View source for Social:Skhul and Qafzeh hominins

 {{Short description|Hominin fossils}}
[[File:Skhul 5 cast, norma frontalis.jpg|thumb|upright|Skhul 5 replica]] <!-- This image is really of the Skhul 5 anatomically modern human. It is named "Homo neanderthalensis" because that was its museum description, which is outdated. -->
[[File:Qafzeh.JPG|thumb|Qafzeh 9 replica]]
The '''Skhul and Qafzeh hominins''' or '''Qafzeh–Skhul early modern humans'''<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |title=Femoral neck-shaft angles of the Qafzeh-Skhul early modern humans, and activity levels among immature near eastern Middle Paleolithic hominids |author=Trinkaus, E. |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4290541 |publisher=INIST-CNRS |year=1993 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=393–416 |issn=0047-2484 |doi=10.1006/jhev.1993.1058}}</ref> are [[Biology:Homininae|hominin]] [[Biology:Fossil|fossil]]s discovered in Es-Skhul and Qafzeh caves in [[Place:Israel|Israel]]. They are today classified as ''Homo sapiens'', among the earliest of their species in Eurasia. Skhul Cave is on the slopes of Mount Carmel; Qafzeh Cave is a rockshelter near [[Place:Nazareth|Nazareth]] in Lower Galilee.

The remains found at Es Skhul, together with those found at the Nahal Me'arot Nature Reserve and Mugharet el-Zuttiyeh, were classified in 1939 by [[Biography:Arthur Keith|Arthur Keith]] and Theodore D. McCown as ''Palaeoanthropus palestinensis'', a descendant of ''[[Biology:Homo heidelbergensis|Homo heidelbergensis]]''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=vHKuxy69Lc8C&pg=PA59 The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial], Paul Pettitt, 2013, p. 59</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kl8gAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour during the Late Quaternary], Ryan J. Rabett, 2012, p. 90</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/stoneageofmountc02join#page/18/mode/1up The Stone Age of Mount Carmel: report of the Joint Expedition of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem and the American School of Prehistoric Research, 1929–1934], p. 18</ref>

==History==
{{Human timeline}}
The remains exhibit a mix of traits found in [[Biology:Archaic humans|archaic]] and anatomically modern humans. They have been tentatively dated at about 80,000–120,000 years old using [[Physics:Electron paramagnetic resonance|electron paramagnetic resonance]] and [[Physics:Thermoluminescence dating|thermoluminescence dating]] techniques.<ref name = "PHumEvol">{{cite book |title=Principles of Human Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/principleshumane00fole |url-access=limited |last=Lewin |first=Roger |author2=Foley, Robert A.  |year=2004 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-632-04704-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/principleshumane00fole/page/n397 385]}}</ref> The brain case is similar to modern humans, but they possess brow ridges and a projecting facial profile like Neanderthals. They were initially regarded as transitional from Neanderthals to anatomically modern humans, or as hybrids between Neanderthals and modern humans. Neanderthal remains have been found nearby at [[Place:Kebara Cave|Kebara Cave]] that date to 61,000–48,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bar-Yosef O. |author2=Vandermeersch B. |author3=Arensburg B. |author4=Belfer-Cohen A. |author5=Goldberg P. |author6=Laville H. |author7=Meignen L. |author8=Rak Y. |author9=Speth J. D. | year = 1999 | title = The Excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel [and Comments and Replies] | doi = 10.1086/204112 | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 33 | issue = 5| pages = 497–550 |s2cid=51745296 |display-authors=0|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12211561 }}</ref> but it has been hypothesised that the Skhul/Qafzeh hominids had died out by 80,000 years ago because of drying and cooling conditions, favouring a return of a Neanderthal population<ref name="Oppenheimer">{{cite book |last=Oppenheimer |first=S. |title=Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84119-697-8}}</ref> suggesting that the two types of hominids never made contact in the region. A more recent hypothesis is that Skhul/Qafzeh hominids represent the first exodus of modern humans from [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] around 125,000 years ago, probably via the [[Place:Sinai Peninsula|Sinai Peninsula]], and that the robust features exhibited by the Skhul/Qafzeh hominids represent archaic sapiens features rather than Neanderthal features.<ref name="Oppenheimer" /> The discovery of modern human made tools from about 125,000 years ago at Jebel Faya, United Arab Emirates, in the Arabian Peninsula, may be from an even earlier exit of modern humans from Africa.<ref name="Lawler">{{cite journal |author= Lawler Andrew |year= 2011 |title= Did Modern Humans Travel Out of Africa Via Arabia? |journal= Science |volume= 331 |issue= 6016 |page= 387 |doi= 10.1126/science.331.6016.387 |pmid= 21273459 |bibcode= 2011Sci...331..387L}}</ref> In January 2018 it was announced that modern human finds at the Mount Carmel cave of Misliya, discovered in 2002, had been dated to around 185,000 years ago, giving an even earlier date for an out-of-Africa migration.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/01/180125140923.htm|title=Scientists discover oldest known modern human fossil outside of Africa: Analysis of fossil suggests Homo sapiens left Africa at least 50,000 years earlier than previously thought|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=2018-01-28|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-42817323|title=Modern humans left Africa much earlier|last=Ghosh|first=Pallab|date=2018|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-01-28|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/jawbone-fossil-found-in-israeli-cave-resets-clock-for-modern-human-evolution/|title=Jawbone fossil found in Israeli cave resets clock for modern human evolution|access-date=2018-01-28|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ancientpages.com/2018/01/27/earliest-modern-human-fossil-outside-africa-unearthed-at-misliya-cave-israel/|title=Earliest Modern Human Fossil Outside Africa Unearthed At Misliya Cave, Israel |date=2018-01-27|work=Ancient Pages|access-date=2018-01-28|language=en-US}}</ref>

