View source for Unsolved:Near-death studies

{{Short description|Field of psychology}}
'''Near-death studies''' is a field of [[Social:Psychology|psychology]] and [[Biology:Psychiatry|psychiatry]] that studies the [[Biology:Physiology|physiology]], [[Philosophy:Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenology]] and after-effects of the [[Biology:Near-death experience|near-death experience]] (NDE). The field was originally associated with a distinct group of North American researchers that followed up on the initial work of [[Biography:Raymond Moody|Raymond Moody]], and who later established the [[Organization:International Association for Near-Death Studies|International Association for Near-Death Studies]] (IANDS) and the ''[[Unsolved:Journal of Near-Death Studies|Journal of Near-Death Studies]]''. Since then the field has expanded, and now includes contributions from a wide range of researchers and commentators worldwide. Research on near-death experiences is mainly limited to the disciplines of [[Medicine:Medicine|medicine]], [[Social:Psychology|psychology]] and [[Biology:Psychiatry|psychiatry]]. 

==Near-death experience==
{{Main|Biology:Near-death experience}}
The [[Biology:Near-death experience|near-death experience]] is an experience reported by people who have come close to dying in a medical or non-medical setting. The aspect of trauma, and physical crises, is also recognized as an indicator for the phenomenon.<ref name="Sommers">Sommers MS. The near-death experience following multiple trauma. ''Crit Care Nurse''. 1994 Apr;14(2): 62–66.</ref> Five percent of the adult American population have had an NDE, according to Linda J. Griffith<ref name="Griffith">Griffith, Linda J. Near-Death Experiences and Psychotherapy, ''Psychiatry'' (Edgmont). 2009 October; 6(10): 35–42.</ref> and [[Biography:Bruce Greyson|Bruce Greyson]].<ref name="Greyson 1993">Greyson B. "Varieties of near-death experience". ''Psychiatry''. 1993 Nov;56(4): 390–99.</ref> Surveys conducted in the US, Australia and Germany suggest that 4 to 15% of the population have had NDEs, according to IANDS.<ref name="IANDS Key Facts">IANDS. [http://iands.org/ndes/about-ndes/key-nde-facts21.html "Near-death experiences: Key Facts"]. Informational Brochure published by the International Association for Near-death Studies. Durham, NC. Updated 7.24.07</ref> Researchers study the role of [[Biology:Physiology|physiological]], [[Social:Psychology|psychological]] and [[Philosophy:Transcendence|transcendental]] factors associated with the NDE.<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001">Parnia S, Waller DG, Yeates R, Fenwick P. A qualitative and quantitative study of the incidence, features and aetiology of near death experiences in cardiac arrest survivors. ''Resuscitation''. Feb;48(2): 149–56, 2001 PubMed abstract {{PMID|11426476}}</ref> These dimensions are also the basis for the three major explanatory models for the NDE.

Some general characteristics of an NDE include: subjective impressions of being outside the physical body; visions of deceased relatives and religious figures; and transcendence of ego and spatiotemporal boundaries.<ref name="Greyson 2003">Greyson, Bruce. "Near-Death Experiences in a Psychiatric Outpatient Clinic Population". ''Psychiatric Services'', Dec., Vol. 54 No. 12. The American Psychiatric Association, 2003</ref><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001">van Lommel P, van Wees R, Meyers V, Elfferich I. Near-Death Experience in Survivors of Cardiac Arrest: A prospective Study in the Netherlands. ''The Lancet''. December 15, 2001; 358(9298): 2039–45. {{PMID|11755611}}</ref> 

NDE researchers have also found that the NDE is not a uniquely western experience. Several elements and features of the NDE appear to be similar across cultures,<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992">Mauro, James. Bright lights, big mystery. ''Psychology Today'', July 1992</ref><ref name="Blackmore 1996">Blackmore, "Susan J. Near-death experiences". "Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine", Volume 89, February 1996</ref><ref name="Graves 2007">Graves, Lee. Altered States. Scientists analyze the near-death experience. ''The University of Virginia Magazine'', Summer 2007 Feature</ref><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012">Facco, Enrico & Agrillo, Christian. Near-death experiences between science and prejudice. ''Frontiers in Human Neuroscience''. 2012; 6: 209.</ref> but the details of the experience (figures, beings, scenery), and the interpretation of the experience, vary between cultures.<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992" /><ref name="Graves 2007" /><ref name="Belanti Perera Jagadheesan 2008">Belanti, John; Perera, Mahendra  and Jagadheesan, Karuppiah. Phenomenology of Near-death Experiences: A Cross-cultural Perspective. ''Transcultural Psychiatry'', 2008 45: 121.</ref> However, a few researchers have "challenged the hypothesis that near-death experience accounts are substantially influenced by prevailing cultural models".<ref name="Athappilly Greyson Stevenson 2006">Athappilly G, Greyson B, Stevenson I. Do Prevailing Societal Models Influence Reports of Near-Death Experiences? A Comparison of Accounts Reported Before and After 1975. ''The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Volume 194, Number 3, March 2006.</ref> 

