View source for Unsolved:Ideomotor phenomenon

{{short description|Concept in hypnosis and psychological research}}
[[File:Tables Tournantes - L'Illustration, Paris, 14 May 1853 (page 1 crop).jpg|alt=|thumb|An example of table-turning in 19th century France. A circle of participants press their hands against a table, and the ideomotor effect causes the table to tilt in such a way as to produce a written message, in a manner similar to a ouija board.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Geoghegan|first=Bernard Dionysius|date=2016-06-01|title=Mind the Gap: Spiritualism and the Infrastructural Uncanny|journal=Critical Inquiry|volume=42|issue=4|pages=899–922|doi=10.1086/686945|s2cid=163534340|issn=0093-1896|url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/mind-the-gap-spiritualism-and-the-infrastructural-uncanny(1f725522-cf5f-4faa-b71c-c46a0eaf52e1).html}}</ref>]]
[[File:Faraday apparatus for ideomotor effect on table turning.png|thumb|[[Biography:Michael Faraday|Faraday's]] apparatus for experimental demonstration of ideomotor effect on table-turning]]

The '''ideomotor phenomenon''' is a psychological phenomenon wherein a subject makes motions [[Biology:Unconscious mind|unconsciously]]. Also called '''ideomotor response''' (or '''ideomotor reflex''') and abbreviated to '''IMR''', it is a concept in [[Unsolved:Hypnosis|hypnosis]] and psychological research.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shin|first1=Yun Kyoung|title=A review of contemporary ideomotor theory|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=2010|volume=136|issue=6|pages=943–974|publisher=American Psychological Association|doi=10.1037/a0020541|pmid=20822210}}</ref> It is derived from the terms "ideo" (idea, or [[Philosophy:Mental representation|mental representation]]) and "motor" (muscular action). The phrase is most commonly used in reference to the process whereby a thought or mental image brings about a seemingly "reflexive" or automatic muscular reaction, often of minuscule degree, and potentially outside of the awareness of the subject. As in responses to pain, the body sometimes reacts reflexively with an ideomotor effect to ideas alone without the person consciously deciding to take action. The effects of [[Unsolved:Automatic writing|automatic writing]], [[Unsolved:Dowsing|dowsing]], [[Social:Facilitated communication|facilitated communication]],<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1111/1467-9280.00013|title = Facilitated Communication as an Ideomotor Response|year = 1998|last1 = Burgess|first1 = Cheryl A.|last2 = Kirsch|first2 = Irving|last3 = Shane|first3 = Howard|last4 = Niederauer|first4 = Kristen L.|last5 = Graham|first5 = Steven M.|last6 = Bacon|first6 = Alyson|journal = Psychological Science|volume = 9|pages = 71–74|s2cid = 145631775}}</ref> [[Unsolved:Applied kinesiology|applied kinesiology]], and [[Unsolved:Ouija|ouija]] boards have been attributed to the phenomenon.<ref>Heap, Michael. (2002). ''Ideomotor Effect (the Ouija Board Effect)''. In [[Biography:Michael Shermer|Michael Shermer]]. ''The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience''. ABC-CLIO. pp. 127–129. {{ISBN|1-57607-654-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andersen|first1=Marc|last2=Nielbo|first2=Kristoffer L.|last3=Schjoedt|first3=Uffe|last4=Pfeiffer|first4=Thies|last5=Roepstorff|first5=Andreas|last6=Sørensen|first6=Jesper|date=2018-07-17|title=Predictive minds in Ouija board sessions|journal=Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences|volume=18|issue=3|pages=577–588|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11097-018-9585-8|issn=1572-8676|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The associated term "ideo-''dynamic'' response" (or "reflex") applies to a wider domain, and extends to the description of all bodily reactions (including ideo-motor and ideo-sensory responses) caused in a similar manner by certain ideas, e.g., the salivation often caused by imagining sucking a lemon, which is a secretory response. The notion of an ideo-dynamic response contributed to James Braid's first neuropsychological explanation of the principle through which [[Unsolved:Suggestion|suggestion]] operated in hypnotism.
