View source for Social:Worker representation on corporate boards of directors

'''Worker representation on corporate boards of directors''', also known as '''board-level employee representation''' (BLER)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gold|first1=Michael|last2=Waddington|first2=Jeremy|date=2019-09-01|title=Introduction: Board-level employee representation in Europe: State of play|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0959680119830556|journal=European Journal of Industrial Relations|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=205–218|doi=10.1177/0959680119830556|s2cid=159358979 |issn=0959-6801}}</ref> refers to the right of workers to vote for representatives on a [[Organization:Board of directors|board of directors]] in [[Social:Corporate law|corporate law]]. In 2018, a majority of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and a majority of countries in the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], had some form of law guaranteeing the right of workers to vote for board representation. Together with a right to elect work councils, this is often called "codetermination".

==Overview==

The following is a list of 35 countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and their practices of worker representation on corporate boards of directors.<ref>See [http://www.worker-participation.eu/National-Industrial-Relations/Across-Europe/Board-level-Representation2 worker-participation.eu] and Z Adams, L Bishop and S Deakin, ''CBR Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries)'' (Cambridge: Centre for Business Research [https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/256566/cbr-lri-117-countries-codebook-and-methodology.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 2016]))</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" id="constituents"

|-

!|Country|| Law || Minimum worker representation || Minimum number of employees at which law applies|| Notes

|-

|{{flag|Austria}} (private companies) || rowspan="2" | Labour Constitution Act 1975<ref>{{Cite web|title=Federal Act on the Labour Constitution and freedom of association (BGBl. 1974/22). Text 9.|url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/42238/102316/F1140951746/AUT42238.pdf|access-date=2021-03-10|publisher=Rechtsinformationssystem (RIS)}}</ref> || 33.3% || 300 || rowspan="2" | One-third of the supervisory board from 300 employees in private companies; no employee threshold for public limited companies.

|-

|{{flag|Austria}} (public limited companies) || 33.3% || 0

|-

|{{flag|Belgium}}|| || || N/A || No general law, but some public companies have employee representatives.<ref>See I Ferreras, ''Firms as Political Entities: Saving Democracy through Economic Bicameralism'' (2017)</ref>

|-

|{{flag|Bulgaria}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law, but employees have rights to speak at shareholder general meetings.

|-

|{{flag|Croatia}} (limited companies) || rowspan="2" | LL 2009 art 166 || "One" || 300 || rowspan="2" | Employee representative on the supervisory board if the company has over 300 employees (limited companies); no employee threshold for public limited companies

|-

|{{flag|Croatia}} (public limited companies) || "One" || 0

|-

|{{flag|Cyprus}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Czech Republic}} (private companies) || || 0% || N/A || No general law. Before 2014, private companies over 50 employees had one-third employee representation.

|-

|{{flag|Czech Republic}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || || 33.3% (may be increased up to 50% voluntarily) || 1 ||

|-

|{{flag|Denmark}}|| Companies Act 2010 s 140 || ≤33.3% (two members minimum)|| 35 || At least two members of the board, up to one-third of the board's membership.

|-

|{{flag|Estonia}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Finland}}|| Co-operation Act 2021 s 31<ref>{{Cite web|title=Co-operation Act (1333/2021)|url=https://finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2021/en20211333_20230091.pdf|access-date=2024-01-14|publisher=Government of Finland}}</ref> || 20% || 150 || From 150 employees, there must be an agreement on employee representation. If there is none, employee representation automatically defaults to one-fifth of board members.

|-

|{{flagicon|France}} France (private companies) || rowspan="2" | Commercial Code Art. L. 225-79 || "One" or "Two" || 1000<br>(or 5000 worldwide) || rowspan="2" | Private companies over 1000 employees in France or 5000 worldwide must have at least one or two board members.