Scientists correlate these events to a stressed and dying brain. These visions and life changes could be caused by oxygen shortage, imperfect anesthesia and the body's neurochemical responses to trauma.<ref name="Lichfield">{{Cite web |last=Lichfield |first=Gideon |date=2015-03-17 |title=The Science of Near-Death Experiences |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/the-science-of-near-death-experiences/386231/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> But many NDErs still believe that they were more than just simple hallucinations or dreams. They believe these messages and the experience happened to them for a greater reason.<ref name="Lichfield" />

===Elements of the NDE===

According to the ''NDE-scale''<ref name="Graves 2007"/><ref name="Greyson 1983">Greyson, Bruce. The near-death experience scale. Construction, reliability, and validity. ''Journal  of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Jun;171(6): 369–75, 1983</ref> a near-death-experience includes a few, or several, of the following 16 elements:

# Time speeds up or slows down.
# Thought-processes speed up.
# A return of scenes from the past.
# A sudden insight, or understanding.
# A feeling of peace or pleasantness.
# A feeling of happiness, or joy.
# A sense of harmony or unity with the universe.
# Confrontation with a brilliant light.
# The senses feel more vivid.
# An awareness of things going on elsewhere, as if by [[Unsolved:Extrasensory perception|extrasensory perception]] (ESP).
# Experiencing scenes from the future.
# A feeling of being separated from the body.
# Experiencing a different, unearthly world.
# Encountering a mystical being or presence, or hearing an unidentifiable voice.
# Seeing deceased persons or religious spirits.
# Coming to a border, or point of no return.

In a study published in ''The Lancet'' van Lommel and colleagues<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/> list ten elements of the NDE: {{ref|a|Note a}}

# Awareness of being dead.
# Positive emotions.
# [[Unsolved:Out-of-body experience|Out of body experience]].
# Moving through a tunnel.
# Communication with light.
# Observation of colours.
# Observation of a celestial landscape.
# Meeting with deceased persons.
# Life review.
# Presence of border.

===After-effects===
The NDE is associated with a number of after-effects,<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Greyson 2003"/><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/><ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Greyson 1997">Greyson, Bruce. The near-death experience as a focus of clinical attention. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', May;185(5): 327–34, 1997</ref><ref name="Greyson 2000">Greyson, B. Dissociation in people who have near-death experiences: out of their bodies or out of their minds? ''The Lancet''. Feb 5;355(9202): 460–63, 2000</ref><ref name="Yang Lukoff Lu 2006">Yang, C. Paul; Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. Working with Spiritual Issues. ''Psychiatric Annals'', 36:3, March 2006.</ref><ref name="Weintraub 2014">Weintraub, Pamela. Seeing the Light. ''Psychology Today'', September/October 2014</ref> or life-changing effects.<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002">Parnia S, Fenwick P. Near death experiences in cardiac arrest: visions of a dying brain or visions of a new science of consciousness. ''Resuscitation''. 2002 Jan;52(1): 5–11</ref> The effects, which are often summarized by researchers, include a number of value, attitude and belief changes<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Greyson 2000"/> that reflect profound changes in personality,<ref name="Mauro 1992"/> and a new outlook on life and death, human relations, and spirituality.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Greyson 2003"/><ref name="Greyson 1997"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Near-Death Experiences (NDEs) |url=https://med.virginia.edu/perceptual-studies/our-research/near-death-experiences-ndes/ |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=Division of Perceptual Studies |language=en-US}}</ref> Many of the effects are considered to be positive<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002"/> or beneficial.<ref name="Greyson 2003"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Sartori|first=Dr. Penny|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/969395726|title=The wisdom of near-death experiences : how understanding NDEs can help us live more fully|publisher=Watkins Media|year=2014 |isbn=978-1-5252-3092-9|pages=Chapter 9, Section: Therapeutic Benefits|oclc=969395726}}</ref> Van Lommel and colleagues conducted a "longitudinal follow-up research into transformational processes after NDEs" and found a "long-lasting transformational effect of the experience".<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/>