Ian Wallace and John Shea have devised a methodology for examining the various Middle paleolithic core assemblages present at the Levant site in order to test whether the different hominid populations had distinct mobility patterns. They use a ratio of "formal" and "expedient" [[Engineering:Lithic core|cores]] within assemblages to demonstrate either early ''Homo sapiens'' or Neanderthal mobility patterns, and thus categorize site occupations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wallace|first1=Ian J.|last2=Shea|first2=John J.|title=Mobility patterns and core technologies in the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=2006|volume=33|issue=9|pages=1293–1309|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.01.005}}</ref> In 2005, a set of 7 teeth from Tabun Cave in Israel were studied and found to most likely belong to a Neanderthal that may have lived around 90,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.04.005 | volume=49 | title=Newly recognized Pleistocene human teeth from Tabun Cave, Israel | year=2005 | journal=Journal of Human Evolution | pages=301–315 | last1 = Coppa | first1 = Alfredo | issue=3 | pmid=15964608}} Alfredo Coppa, Rainer Grün, Chris Stringer, Stephen Eggins, and Rita Vargiu Journal of Human Evolution
Volume 49, Issue 3, September 2005, Pages 301-315</ref> and another Neanderthal (C1) from Tabun was estimated to be ~122,000 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Grun R. |author2=Stringer C. B. | year = 2000 | title = Tabun revisited: revised ESR chronology and new ESR and U-series analyses of dental material from Tabun C1 | journal = Journal of Human Evolution | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 601–612 | doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0443 | pmid=11102271}}</ref> If the dates are correct for these individuals, then it is possible that Neanderthals and early moderns did make contact in the region and it may be possible that the Skhul and Qafzeh hominids are partially of Neanderthal descent. Non-African modern humans contain 1–4% Neanderthal genetic material, with [[Biology:Hybrid|hybridisation]] possibly having taken place in the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Neanderthal genome reveals interbreeding with humans|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18869-neanderthal-genome-reveals-interbreeding-with-humans.html|website=www.newscientist.com|date=6 May 2010|author=Ewen Callaway|accessdate=13 July 2010}}</ref> It has been suggested, however, that the Skhul/Qafzeh hominids represent an extinct lineage. If this is the case, modern humans would have re-exited Africa around 70–50,000 years ago, crossing the narrow Bab-el-Mandeb strait between Eritrea and the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="Oppenheimer" /><ref name="mbe.oxfordjournals.org">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1093/molbev/msr245|pmid = 22096215|title = The Expansion of mtDNA Haplogroup L3 within and out of Africa|journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume = 29|issue = 3|pages = 915–927|year = 2011|last1 = Soares|first1 = P|last2 = Alshamali|first2 = F|last3 = Pereira|first3 = J. B|last4 = Fernandes|first4 = V|last5 = Silva|first5 = N. M|last6 = Afonso|first6 = C|last7 = Costa|first7 = M. D|last8 = Musilova|first8 = E|last9 = MacAulay|first9 = V|last10 = Richards|first10 = M. B|last11 = Cerny|first11 = V|last12 = Pereira|first12 = L|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Posth">{{Cite journal|title=Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe|journal=Current Biology|volume=26|issue=6|pages=827–833|year=2016|doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037
|pmid=26853362|vauthors=Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik M, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J|hdl=2440/114930|s2cid=140098861|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Vai">{{cite journal|vauthors=Vai S, Sarno S, Lari M,Luiselli D, Manzi G, Gallinaro M, Mataich S, Hübner A, Modi A, Pilli E, Tafuri MA, Caramelli D, di Lernia S|date=March 2019|title=Ancestral mitochondrial N lineage from the Neolithic 'green' Sahara|journal=Sci Rep|volume=9|issue=1|page=3530|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-39802-1|pmc= 6401177|pmid=30837540|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.3530V}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal | vauthors = Haber M, Jones AL, Connel BA, Asan, Arciero E, Huanming Y, Thomas MG, Xue Y, Tyler-Smith C | title = A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-chromosomal Haplogroup and its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa | journal = Genetics | volume = 212 | issue = 4 | pages = 1421–1428 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 31196864 | pmc = 6707464 | doi = 10.1534/genetics.119.302368 }}</ref> This is the same route proposed to have been taken by the people who made the modern tools at Jebel Faya.<ref name="Lawler" />