== History of scientific investigation ==
[[File:Charlie Charlie Challenge.jpg|thumb|The Charlie Charlie challenge relies on the ideomotor phenomenon to produce answers to questions provided by its {{nowrap|participants{{tsp}}{{mdash}}{{tsp}}}}the breathing from the participants anticipating a result causes the top pencil to rotate towards an answer]]
With the rise of [[Unsolved:Spiritualism|Spiritualism]] in 1840s, mediums devised and refined a variety of techniques for communicating, ostensibly, with the spirit world including [[Unsolved:Table-turning|table-turning]] and planchette writing boards (the precursor to later [[Unsolved:Ouija|Ouija]] boards). These phenomena and devices quickly became the subject of scientific investigation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Planchette; or, The Despair of Science|date=1869|pages=[https://archive.org/details/despairofscience00sargrich/page/1 1]–20|publisher=Roberts Brothers|location=Boston|url=https://archive.org/details/despairofscience00sargrich|access-date=2014-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=John Henry|title=The Fashionable Science of Parlour Magic|date=1885|page=85|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UypbAAAAcAAJ&q=magic&pg=PA85|access-date=2015-02-18}}</ref>

The term Ideomotor was first used in a scientific paper discussing the means through which these spiritualistic phenomena produced effect, by [[Biography:William Benjamin Carpenter|William Benjamin Carpenter]] in 1852,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sgipt.org/medppp/psymot/carp1852.htm |title=On the influence of Suggestion in Modifying and directing Muscular Movement, independently of Volition | author=William Benjamin Carpenter | date=March 12, 1852 |access-date=2010-02-27 |author-link=William Benjamin Carpenter }}</ref> hence the alternative term "Carpenter effect".  Carpenter derived the word ''ideomotor'' from the components ''ideo'', meaning "idea" or "mental representation", and ''motor'', meaning "muscular action".  In the paper, Carpenter explained his theory that muscular movement can be independent of conscious desires or emotions.{{cn|date=June 2022}}

Carpenter was a friend and collaborator of James Braid, the founder of modern hypnotism. Braid soon adopted Carpenter's ideo-motor terminology, to facilitate the transmission of his most fundamental views, based upon those of his teacher, the philosopher [[Biography:Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]],<ref>See: Yeates (2005).</ref> that the efficacy of hypnotic suggestion was contingent upon the subject's concentration upon a single (thus, "dominant") idea. In 1855, Braid explained his decision to abandon his earlier term "mono-ideo-motor", based on Carpenter's (1852) "ideo-motor principle", and adopt the more appropriate and more descriptive term "mono-ideo-dynamic". His decision was based upon suggestions made to Carpenter (in 1854) by their friend in common, Daniel Noble, that the activity that Carpenter was describing would be more accurately understood in its wider applications (viz., wider than pendulums and ouija boards) if it were to denominated the "ideo-dynamic principle":<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA642|work=Association medical journal|year=1854 |author=Noble |title= Lecture III|page=642}}</ref><blockquote>In order that I may do full justice to two esteemed friends, I beg to state, in connection with this term ''monoideo-dynamics'', that, several years ago, Dr. W. B. Carpenter introduced the term ''ideo-motor'' to characterise the reflex or automatic muscular motions which arise merely from ideas associated with motion existing in the mind, without any conscious effort of volition. In 1853, in referring to this term, Daniel Noble said, "''Ideo-dynamic'' would probably constitute a phraseology more appropriate, as applicable to a wider range of phenomena." In this opinion I quite concurred, because I was well aware that an idea could ''arrest'' as well as ''excite'' motion automatically, not only in the muscles of voluntary motion, but also as regards the condition of ''every other function of the body''. I have, therefore, adopted the term ''monoideo-dynamics'', as still more comprehensive and characteristic as regards the true mental relations which subsist during all dynamic changes which take place, in every other function of the body, as well as in the muscles of voluntary motion.<ref>Braid, (1855), footnote at p. 10.</ref></blockquote>Scientific tests by the English scientist [[Biography:Michael Faraday|Michael Faraday]], Manchester surgeon James Braid,<ref>See, for example, Braid's letter to Michael Faraday (22 August 1853).</ref> the French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul, and the American psychologists [[Biography:William James|William James]] and [[Biography:Ray Hyman|Ray Hyman]] have demonstrated that many phenomena attributed to spiritual or paranormal forces, or to mysterious "energies", are actually due to ideomotor action. Furthermore, these tests demonstrate that "honest, intelligent people can unconsciously engage in muscular activity that is consistent with their expectations".<ref name="hyman">{{cite journal