However, not all after-effects are beneficial. The negative effects can be very large and prevalent. In some cases, changes in attitudes and behaviour can lead to distress and psychosocial, spiritual or physiological problems.<ref name="Greyson 1997"/><ref name="Greyson 2000"/><ref name="Orne 1995">Orne RM. The meaning of survival: the early aftermath of a near-death experience. ''Research in Nursing & Health''. 1995 Jun;18(3): 239–47. PubMed abstract {{PMID|7754094}}</ref>{{ref|b|Note b}}  The negative effects of NDE often have to do with adjustment to the new situation following a near-death experience, and the issues that comes with reintegration into ordinary life.<ref name="Greyson 2000"/> According to Bruce Greyson, those who experienced NDE may also have difficulty maintaining relationships due to the fear of rejection or being ridiculed when discussing the events.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Greyson |first=Bruce |date=2013 |title=Getting Comfortable With Near Death Experiences: An Overview of Near-Death Experiences |journal=Missouri Medicine |volume=110 |issue=6 |pages=475–481 |issn=0026-6620 |pmc=6179792 |pmid=24563994}}</ref> This fear of being judged or ridiculed also causes a problem when needing to talk to a professional.<ref name=":0" /> Some NDErs have received negative reactions from professionals, thereby discouraging many who are in need of help.<ref name=":0" /> Consequently, many NDErs find great difficulty in sharing the experience of NDE and how it impacted their life.<ref name=":0" /> Another category, so-called distressing or unpleasant near-death experiences, has been investigated by Greyson and Bush.<ref name="Greyson & Bush 1992">Greyson B, Bush NE. Distressing near-death experiences. ''Psychiatry''. 1992 Feb;55(1): 95–110.</ref>

===Explanatory models===

Explanatory models for the phenomenology and the elements of the NDE can, according to sources,<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/><ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990">Owens J, Cook E W, Stevenson I. Features of "near-death experience in relation to whether or not patients were near death. ''The Lancet'', Volume 336, Issue 8724,  November 10, 1990, pp. 1175–77.</ref><ref name="French 2005">French, Christopher C. Near-death experiences in cardiac arrest survivors, in S. Laureys (Ed.) (2005) ''Progress in Brain Research'', Vol. 150</ref><ref name="Klemenc-Ketis, Kersnik, Grmec 2010">Klemenc-Ketis Z, Kersnik J, Grmec S. The effect of carbon dioxide on near-death experiences in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors: a prospective observational study. ''Crit Care''. 2010;14(2):R56.</ref><ref name="Greyson 2015">Greyson, Bruce. Western Scientific Approaches to Near-Death Experiences. ''Humanities'' 2015, 4, 775–796; doi:10.3390/h4040775</ref> be divided into a three broad categories: psychological, physiological, and transcendental. In a study published in 1990, Owens, Cook and Stevenson<ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990"/> presented results that lent support to all of these three interpretations. Christian Agrillo<ref name="Agrillo 2011">Agrillo, Christian. Near-Death Experience: Out-of-Body and Out-of-Brain? ''Review of General Psychology'', 2011, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1–10.</ref> notes that literature reports two main theoretical frameworks: (1) "biological/psychological" (in-brain theories), or (2) "survivalist" (out-of-brain theories). 

Each model contains a number of variables:

* Psychological theories have suggested that the NDE can be a consequence of mental and emotional reactions to the perceived threat of dying,<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990" /> or a result of expectation.<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Blackmore 1996" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> Other psychological variables that are considered by researchers include: imagination,<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> depersonalization,<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> dissociation,<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> proneness to fantasy,<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> and the memory of being born.<ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" />
* Physiological theories tend to focus on [[Unsolved:Somatics|somatic]], biological or pharmacological explanations for the NDE, often with an emphasis on the physiology of the brain. Variables that are considered, and often summarized by researchers, include: anoxia;<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /><ref name="Blackmore 1996" /> cerebral hypoxia;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007">Parnia S, Spearpoint K, Fenwick PB. Near death experiences, cognitive function and psychological outcomes of surviving cardiac arrest. ''Resuscitation''. 2007 Aug;74(2): 215–21.</ref> hypercarbia;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /> endorphins;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992" /><ref name="Blackmore 1996" /><ref name="Greyson 1997" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007" /> serotonin<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007" /> or various neurotransmitters;<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /><ref name="Greyson 1997" /> temporal lobe dysfunction or seizures;<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992" /><ref name="Blackmore 1996" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007" /><ref name="Britton & Bootzin">Britton W. B., Bootzin R. R. Near-death experiences and the temporal lobe.'' Psychol. Sci.'' 15, 254–58, 2004</ref> the NMDA receptor;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007" /> activation of the limbic system;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /> drugs;<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="Blackmore 1996" /><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002" /><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007" /> retinal ischemia;<ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /> and processes linked to [[Biology:Rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye-movement sleep]] or phenomena generated on the border between sleep and wakefullness.<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Facco Agrillo 2012" /><ref name="Britton & Bootzin" /><ref name="Nature 2006">Ruttimann, Jacqueline. Are near-death experiences a dream? ''Nature magazine'', online April 10, 2006</ref><ref name="Williams 2007">Williams, Daniel. At the Hour Of Our Death. ''Time'' magazine. Aug. 31, 2007</ref>
* Transcendental theories,<ref name="Griffith" /><ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /><ref name="Mauro 1992" /><ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990" /><ref name="French 2005" /> consider a number of categories that fall outside the scope of physiological or psychological explanations. This explanatory model considers whether the NDE might be related to: the existence of an [[Philosophy:Afterlife|afterlife]],<ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990" /><ref name="French 2005" /> a changing state of consciousness,<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001" /> mystical (peak) experiences,<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001" /> or mind-body separation.<ref name="French 2005" />

Several researchers in the field have expressed reservations towards explanations that are purely psychological or physiological.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002"/><ref name="Williams 2007"/><ref name="Greyson 2003b">Greyson, Bruce. Incidence and correlates of near-death experiences in a cardiac care unit. ''General Hospital Psychiatry'', 25 (2003) 269–76</ref><ref name="Greyson 2010">Greyson, Bruce. "Implications of near-death experiences for a postmaterialist psychology". ''Psychology of Religion and Spirituality'', Vol 2(1), Feb 2010, 37–45.</ref> Van Lommel and colleagues<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/> have argued for the inclusion of transcendental categories as part of the explanatory framework. Other researchers, such as Parnia, Fenwick,<ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002"/> and Greyson,<ref name="Graves 2007"/><ref name="Greyson 2010"/> have argued for an expanded discussion about the mind-brain relationship as well as the possibilities of human consciousness.

==Research – history and background==

===Precursors===

Individual cases of NDEs in literature have been identified in ancient times.<ref name="HandBook-Field">{{cite book |title =The Handbook of Near-Death Experiences: Thirty Years of Investigation | editor-last = Holden | editor-first =Janice Miner|editor2-last =  Greyson|editor2-first =Bruce| editor3-last = James | editor3-first = Debbie| publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group  |year=2009  | pages = 1–16 | chapter =The Field of Near-Death Studies: Past, Present and Future | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=9MdUPgAACAAJ  | isbn = 978-0-313-35864-7}}</ref> During the 1880s and 1890s, near-death phenomena were part of the investigation of [[Unsolved:Paranormal|paranormal]] phenomena.<ref name="Walker & Serdahely">Walker, Barbara & Serdahely, William. Historical Perspectives on Near-Death Phenomena. ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 9(2) Winter 1990, pp. 105-121</ref> Precursors to the field of near-death studies include the work of paranormal investigators, such as William Crookes and Frederick W.H. Myers, and the work of [[Unsolved:Parapsychology|parapsychological]] societies, such as the [[Organization:Society for Psychical Research|Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) in England, and its American counterpart.<ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> The work attracted skepticism from contemporary branches of science.<ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> Also in the 1800s, two efforts moved beyond studying individual cases—one privately done by Mormons and one in Switzerland.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> 

The early 1900s was a period of disinterest in the topic, only marked by occasional contributions, including the commentaries of [[Biography:Gardner Murphy|Gardner Murphy]] and the research of Donald West. In 1948 West investigated the occurrence of psi-phenomena in a small sample of the British population. He found that "14 percent of his sample had undergone a hallucinatory experience and 9 percent had reported seeing apparitions of the dead".<ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> During the 1970s the work of [[Biography:Elisabeth Kübler-Ross|Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]] attracted attention and she addressed the topic publicly.<ref name="Noble 2004">Noble, Holcomb B. "Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, 78, Dies; Psychiatrist Revolutionized Care of the Terminally Ill." ''New York Times'', August 26, 2004</ref><ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> Interest in the topic was also spurred by autobiographical accounts, such as the books of [[Biography:George G. Ritchie|George Ritchie]].<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Anderson 2004">Anderson, Jon. "Shedding light on life at death's door". ''Chicago Tribune'',  online, May 13, 2004</ref><ref name="Slayton 2007">Slayton, Jeremy. "Death Notice: George Gordon Ritchie Jr dies". ''Richmond Times Dispatch'',  online, October 31, 2007</ref>