|-

|{{flagicon|France}} France ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || 33.3% || 1

|-

| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Germany}} Germany|| rowspan="2" | Drittelbeteiligungsgesetz 2003 (One-third Participation Act 2004),<ref>{{Cite web|title=DrittelbG - Gesetz über die Drittelbeteiligung der Arbeitnehmer im Aufsichtsrat|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/drittelbg/BJNR097410004.html|access-date=2021-03-25|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref> Mitbestimmungsgesetz 1976 (Codetermination Act 1976),<ref>{{Cite web|title=MitbestG - Gesetz über die Mitbestimmung der Arbeitnehmer|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/mitbestg/BJNR011530976.html|access-date=2021-03-25|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref> Montanmitbestimmungsgesetz 1951 (Coal and Steel Codetermination Act 1951)<ref>{{Cite web|title=MontanMitbestG - nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/montanmitbestg/index.html|access-date=2021-03-25|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref>|| 33.3% || 500 || Enterprises with over 500 employees must have one-third representation on a supervisory board.

|-
| 50% || 2000 || Enterprises with over 2000 employees must have one-half representation on a supervisory board, but the [[Social:Chairperson|chair]] of the supervisory board is a shareholder representative and has a [[Social:Casting vote|casting vote]]. In coal and steel companies shareholder representatives do not have a deciding vote.

|-

|{{flag|Greece}} (private companies) || || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Greece}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || || "One" || 1 ||

|-

|{{flag|Hungary}}|| || 33.3% || 200 || From 200 employees, one-third of supervisory board members are employees.

|-

|{{flag|Ireland}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || Workers Participation (State Enterprises) Act, 1977<ref>{{Cite web|title=Worker Participation (State Enterprises) Act, 1977|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1977/act/6/enacted/en/html|access-date=2021-03-10|publisher=electronic Irish Statute Book (eISB)}}</ref>  || 33.3% || 1 ||

|-

|{{flag|Italy}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Latvia}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Lithuania}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

| rowspan="2" | {{flag|Luxembourg}} (private companies) || rowspan="2" | || ≤33.3% || ≤1000 || rowspan="2" | A third of the board in companies with 1,000 or more employees, up to a third in others

|-

| 33.3% || 1000

|-

|{{flag|Luxembourg}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || || 33.3% || 1 ||

|-

|{{flag|Malta}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Malta}}|| || ? || 1 || For companies owned by unions or the Labour Party.

|-

|{{flag|Netherlands}}|| Works Constitution Act 1971, amended in 2004 || ≤33.3% || 100 ||

|-

| rowspan="3" |{{flag|Norway}}|| rowspan="3" | Limited Liability Companies Act 1973 || "One" || 30-50 || rowspan="3" | One director in companies with 30 to 50 employees; one-third of the seats in companies with more than 50, with the possibility of an extra seat in companies with more than 200

|-
| 33.3% || 51-200

|-
| 33.3%+1 || 201

|-

|{{flag|Poland}} (private companies) || rowspan="2" | Law on Workers’ Self Management of 1981 || 0% || || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Poland}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || 33.3% || 1 || In state-owned companies employees have one-third of supervisory board seats, and a seat on the management board.

|-

|{{flag|Portugal}}|| 1976 Constitution, Arts. 30 and 33 and Law 46/79 || || || No co-determination, but, in state owned companies, workers have a right to be consulted. In private companies work councils ''may'' elect representatives, but the number is determined by the employer.

|-

|{{flag|Romania}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law, but unions can be heard at meetings.

|-

|{{flag|Slovakia}} (private companies) || || 33.3% (may be increased up to 50% voluntarily) || 50 ||

|-

|{{flag|Slovakia}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || || 50% || 1 || Half the supervisory board in state-owned companies.

|-

|{{flag|Slovenia}}|| 1991 Constitution art 75, and 1993 law. || 50% - 33.3% || 50 || Between a third and a half of seats in companies with supervisory board plus management board member if more than 500 employees; around a third in companies with single tier board

|-

|{{flag|Spain}}|| Law 41/1962, repealed 1980 || 0% || N/A || Some state-owned companies retain two board members though it has not been compulsory since 1980 to have employee representation in private companies.

|-

|{{flag|Sweden}}|| Board Representation (Private Sector Employees) Act (1987:1245) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Board Representation (Private Sector Employees) Act|url=https://www.government.se/contentassets/af2a3399726a445ea0e6655d58ac9508/19871245-board-representation-private-sector-employees-act/|access-date=2024-01-14|publisher=Government of Sweden}}</ref> || 33.3% || 25 || Over 25 employees, around one-third representation on boards.