 | author = Ray Hyman
 | date = 1999
 | title = The Mischief-Making of Ideomotor Action
 | journal = The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine
 | issue = Fall-Winter
 | url = http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ideomotor.html
 | format = reproduced on web as ''How People Are Fooled by Ideomotor Action''
 }}</ref> They also show that suggestions that can guide behavior can be given by subtle clues (Hyman 1977).

Some operators claim to use ideomotor responses to communicate with a subject's "[[Biology:Unconscious mind|unconscious mind]]" using a system of physical signals (such as finger movements) for the unconscious mind to indicate "yes", "no", "I don't know", or "I'm not ready to know that consciously".<ref>Cheek (1962).</ref>

A simple experiment to demonstrate the ideomotor effect is to allow a hand-held pendulum to hover over a sheet of paper. The paper has words such as "yes", "no", and "maybe" printed on it. Small movements in the hand, in response to questions, can cause the pendulum to move towards the words on the paper. This technique has been used for experiments in [[Unsolved:Extrasensory perception|extrasensory perception]], [[Social:Lie detection|lie detection]], and ouija boards. This type of experiment was used by Kreskin<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1stingames.com/rules/kreskinsesp/index.pdf|title=Kreskin's ESP|website=1stInGames.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902211630/http://www.1stingames.com/rules/kreskinsesp/index.pdf|archive-date=2011-09-02|access-date=2011-06-08}}</ref> and has also been used by illusionists such as Derren Brown.<ref name="Brown 2007">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=Derren | title=Tricks of the mind | publisher=Channel 4 | location=London | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-905026-35-7 | oclc=163341209 | page=48}}</ref>
* A 2019 study of automatic pendulum movements using a motion capture system showed that pendulum effect is produced when the fingers holding the pendulum generate an oscillating frequency close to the resonant frequency of the pendulum. At an appropriate frequency, very small driving movements of the arm are sufficient to produce relatively large pendulum motion.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.humov.2021.102879|biorxiv=10.1101/841445|title=Moving objects by imagination? Amount of finger movement and pendulum length determine success in the Chevreul pendulum illusion|year=2021|last1=Cantergi|first1=Debora|last2=Awasthi|first2=Bhuvanesh|last3=Friedman|first3=Jason|journal=Human Movement Science|volume=80|page=102879|pmid=34607165|s2cid=238358003|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2019/11/14/841445.full.pdf}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== Responding to questions ===
<!-- These are not "ideomotor questions"; and the process is not "ideomotor questioning". The questions that are delivered by the operator are couched in normal language, and are presented to the subject in a completely normal way. It is the subject's responses that involve "ideomotor" activity, displayed through (usually predetermined) sets of "ideomotor signals". -->
It is strongly associated with the practice of [[Unsolved:Hypnotherapy|analytical hypnotherapy]] based on "uncovering techniques" such as Watkins' "affect bridge",<ref>Watkins, (January 1971).</ref> whereby a subject's "yes", "no", "I don't know", or "I don't want to answer" responses to an operator's questions are indicated by physical movements rather than verbal signals; and are produced ''per medium'' of a pre-determined (between operator and subject) and pre-calibrated set of responses.<ref>LeCron, (1954).</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Adaptive unconscious}}
* {{annotated link|Medicine:Alien hand syndrome}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Bicameral mentality}}
* {{annotated link|Divided consciousness}}
* {{annotated link|Dual consciousness}}
* {{annotated link|Engineering:Illusions of self-motion}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Left-brain interpreter}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Proprioception}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Subconscious}}
{{div col end}}

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Anderson, J.W., "Defensive Maneuvers In Two Incidents Involving The Chevreul Pendulum: A Clinical Note", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. XXV, No. 1, (1977), pp.&nbsp;4–6.