===Formative period - early profiles===

Commentators<ref name="Kinsella 2017">Kinsella, Michael. Near-Death Experiences and Networked Spirituality: The Emergence of an Afterlife Movement. ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', March 2017, Vol. 85, No. 1, pp. 168–198 {{doi|10.1093/jaarel/lfw037}}</ref><ref name="Loseu et al.">Loseu, Saharnaz et al. The Field of Near-Death Studies Through 2011: An Updated Analysis of the Scholarly Periodical Literature. ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 31(4), Summer 2013</ref> note that the launch of the field of near-death studies started with work of [[Biography:Raymond Moody|Raymond Moody]]. Moody got interested in the subject of near-death experiences at the start of his career. In the mid-seventies, while doing his medical residency as a psychiatrist at the [[Organization:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]], he conducted interviews with near-death experiencers.<ref name="Graves 2007"/> He later published these findings in the book ''Life After Life'' (1976).<ref>Moody Raymond A. (1976). ''Life after life : the investigation of a phenomenon – survival of bodily death''. Harrisburg, Pa. : Stackpole Books.</ref> In the book Moody outlines the different elements of the NDE. These features were picked up by later researchers, and the book brought public attention to the topic of NDEs.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Graves 2007"/> 

Early contributions to the field of near-death studies also include the work of Russell Noyes, who collected NDE stories from personal accounts and medical records.<ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> According to commentators his work signalled the first big shift in perspective within the field, pulling the methodology away from [[Unsolved:Parapsychology|parapsychology]] and towards the principles of medicine.<ref name="Walker & Serdahely"/> In the 1970s Noyes and Kletti reported on the phenomenon of depersonalization related to life-threatening danger.<ref name="Noyes & Kletti 1976">Noyes, R., & Kletti, R. (1976). Depersonalization in the face of life-threatening danger: A description. ''Psychiatry'', 39, 19–27.</ref><ref name="Noyes & Kletti 1977">Noyes, R., & Kletti, R. (1977). Depersonalization in response to life-threatening danger. ''Comprehensive Psychiatry'', 18(4),375–384.</ref><ref name="Loseu et al."/> 

The late seventies saw the establishment of the ''Association for the Scientific Study of Near-Death Phenomena'', an initial group of academic researchers, including John Audette, Raymond Moody, Bruce Greyson, [[Biography:Kenneth Ring|Kenneth Ring]] and [[Biography:Michael Sabom|Michael Sabom]], who laid the foundations for the field of near-death studies, and carried out some of the first NDE research in the wake of Moody's work.<ref name="Ring 2000">Ring, Kenneth. Religious Wars in the NDE Movement: Some Personal Reflections on Michael Sabom's Light & Death. ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 18(4) Summer 2000</ref><ref name="Kinsella 2017"/> The Association was a forerunner to the International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS), which was founded in the early eighties and which established its headquarters at the [[Organization:University of Connecticut|University of Connecticut]], Storrs.<ref>New York Times staff. Connecticut Guide; Near-death Symposium. ''New York Times'', April 25, 1982</ref><ref>Fulton, Robert. Book review: The Near-Death Experience: Problems, Prospects, Perspectives. by Bruce Greyson and Charles P. Flynn. ''Contemporary Sociology'', Jul., 1985, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 452-453</ref> This group of researchers, but especially Ring, was responsible for launching ''Anabiosis'', the first peer-reviewed journal within the field. The journal later became ''[[Unsolved:Journal of Near-Death Studies|Journal of Near-Death Studies]]''.<ref name="Griffith"/>

