president also has the authority to dissolve the parliament.
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}}
*{{flag|Bangladesh}}
* {{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
* {{flag|East Timor}}
* {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
* {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
* {{flag|Mauritania}}
* {{flag|Mozambique}}
* {{flag|Namibia}}
* {{flag|Palestine}}
* {{flag|Russia}}
* {{ROC-TW}} (Nominally a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]]; the semi-presidential system is based on temporary additional articles){{efn|The Constitution of the Republic of China specified that the National Assembly indirectly elected the President of the Republic, which is the ceremonial figurehead of the state. Executive power rested with the President of the Executive Yuan, who is nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan. The additional articles made the President directly elected by the citizens of the free area and replaced Legislative Yuan confirmation for Premieral appointments with a conventional vote of no confidence, superseding the ordinary constitutional provisions. A sunset clause in the additional articles will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.}}
{{colend}}

===Former semi-presidential republics===
{{colbegin|colwidth=290px}}
*{{flag|Armenia|1990}} (1991–1998, 2013–2018)<ref>[[Social:One-party state|One-party]] [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary republic]] as a Soviet member-state in 1990–1991, and after independence it was a semi-presidential republic in 1991–1998, a presidential republic in 1998–2013, a semi-presidential republic in 2013–2018 and has been a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] since 2018.</ref>
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1990–2000)
*{{flag|Cuba}} (1940–1976)
*{{flag|Finland}} (1919–2000)
*{{flag|Georgia}} (1991–1995, 2004–2005, 2011–2019){{efn|as the Georgian SSR and after independence, parliamentary in 1990–1991, semi-presidential in 1991–1995, [[Social:President (government title)|presidential]] in 1995–2004, semi-presidential in 2004–2005 and [[Social:President (government title)|presidential]] 2005–2011. Semi-presidential in 2011–2019 and parliamentary since 2019.}}
*{{flag|Germany|1919}} (1919–1933)<ref>Known as the Weimar Republic.</ref>
*{{flag|Greece|1970}} (1973–1974)<ref>The Greek Constitution of 1973, enacted in the waning days of the Greek Junta, provided for a powerful directly-elected president and for a government dependent on Parliamentary confidence. Neither of these provisions were implemented, as the regime collapsed eight month's after the Constitution's promulgation.</ref>
*{{flag|Kenya}} (2007–2013){{efn|Parliamentary Republic with an executive presidency and a separate Prime Minister (i.e. Votes of no confidence entailed the removal of the President).}}
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} (1993–2021)<ref>[[Social:One-party state|One-party]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] as a Soviet member-state in 1936–1990, a presidential republic in 1990–1993, a semi-presidential republic in 1993–2010 and a de facto semi-presidential republic; de jure a [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] in 2010–2021.</ref>
*{{flag|Mali}} (1991–2023)
*{{flag|Moldova}} (1990–2001)
*{{flag|Pakistan}} (1985–1997, 2003–2010)
*{{flag|Philippines|1936}} (1978–1986)<ref>Known as the Fourth Philippine Republic.</ref>
*{{flag|Russian SFSR}} (1991)<ref>[[Social:One-party state|One-party]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary republic]] as a Soviet member-state in 1918–1991 and semi-presidential republic in 1991</ref>
*{{flag|Soviet Union}} (1990–1991)<ref>A [[Social:Parliamentary system|parliamentary system]] in which the leader of the state-sponsored party was supreme in 1918–1990 and a semi-presidential republic in 1990–1991.</ref>  
*{{flag|South Korea|1984}} (1972–1988)<ref>All South Korean constitutions since 1963 provided for a strong executive Presidency; in addition, the formally-authoritarian Yushin Constitution of the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth 
Republic]] established a presidential power to dissolve the National Assembly, nominally counterbalanced by a binding vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were retained during the Fifth Republic but repealed upon the transition to democracy and the establishment of the Sixth Republic</ref>
*{{flag|Tunisia}} (2014–2022)
*{{flag|Ukraine|1992}} (1991–1995)<ref>An interim constitution passed in 1995 removed the President's ability to dissolve the Verkhovna Rada and the Rada's ability to dismiss the government by a vote of no confidence. Both of these provisions were restored upon the passage of a permanent constitution in 1996.</ref>
{{colend}}