==Skhul==
The Skhul remains (Skhul 1–9) were discovered between 1929 and 1935 in the Es-Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. The remains of seven adults and three children were found, some of which (Skhul 1, 4, and 5) are claimed to have been burials.<ref name="HoversKuhn2007">{{cite book|last1=Hovers|first1=Erella|last2=Kuhn|first2=Steven|title=Transitions Before the Transition: Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjIvb55PxbcC|accessdate=13 September 2017|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-24661-1|pages=171–188}}</ref> Assemblages of perforated ''[[Biology:Nassarius|Nassarius]]'' shells (a marine genus), which are significantly different from local fauna, have also been recovered from the area, suggesting that these people may have collected and employed the shells as beads,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Middle Paleolithic Shell Beads in Palestine and Algeria|author1=Mariah Vanhaeran |author2=Francesco d'Errico |author3=Chris Stringer |author4=Sarah L. James |author5=Jonathan A. Todd |author6=Henk K. Mienis |journal=Science|volume=312|url= http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/312/5781/1785|pages=(5781): 1785–1788|doi=10.1126/science.1128139|year = 2006|accessdate=2009-12-22|issue=5781|pmid=16794076 |bibcode=2006Sci...312.1785V|s2cid=31098527 }}</ref> as they are unlikely to have been used as food.<ref>Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, 2004</ref>

Skhul Layer B has been dated to an average of 81,000–101,000 years ago with the electron spin resonance method, and to an average of 119,000 years ago with the thermoluminescence method.<ref name="BarYosefOfer">Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1998) "The chronology of the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant." In T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, and O. Bar-Yosef, eds. ''Neandertals and modern humans in Western Asia''. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 39–56.</ref><ref>Valladas, Helene, Norbert Mercier, Jean-Louis Joron, and Jean-Louis Reyss (1998) "Gif Laboratory dates for Middle Paleolithic Levant." In T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, and O. Bar-Yosef, eds. ''Neandertals and modern humans in Western Asia''. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 69–75.</ref>

===Skhul 5===
Skhul 5 had the mandible of a wild boar on its chest.<ref name="HoversKuhn2007"/> The skull displays prominent supraorbital ridges and jutting jaw, but the rounded braincase of modern humans. When found, it was assumed to be an advanced [[Biology:Neanderthal|Neanderthal]], but is today generally assumed to be a modern human, if a very robust one.<ref>{{cite web|last1=McHenry|first1=H.|title=Skhūl|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1234739/Skhul|website=Britannica, academic version|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=9 July 2014}}</ref>