Even though NDEs were introduced to the academic setting, the subject was often met with academic disbelief,<ref name="Bush 1991">Bush, Nancy Evans. "Is Ten Years a Life Review?" ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 10(1) Fall 1991</ref> or regarded as taboo.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/> The medical community has been reluctant to address the phenomenon of NDEs,<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Graves 2007"/> and funding for research has been limited.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/> However, both Ring and Sabom made contributions that were influential for the newly established field. Ring published a book in 1980 called ''Life at Death: A Scientific Investigation of the Near-Death Experience''.<ref>Ring, K. (1980a). ''Life at death: A scientific investigation of the near-death experience''. New York, NY: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan.</ref><ref name="Asher">Asher, Catherine G. Book review: Ring, Kenneth. Life at Death: a scientific investigation of the near-death experience. ''Library Journal'', September 15, 1980, page 1870</ref> In the book Ring identified the core near-death experience, with its corresponding stages.<ref name="Hamby">Hamby, Warren C. Reviewed Work(s): Life at Death: A Scientific Investigation of the Near-Death Experience by Kenneth Ring. ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', Vol. 21, No. 3 (Sep., 1982), pp. 289-290</ref> This early research was followed in 1984 by Ring's book ''Heading Toward Omega: In Search of the Meaning of the Near-Death Experience'',<ref name="Ring 2000"/><ref>Ring, K. (1984). ''Heading toward omega: In search of the meaning of the near-death experience''.New York, NY: William Morrow.</ref> where he described the mystical and transcendent features of the NDE, and the futuristic visions described by near-death experiencers.<ref name="Buehler">Buehler, David A.  Book review: Ring, Kenneth. Heading Toward Omega: is search of the meaning of the near-death experience. ''Library Journal'', August 1984, page 1455</ref> The early work of Michael Sabom also brought attention within the academic community. Besides contributing material to academic journals,<ref name="Sabom 1980">Sabom, M. B. The near-death experience. ''JAMA'' 1980 Jul 4;244(1): 29–30.</ref> he wrote a book called ''Recollections of Death'' (1982)<ref name="Sabom 1982">Sabom, M. (1982). Recollections of death: A medical investigation. New York, NY: Harper and Row.</ref> which is considered to be a significant publication in the launching of the field.<ref name="Ring 2000"/>

Some of the early retrospective work was being carried out by Greyson and Stevenson who published their findings in the ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' in 1980. The authors used questionnaires, interviews, and medical records in order to study the phenomenology of NDEs and suggested that social and psychological factors explained some, but not all, components of the NDE.<ref name="Greyson & Stevenson"> Greyson B, Stevenson I. The phenomenology of near-death experiences. ''Am J Psychiatry''. 1980 Oct;137(10):1193-6. doi: 10.1176/ajp.137.10.1193. PMID: 7416264.</ref><ref name="Olvera-Lopeza ">Olvera-Lopeza, Edgardo & Varona, Joseph. Editorial: “AWAREness during CPR: Be careful with what you say!” ''Resuscitation'' 85 (2014) A5–A6, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.09.023</ref> Greyson has also addressed different aspects of the NDE, such as the psychodynamics of the experience,<ref name="Greyson 1983b">Greyson, Bruce. "The psychodynamics of near-death experiences." ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', 1983 Jun;171(6): 376–81.</ref> the typology of NDEs,<ref name="Greyson 1985">Greyson B. "A typology of near-death experiences." ''Am J Psychiatry''. 1985 Aug;142(8):967-9.</ref> the varieties of NDEs,<ref name="Greyson 1993"/> and the biology of NDEs.<ref name="Greyson 1998">Greyson B. "Biological aspects of near-death experiences". ''Perspect Biol Med''. 1998 Autumn;42(1): 14–32.</ref> In addition, he brought attention to the NDE as a focus of clinical attention,<ref name="Greyson 1997"/> suggesting that the aftermath of the NDE, in some cases, can lead to psychological problems. As research in the field progressed, both Greyson and Ring developed measurement tools that can be used in a clinical setting.<ref name="Greyson 1983"/><ref name="Ring  1980">Ring, Kenneth. (1980) ''Life at death. A scientific investigation of the near-death experience''. New York: Coward McCann and Geoghenan.</ref> According to Kinsella,<ref name="Kinsella 2017"/> no other researcher, besides Moody, has done more to "influence public opinion on the subject of NDEs" than Kenneth Ring. However, Bruce Greyson has the greatest output of material and remains the leading scholar in the field.<ref name="Loseu et al."/>