== See also ==
* List of countries by system of government 
* [[Social:Parliamentary system|Parliamentary system]]
* [[Social:Presidential system|Presidential system]]
* [[Social:Semi-parliamentary system|Semi-parliamentary system]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist|40em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Bahro |first1=Horst |last2=Bayerlein |first2=Bernhard H. |last3=Veser |first3=Ernst |title=Duverger's concept: Semi–presidential government revisited |journal=European Journal of Political Research |type=quarterly |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=201–224 |doi= 10.1111/1475-6765.00405 |date=October 1998 |s2cid=153349701 }}
* {{cite book |last=Beuman |first=Lydia M. |year=2016 |title=Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GCFCwAAQBAJ |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317362128 |lccn=2015036590 |via=Google Books }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Canas |first=Vitalino |date=2004 |url=http://www.zaoerv.de/64_2004/64_2004_1_a_95_124.pdf |title=The Semi-Presidential System |journal=Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=95–124 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |title=''Échec au roi'' |publisher=A. Michel |location=Paris |year=1978 |isbn=9782226005809 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |title=A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |type=quarterly |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=165–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x |date=June 1980 }}
* Elgie, Robert (2011). ''Semi-Presidentialism: Sub-Types And Democratic Performance''. ''Comparative Politics''. (Oxford Scholarship Online Politics), Oxford University Press {{ISBN|9780199585984}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Frye |first=Timothy |date=October 1997 |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~tmf2/A%20Politics%20of%20Institutional%20Choice.pdf |title=A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies |journal=Comparative Political Studies |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=523–552 |doi=10.1177/0010414097030005001 |s2cid=18049875 |s2cid-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Goetz |first=Klaus H. |year=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentsineu0000unse/page/368 |title=Developments in European politics |series=Power at the Centre: The Organization of Democratic Systems |editor-last1=Heywood |editor-first1=Paul |editor-last2=Jones |editor-first2=Erik |editor-last3=Rhodes |editor-first3=Martin |editor-last4=Sedelmeier |first4=Ulrich |publisher=[[Company:Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Basingstoke England New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/developmentsineu0000unse/page/368 368] |isbn=9780230000414 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lijphart |first=Arend |title=Parliamentary versus presidential government |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford New York |year=1992 |isbn = 9780198780441 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nousiainen |first=Jaakko |date=June 2001 |title=From Semi-presidentialism to Parliamentary Government: Political and Constitutional Developments in Finland |journal=Scandinavian Political Studies |type=quarterly |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=95–109 |doi=10.1111/1467-9477.00048 |issn=0080-6757 |oclc=715091099 }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Rhodes |first=R. A. W. |contribution=From Prime Ministerial power to core executive |editor-last1=Rhodes |editor-first1=R. A. W. |editor-last2= Dunleavy |editor-first2=Patrick |editor-link2=Patrick Dunleavy |title=''Prime minister, cabinet, and core executive'' |pages=11–37 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=9780333555286 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Roper |first=Steven D. |title=Are All Semipresidential Regimes the Same? A Comparison of Premier-Presidential Regimes |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271784045 |url-access=registration |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=253–272 |doi=10.2307/4146953 |jstor=4146953 |date=April 2002 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sartori |first=Giovanni |title=Comparative constitutional engineering: an inquiry into structures, incentives, and outcomes |publisher=New York University Press |location=Washington Square, New York |edition=2nd |year=1997 |isbn=9780333675090 }}
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* {{cite web |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url= http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |department=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |location=United States |publisher=[[Organization:University of California, San Diego|University of California, San Diego]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |date= December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url= https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |department=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, [[Organization:University of California, San Diego|University of California, San Diego]] |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shugart |first1=Matthew Søberg |last2=Carey |first2=John M. |author-link2=<!-- John M. Carey --> |title=Presidents and assemblies: constitutional design and electoral dynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge England New York |year=1992 |isbn=9780521429900 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Veser |first1=Ernst |title=Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model | journal = Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=39–60 |date=1997 |url=http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/app/ebook/journal/11-01-1999/11_1_2.pdf }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/Parl-Pub-govern.htm Governing Systems and Executive-Legislative Relations. (Presidential, Parliamentary and Hybrid Systems)], United Nations Development Programme (n.d.). {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210183450/http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/Parl-Pub-govern.htm |date=10 February 2010 }}
* {{Cite web |author=J. Kristiadi |url=http://old.thejakartapost.com/Outlook/pol06b.asp |title=Indonesia Outlook 2007: Toward strong, democratic governance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421223256/http://old.thejakartapost.com/Outlook/pol06b.asp |archive-date=21 April 2008 |work=The Jakarta Post |publisher=PT Bina Media Tenggara |date=April 22, 2008 }}
* [http://www.semipresidentialism.com/ The Semi-Presidential One], blog of Robert Elgie
* [http://www.presidential-power.net/ Presidential Power] blog with posts written by several political scientists, including Robert Elgie.


{{DEFAULTSORT:Semi-Presidential System}}
[[Category:Political systems]]

{{Sourceattribution|Semi-presidential republic}}