* Braid, J., "Mysterious Table Moving", ''The Manchester Examiner and Times'', Vol. 5, No. 469, (Saturday, 30 April 1853), p.&nbsp;5, col.B.
* Braid, J., ''Hypnotic Therapeutics, Illustrated by Cases: With an Appendix on Table-Moving and Spirit-Rapping. Reprinted from the Monthly Journal of Medical Science for July 1853'', Murray and Gibbs, (Edinburgh), 1853.
* Braid, J., "Letter to Michael Faraday on the phenomenon of "Table Turning" [written on 22 August 1853]", reprinted at pp. 560–561 of James, F.A.J.L., ''The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, Volume 4: January 1849 – October 1855'', Institution of Electrical Engineers, (London), 1999.
* Braid, J., ''The Physiology of Fascination, and the Critics Criticised'', John Murray, (Manchester), 1855.
* [[Biography:William Benjamin Carpenter|Carpenter]], W.B., "On the Influence of Suggestion in Modifying and directing Muscular Movement, independently of Volition", ''[http://www.sgipt.org/medppp/psymot/carp1852.htm Royal Institution of Great Britain, (Proceedings), 1852]'', (12 March 1852), pp.&nbsp;147–153.
* [[Biography:Robert Todd Carroll|Carroll]], R.T. (2003). [http://www.skepdic.com/ideomotor.html "Ideomotor effect"]. ''[[Philosophy:The Skeptic's Dictionary|The Skeptic's Dictionary]]''. {{ISBN|0-471-27242-6}}
* Cheek, D.B., "Some Applications of Hypnosis and Ideomotor Questioning Methods for Analysis and Therapy in Medicine", ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol. 5, No. 2, (October 1962), pp.&nbsp;92–104.
* Cheuvrel. Michel E., [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8U5AAAAcAAJ ''De la Baguette Divinatoire et du Pendule Dit Explorateur'' (On the Divining Rod and the So-called Exploratory Pendulum), Maillet-Bachelier, Paris, 1854.]
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00221309.1976.9710871 |title=An Experimental Analysis of the Chevreul Pendulum Illusion |date=1976 |last1=Easton |first1=Randolph D. |last2=Shor |first2=Ronald E. |journal=The Journal of General Psychology |volume=95 |pages=111–125 |pmid=956790 |issue=1st Half}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00221309.1977.9920835 |pmid=28136225 |title=Augmented and Delayed Feedback in the Chevreul Pendulum Illusion |date=1977 |last1=Easton |first1=Randolph D. |last2=Shor |first2=Ronald E. |journal=The Journal of General Psychology |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=167–177}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.1.3.231 |title=Information processing analysis of the Chevreul pendulum illusion |date=1975 |last1=Easton |first1=Randolph D. |last2=Shor |first2=Ronald E. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=231–236|pmid=1202145 |citeseerx=10.1.1.299.3848 }}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00029157.1961.10701715 |title=Historical Note on the Hand Levitation and other Ideomotor Techniques |date=1961 |last1=Erickson |first1=Milton H. |journal=American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=196–199}}
* [[Biography:Michael Faraday|Faraday]], M., "Experimental Investigation of Table-Moving", ''Athenaeum'', No. 1340, (July 1853), pp.&nbsp;801–803.