The 1980s also introduced the research of [[Biography:Melvin L. Morse|Melvin Morse]], who profiled near-death studies.<ref name="Maryles">Maryles, Daisy. Behind the bestsellers. ''Publishers Weekly''. 240.20 (May 17, 1993): p. 17. From Literature Resource Center.</ref> Morse and colleagues<ref name="Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D. 1985">Morse M, Conner D, Tyler D. "Near-death experiences in a pediatric population. A preliminary report". ''American Journal of Diseases of Children'', Jun;139(6): 595–600, 1985</ref><ref name="Morse et.al 1986">Morse M, Castillo P, Venecia D, Milstein J, Tyler DC. "Childhood near-death experiences". ''American Journal of Diseases of Children'', Nov;140(11): 1110–14, 1986</ref> investigated NDEs in a pediatric population. They found that children reported NDEs that were similar to those described by adults. Morse later published two books, co-authored with Paul Perry, that were aimed at a general audience: ''Closer to the light: learning from children's near-death experiences'' (1990)<ref>Morse, Melvin (with Paul Perry) (1990) ''Closer to the light : learning from children's near-death experiences''. New York : Villard Books</ref> and ''Transformed by the light: the powerful effect of near-death experiences on people's lives'' (1992).<ref>Morse, Melvin (with Paul Perry) (1992) ''Transformed by the light : the powerful effect of near-death experiences on people's lives''. New York : Villard Books</ref> British [[Biology:Neuropsychiatry|neuropsychiatrist]] [[Biography:Peter Fenwick (neuropsychologist)|Peter Fenwick]] started to collect NDE stories in the 1980s, following their appearances in television programs.<ref>Fenwick, Peter &  Mensel, Lars. I'm no longer afraid of death. ''The European'', 10.03.2013, [http://www.theeuropean.de www.theeuropean.de], retrieved January 5, 2023</ref><ref name="Loseu et al."/> The responses from near-death experiencers later served as the basis for his book published in 1997, ''The Truth in the light'', co-authored with his wife Elizabeth Fenwick.<ref>Fenwick, Peter and Fenwick, Elizabeth (1997). ''The truth in the light: an investigation of over 300 near-death experiences''. New York : Berkley Books</ref> In the book the authors investigated more than 300 NDEs and concluded that the "subjective experience" is the key to understanding the phenomenon of NDEs.<ref name="Eastman">Eastman, Nigel.  Reviewed Work(s): The Truth In The Light by Peter Fenwick and Elizabeth Fenwick. ''British Medical Journal'', Vol. 310, No. 6988 (May 6, 1995), p. 1211 https://www.jstor.org/stable/29727231</ref> Co-operating with other researchers, such as [[Biography:Sam Parnia|Sam Parnia]], Fenwick has reviewed<ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002"/><ref name="Parnia Spearpoint Fenwick 2007"/> and researched<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/> the potential relationship between near-death experiences and cardiac arrest.

Early investigations into the topic of near-death experiences were also conducted at the [[Organization:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]], where [[Biography:Ian Stevenson|Ian Stevenson]] founded the Division of Perceptual Studies in the late sixties.<ref>[https://med.virginia.edu/perceptual-studies/who-we-are/history-of-dops/dr-ian-stevenson Division of Perceptual Studies]</ref> The division went on to produce research on a number of phenomena that were not considered to be mainstream. In addition to near-death experiences this included: reincarnation and past lives, out-of-body experiences, apparitions and after-death communications, and deathbed visions.<ref name="Graves 2007"/><ref name="Fox 2007">Fox, Margalit. "Ian Stevenson Dies at 88; Studied Claims of Past Lives". ''New York Times'', February 18, 2007</ref> Stevenson, whose main academic interest was the topic of reincarnation and past lives,<ref name="Wallis 1999">Wallis, David. "Conversations/Dr. Ian Stevenson; You May Be Reading This In Some Future Past Life". ''New York Times'', September 26, 1999</ref><ref name="Cadoret 2005">Cadoret, Remi J. "Book Forum: European Cases of the Reincarnation Type". ''Am J Psychiatry'' 162: 823–24, April 2005</ref> also made contributions to the field of near-death studies.<ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990"/><ref name="Stevenson Cook 1995">Stevenson I, Cook EW. Involuntary memories during severe physical illness or injury. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease''. 1995 Jul;183(7): 452–58.</ref> In a 1990 study, co-authored with Owens and Cook, the researchers studied the medical records of 58 people who were thought to have been near death. The authors judged 28 candidates to actually have been close to dying, while 30 candidates, who merely thought they were about to die, were judged to not have been in any medical danger. Both groups reported similar experiences, but the first group reported more features of the core NDE than the other group.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Owens Cook Stevenson 1990"/>

According to Loseu and colleagues,<ref name="Loseu et al."/> who published an analysis of the published literature in the field of near-death studies, there was a peak in the output of articles in the 15-year period between 1980 and 1995, followed by a decreasing trend.