|-

|{{flag|Switzerland}}|| || 0% || N/A || Representation in postal services. No general law, but there was employee representation in railways.

|-

|{{flag|United Kingdom}}|| Cambridge University Act 1856,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cambridge University Act 1856|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/19-20/88|access-date=2021-03-30|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom}}</ref>  etc. || 0% || N/A || No general law, except in universities, although [[Organization:Financial Reporting Council|Financial Reporting Council]] is introducing comply or explain rules for employee representation in the UK Corporate Governance Code

|-

|{{flag|Australia}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Canada}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|New Zealand}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|United States}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law, although in {{wipe|Massachusetts}} manufacturing firms may voluntarily have employees on boards. Any collective agreement can achieve the same result.

|-

|{{flag|Chile}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Israel}} (private companies) || || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Israel}} ([[Finance:State-owned enterprise|state-owned companies]]) || 1977 Law and a 1985 High Court decision, ''Dapey Shituf ''(Tel-Aviv 1985) || ? || 1 || Worker representation in government companies

|-

|{{flag|Japan}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|South Korea}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|-

|{{flag|Turkey}}|| || 0% || N/A || No general law

|}

==History==
Some of the first codetermination laws emerged in universities in the UK during the 19th century, such as the Oxford University Act 1854 and the Cambridge University Act 1856. Further Acts included the South Metropolitan Gas Act 1896 and the Port of London Act 1908.<ref>E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the ‘Single Channel’' (2017) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2432068 46(4) Industrial Law Journal 444]. See also JS Mill, Principles of Political Economy (1870) discussing, albeit very different, Henry Briggs & Son Co, incorporated 1865, which had an employee share plan and a worker director. [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/27002/pages/5329/page.pdf South Metropolitan Gas Act 1896 extract in the London Gazette], abolished by the Gas Act 1948.</ref> In Germany, there were experiments with worker representation through work councils over the late 19th century, after the first attempts to introduce worker voice by an ex-member of the Frankfurt Parliament named Carl Degenkolb.<ref>HJ Teuteberg, ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschland’ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69. See the Arbeitsverordnung 1890, the first law enabling worker councils, but only on a voluntary basis. The Hilfsdienstgesetz 1916 was a war time requirement for worker councils in some industries.</ref> At the end of [[Social:World War I|World War I]], the German trade unions made an historic collective agreement with representatives of German business for full partnership in economic management throughout the country. This was put into the Weimar Constitution article 165, and resulted in a work council law in 1920,<ref>Betriebsrätegesetz 1920</ref> and a board representation law in 1922.<ref>Aufsichtsratsgesetz 1922. E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2579932 23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135]</ref> The fascist government abolished codetermination in 1934, but after [[Social:World War II|World War II]], German unions again made collective agreements to resurrect work councils and board representation. These agreements were codified in law in 1951 and 1952.<ref>E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2579932 23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135]. See the {{lang|de|Montan-mitbestimmungsgesetz}} 1951, the Betriesbrätegesetz 1952 and the Mitbestimmungsergänzungsgesetz 1956.</ref>