* Faraday, M., "Table-Turning", ''The Times'', No. 21468, (30 June 1853), p.&nbsp;8.
* {{Skeptoid | id= 4451| number= 451| title= Ideomotor Response| date=January 27, 2015 | last=Hoover | first= Jeff| access-date=October 19, 2020}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00029157.1962.10402270 |title=Ideomotor Signalling in Brief Psychotherapy |date=1962 |last1=Le Baron |first1=George I. |journal=American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=81–91}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00207145408409936|title=A hypnotic technique for uncovering unconscious material|year=1954|last1=Lecron|first1=Leslie M.|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis|volume=2|pages=76–79}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00029157.1996.10403336 |title=The Effects of Subject Arm Position and Initial Experience on Chevreul Pendulum Responses |date=1996 |last1=Montgomery |first1=Guy |last2=Kirsch |first2=Irving |journal=American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=185–190 |pmid=8712161}}
* Noble, D., [https://books.google.com/books?id=jBVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA586 "Three Lectures on the Correlation of Psychology and Physiology: I. General Remarks on the Physiology of the Brain and Nervous System, etc.", Association Medical Journal, Vol. 3, No. 79, (7 July 1854), pp. 586–588]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=jBVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA615 "II. Of Emotional Sensibility, and its Reactions", No. 80, (14 July 1854), pp. 615–616]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=jBVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA642 "III. On Ideas, and Their Dynamic Influence ", No. 81, (21 July 1854), pp. 642–646.]
* {{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=H. B. |date=1914 |title=Ideo-Motor Action |journal=The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods |volume=11 |issue=18 |pages=477–491 |jstor=2013141 |doi=10.2307/2013141}}
* Shenefelt, Philip D., "Ideomotor Signaling: From Divining Spiritual Messages to Discerning Subconscious Answers during Hypnosis and Hypnoanalysis, a Historical Perspective", ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol. 53, No. 3, (January 2011), pp.&nbsp;157–167.
* Spitz, H.H. & Marcuard, Y., "Chevreul's Report on the Mysterious Oscillations of the Hand-Held Pendulum: A French Chemist's 1833 Open Letter to Ampère", ''The Skeptical Inquirer'', (July/August 2001) Vol. 25, No. 4, pp.&nbsp;35–39.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00426-003-0154-5 |title=A short history of ideo-motor action |date=2004 |last1=Stock |first1=Armin |last2=Stock |first2=Claudia |journal=Psychological Research |volume=68 |issue=2–3 |pages=176–188 |pmid=14685855|s2cid=8231564 }}
* [https://archive.org/stream/bulletinofmedico00medi#page/255/mode/1up Sudduth, W.X., "Suggestion as an Ideo-Dynamic Force", pp.&nbsp;255–262 in Anon, ''Bulletin of the Medico-Legal Congress: Held at the Federal Building in the City of New York, September 4, 5th, and 6th, 1895, Medico-Legal Journal for Medico-Legal Society'', (New York), 1895.]
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00207147108407148|title=The affect bridge: A hypnoanalytic technique|year=1971|last1=Watkins|first1=John G.|journal=International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis|volume=19|issue=1|pages=21–27|pmid=5100851}}
* [https://ia800504.us.archive.org/15/items/an-account-of-thomas-browns-philosophy-of-the-human-mind/An%20Account%20of%20Thomas%20Brown%E2%80%99s%20Philosophy%20of%20the%20Human%20Mind.pdf Yeates, Lindsay B. (2005), ''An Account of Thomas Brown’s '''Philosophy of the Human Mind''''', (unpublished manuscript), School of the History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia.]
* [http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:11299/SOURCE01?view=true Yeates, Lindsay B. (2013), ''James Braid: Surgeon, Gentleman Scientist, and Hypnotist'', Ph.D. Dissertation, School of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, January 2013.]
{{refend}}

[[Category:Hypnosis]]
[[Category:Parapsychology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Ideomotor phenomenon}}