==Qafzeh==
[[File:Middle Paleolithic, Cast of funeral of child from Cave of Qafzeh Anthropos, Brno, 187947.jpg|thumb|Cast of the funeral of a child from Qafzeh]]
Qafzeh cave opens onto a wall of Wadi el Hadj in the flank of Mount Precipice. Excavation of the cave by René Neuville began in 1934 and resulted in the discovery of the remains of 5 individuals in the [[Biology:Mousterian|Mousterian]] stratigraphic levels, which was then called the Levalloiso-Mousterian<ref name="bcrfj.revues">Bernard Vandermeersch, The excavation of Qafzeh, Bulletin du Centre de recherche français de Jérusalem, retrieved 12 July 2010. http://bcrfj.revues.org/index1192.html</ref> (see [[Biology:Levallois technique|Levallosian]]). The lower layers of the cave were later dated to 92,000 years ago,<ref name="Shellsochre">{{cite journal | last1 = Bar-Yosef Mayer | first1 = Daniella E. | last2 = Vandermeersch | first2 = Bernard | last3 = Bar-Yosef | first3 = Ofer | year = 2009 | title = Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh Cave, Palestine: indications for modern behavior | journal = Journal of Human Evolution | volume = 56 | issue = 3| pages = 307–314 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.10.005 | pmid = 19285591 }}</ref> and a series of hearths, several human bodies, flint artifacts (side scrapers, disc cores, and points<ref name="mnsu">Jabel Qafzeh http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/middle_east/jabel_qafzeh.htm)</ref>), animal bones (gazelle, horse, fallow deer, wild ox, and rhinoceros<ref name="mnsu" />), a collection of sea shells, lumps of red [[Ochre|ochre]], and an incised cortical flake were found.<ref name="Shellsochre" />

The remains of 15 hominids, 8 of them children, were recovered in total from Qafzeh within a Mousterian archaeological context and dated to ca. 95,000 years ago.<ref name="www3.interscience.wiley">Brief communication: An early case of hydrocephalus: The Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh 12 child (Palestine) Anne-Marie Tillier, Baruch Arensburg, Henri Duday , Bernard Vandermeersch (2000) http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/76510952/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130105084242/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/76510952/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 |date=5 January 2013 }}</ref> Remains of Qafzeh 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 15 were burials.<ref name="HoversKuhn2007"/>

The marine shells ([[Biology:Glycymerididae|''Glycymeris'']] bivalves) were brought from Mediterranean Sea shore some 35&nbsp;km away, and were recovered from layers earlier than most of the bodies save one.<ref name="Shellsochre" /> The shells were complete, naturally perforated, and several showed traces of having been strung (perhaps as a necklace), and a few had ochre stains on them.<ref name="Shellsochre" />

The various layers at Qafzeh were dated to an average of 96,000–115,000 years ago with the electron spin resonance method and 92,000 years ago with the thermoluminescence method.<ref name="BarYosefOfer" />

===Qafzeh 9 and 10===
Two skeletons were found in 1969 in the same burial, the skeleton of a late adolescent which sex is debated (Qafzeh 9),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coutinho-Nogueira |first1=Dany |last2=Coqueugniot |first2=Hélène |last3=Tillier |first3=Anne-marie |title=Qafzeh 9 Early Modern Human from Southwest Asia: age at death and sex estimation re-assessed |journal=HOMO |date=10 September 2021 |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=293–305 |doi=10.1127/homo/2021/1513 |pmid=34505621 |s2cid=237469414 |url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/homo/detail/prepub/100183/Qafzeh_9_Early_Modern_Human_from_Southwest_Asia_age_at_death_and_sex_estimation_re_assessed}}</ref> and the skeleton of a young child (Qafzeh 10).<ref name="bcrfj.revues" /> Qafzeh 9 has a high forehead, lack of occipital bun, a distinct chin, but a prognathic face.<ref>Cartmill, M., Smith, F.H. and Brown, K.B. (2009). ''The Human Lineage''.</ref> Qafzeh 9 offers the earliest evidence of associated mandibular and dental pathological conditions (i.e. [[Medicine:Nonossifying fibroma|non-ossifying fibroma]] of the mandible, pre-eruptive intracoronal resorption and osteochondritis dissecans of the temporomandibular joint) among early anatomically modern humans<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coutinho Nogueira |first1=D. |last2=Dutour |first2=O. |last3=Coqueugniot |first3=H. |last4=Tillier |first4=A. -m. |title=Qafzeh 9 mandible (ca 90–100 kyrs BP, Israel) revisited: μ-CT and 3D reveal new pathological conditions |journal=International Journal of Paleopathology |date=1 September 2019 |volume=26 |pages=104–110 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.06.002|pmid=31351220 |s2cid=198953011 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02266401/file/Coutinho%20Nogueira%20et%20al.%202019%20mandibule.pdf }}</ref>