In most countries around Europe, different forms board representation law spread slowly, especially from the 1970s. In the UK there were repeated experiments from iron and steel<ref>Iron and Steel Act 1967 Sch 4, Part V, created a negotiation process with trade unions in British Steel Corporation to introduce workers, put into effect from 1968. For its implementation, see: [https://archive.org/details/jones-worker-directors-speak Bank, John, and Jones, Ken, ''Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors'' (Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)]</ref> to the post office,<ref>Post Office Act 1977 s 1(2) created worker directors for the Post Office by amending the Post Office Act 1969.</ref> with worker directors.<ref>The Transport Act 1968 allowed the secretary of state to appoint members of the British Railways Board. In 1997, John Prescott appointed a worker director overseeing some aspects of the now privatised industry.</ref> However, after the Bullock Report of 1977 failed to pass and Margaret Thatcher won the 1979 election, almost all worker participation was ended.<ref>Transport Act 1985, privatised the bus networks. Employee share ownership plans were created by Labour councils as this happened, as a way to protect workers, though shares were quickly bought up by ordinary business owners.</ref> Germany recast and extended its laws in 1972 and 1976.<ref>The Betriebsverfassungsgesetz 1972, standardised law for one third employees on company boards with over 500 staff. The Codetermination Act 1976 required one half in large companies, but with the upper hand for shareholders. Now, the Drittelbeteiligungsgesetz 2004, [http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/drittelbg/ BGBl. I S. 974, in German] codified again, one third worker directors in companies with over 500 staff.</ref> The European Commission did propose a Draft Fifth Company Law Directive, but it did not complete passage. In the {{wipe|United States}}, growing interest in worker "involvement" through [[Social:Scanlon plan|Scanlon plan]]s led to unions such as the United Steelworkers at [[Company:Chrysler|Chrysler]], or at United Airlines to negotiate board representation, although usually this was forcibly linked to employee share schemes. Notably, the share scheme at [[Company:Enron|Enron]] failed in 2003. Almost all modern worker representation laws enable votes without any requirement to invest money. In 2013, France became the largest country to create a modern board representation law to mandate workers with equal rights to all other directors to be on boards.

==See also==
*[[Social:Co-determination|Co-determination]]
*[[Finance:Cooperative|Cooperative]]
*[[Social:Worker cooperative|Worker cooperative]]
*[[Finance:Employee stock ownership|Employee stock ownership]]
*European labour law and European company law
*UK labour law and UK company law
*German labour law
*French labour law
*Indian labour law
*US labor law and US corporate law
*[[Social:Market socialism|Market socialism]]
*[[Social:Social ownership|Social ownership]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*[https://archive.org/details/jones-worker-directors-speak Bank, John, and Jones, Ken, ''Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors'' (Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)]
*I Ferreras, ''Firms as Political Entities: Saving Democracy through Economic Bicameralism'' (2017)
*TH Hammer, SC Currall and RN Stern, ‘Worker Representation on Boards of Directors: A Study of Competing Roles’ (1991) 44(4) Industrial and Labor Relations Review 661-680 
*LW Hunter, ‘Can Strategic Participation be Institutionalized? Union Representation on American Corporate Boards’ (1998) 51(4) Industrial and Labor Relations Review 557-578
*E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019) [https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sulr/vol42/iss2/18/ 42 Seattle University Law Review 697] 
*E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2579932 23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135] 
*E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the ‘Single Channel’' (2017) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2432068 46(4) Industrial Law Journal 444] 
*RB McKersie, ‘Union-Nominated Directors: A New Voice in Corporate Governance’ (1 April 1999) MIT Working Paper
*RB McKersie, ‘Labor's voice at the strategic level of the firm’ (2001) 7 Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 480
*HJ Teuteberg, ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschland’ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69
*HJ Teuteberg, ''Geschichte der Industriellen Mitbestimmung in Deutschland'' (1961)
*J Waddington (ed.), 'European board-level employee representation: national variations in influence and power' (2018), Kluwer Law international editions [https://law-store.wolterskluwer.com/s/product/european-boardlevel-employee-represent-national-variations-power-influence/01t0f00000J3aMr]
*J Waddington, A Conchon, 'Board-level employee representation in Europe: priorities, power and articulation' (2016), Routledge edition [https://www.routledge.com/Board-Level-Employee-Representation-in-Europe-Priorities-Power-and-Articulation/Waddington-Conchon/p/book/9781138616875]
*S Webb and B Webb, ''Industrial Democracy'' (1920)
*S Webb and B Webb, ''The History of Trade Unionism'' (1920) Appendix VIII

==External links==
*[http://www.worker-participation.eu/National-Industrial-Relations/Across-Europe/Board-level-Representation2 worker-participation.eu] 
*Z Adams, L Bishop and S Deakin, ''CBR Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries)'' (Cambridge: Centre for Business Research [https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/256566/cbr-lri-117-countries-codebook-and-methodology.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 2016]))

[[Category:Human resource management]]

{{Sourceattribution|Worker representation on corporate boards of directors}}