===Qafzeh 11===
[[File:Qafzeh 11 child skull cast.jpg|thumb|upright|Cast of Qafzeh 11]]
Found in 1971 was the body of an adolescent (aged about 13 years<ref>Perikymata number and spacing on early modern human teeth: evidence from Qafzeh cave, Palestine J. M. Monge, A.-m. Tillier & A. E. Mann</ref>) found in a pit dug in the [[Earth:Bedrock|bedrock]]. The skeleton was lying on its back, with the legs bent to the side and both hands placed on either side of the neck, and in the hands were the antlers of a large [[Biology:Red deer|red deer]] clasped to the chest.<ref name="HoversKuhn2007"/><ref name="bcrfj.revues" />

===Qafzeh 12===
A child of about 3 years old who manifests with skeletal abnormalities that indicate [[Medicine:Hydrocephalus|hydrocephalus]].<ref name="www3.interscience.wiley" />

===Qafzeh 25===
Qafzeh 25 was discovered in 1979. Due to his overall robustness and tooth wear, the remains are believed to be of a young male.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schuh |first1=Alexandra |last2=Dutailly |first2=Bruno |last3=Coutinho Nogueira |first3=Dany |last4=Santos |first4=Frédéric |last5=Arensburg |first5=Baruch |last6=Vandermeersch |first6=Bernard |last7=Coqueugniot |first7=Hélène |last8=Tillier |first8=Anne-Marie |title=La mandibule de l'adulte Qafzeh 25 (Paléolithique moyen), Basse Galilée. Reconstruction virtuelle 3D et analyse morphométrique |journal=Paléorient |date=2017 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.3406/paleo.2017.5751|s2cid=164499671 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02150582/file/03-Schuhetal..pdf }}</ref> The fossil has undergone heavy taphonomical damages including a complete crushing of the skull and mandible.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coutinho Nogueira |first1=Dany |title=Paléoimagerie appliquée aux Homo sapiens de Qafzeh (Paléolithique moyen, Levant sud). Variabilité normale et pathologique |date=2019 |publisher=Thesis of Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, PSL University |location=Paris |page=201 |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02637178/document}}</ref> Its inner ear morphology confirm that it is an anatomically modern human <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coutinho-Nogueira |first1=Dany |last2=Coqueugniot |first2=Hélène |last3=Santos |first3=Frédéric |last4=Tillier |first4=Anne-marie |title=The bony labyrinth of Qafzeh 25 Homo sapiens from Israel |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |date=20 August 2021 |volume=13 |issue=9 |page=151 |doi=10.1007/s12520-021-01377-2 | issn=1866-9557|s2cid=237219305 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03368605/file/manuscriptQ25-2.pdf }}</ref>

==See also==
*Archaeology of Israel
*Manot 1
*Qesem cave

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1234739/Skhul Skhūl  anthropological and archaeological site, Israel]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927013935/http://www.modernhumanorigins.net/qafzeh9.html Qafzeh IX / Skhul 9 Images at Modern Human Origins]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3310233.stm BBC – Cave Colours reveal Mental Leap]
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Jebel_Qafzeh.html Selected excerpt on Jebel Qafzeh] from 'The Neolithic of the Levant' by Andrew M. T. Moore – Oxford University

{{Human Evolution}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Skhul and Qafzeh hominins}}
[[Category:Anthropology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Skhul and Qafzeh hominins}}