===Later period - new profiles, prospective studies===

The first decades of near-death research were characterized by retrospective studies.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/><ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/><ref name="Parnia & Fenwick 2002"/><ref name="French 2005"/><ref name="French 2001"/><ref name="Greyson 2013">Greyson, Bruce. An Overview of Near-Death Experiences. ''Missouri Medicine'', November/December 2013</ref> From 1975 to 2005, some 2500 self reported individuals in the US had been reviewed in retrospective studies of the phenomena<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> with an additional 600 outside the US in the West,<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> and 70 in Asia.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> However, the late 1980s marked the beginning of prospective studies in the field. Prospective studies  (which are more expensive) review groups of individuals and find who had an NDE.  They had identified 270 individuals by 2005.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> 

[[Biography:Pim van Lommel|Pim van Lommel]] (cardiologist) was one of the first researchers to bring the study of NDEs into the area of Hospital Medicine. In 1988 he launched a prospective study that spanned 10 Dutch hospitals. 344 survivors of cardiac arrest were included in the study.<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/><ref name="Williams 2007"/><ref name="Orlando 2021">Orlando, A. (2021). Death Defying. ''Discover'', 42(6), 50–58.</ref> 62 patients (18%) reported NDE. 41 of these patients (12%) described a core experience. The aim of the study was to investigate the cause of the experience, and assess variables connected to frequency, depth, and content.<ref name="van Lommel et.al 2001"/> Prospective studies were also taking place in the U.S. Schwaninger and colleagues<ref name="Scwaninger et.al 2002">Schwaninger J, Eisenberg PR, Schechtman KB, Weiss AN. A Prospective Analysis of Near-Death Experiences in Cardiac Arrest Patients. ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 20(4), Summer 2002</ref> collaborated with Barnes-Jewish Hospital, where they studied cardiac arrest patients over a three-year period (April 1991 – February 1994). Only a minority of the patients survived, and from this group 30 patients were interviewable. Of these 30 patients 23% reported an NDE, while 13% reported an NDE during "a prior life-threatening illness". 

In a prospective study from 2001, conducted at Southampton General Hospital, Parnia and colleagues found that 11.1% of 63 cardiac-arrest survivors reported memories of their unconscious period. Several of these memories included NDE features.<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/>{{ref|c|Note c}} Greyson<ref name="Greyson 2003b"/> conducted a 30-month survey of patients admitted to the cardiac inpatient service of the University of Virginia Hospital. He found that NDEs were reported by 10% of patients with cardiac arrest and 1% of other cardiac patients. Up to 2005, 95% of world cultures have been documented making some mention of NDEs.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> In all, close to 3500 individual cases between 1975 and 2005 had been reviewed by some 55 researchers or teams of researchers.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/>

During the next decade prospective studies were also starting to emerge from other parts of the world. In a study from 2010 Klemenc-Ketis and colleagues reported on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors, later admitted to intensive care units, at medical centers in Slovenia. 21.2% of the patients in the study reported NDEs. The researchers also found that "NDE occur more often in patients with higher petCO2 and pCO2"; "higher serum levels of potassium correlate with higher score on Greyson’s NDE scale"; and "NDEs occur more often in patients with previous NDEs".<ref name="Klemenc-Ketis et al.">Klemenc-Ketis et al.: The effect of carbon dioxide on near-death experiences in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors: a prospective observational study. ''Critical Care'' 2010 14:R56.</ref>

The work of [[Biography:Jeffrey Long|Jeffrey Long]] has also attracted attention to the topic of NDEs in both the academic, and the popular field.<ref name="Beck 2010">Beck, Melinda. "Seeking Proof in Near-Death Claims". ''The Wall Street Journal (Health Journal)'', October 25, 2010</ref><ref name="MacDonald 2011">MacDonald, G. Jeffrey. "Scientists probe brief brushes with the afterlife". ''The Christian Century'', Jan 12, 2011, [http://www.christiancentury.org www.christiancentury.org], retrieved January 4, 2023</ref> Long is a near death experience researcher who believes in life after death.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsakiris |first=Alex |date=2010-03-25 |title=Dr. Jeffrey Long Takes On Critics of, Evidence of the Afterlife {{!}} Near Death Experiences |url=https://skeptiko.com/jeffrey_long_takes_on_critics_of_evidence_of_the_afterlife/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Skeptiko - Science at the Tipping Point |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2010 he released a book, co-authored with Paul Perry, called ''Evidence of the Afterlife: The Science of Near-Death Experiences''. In the book Long presented results from research conducted over the previous decade.<ref name="Fitzpatrick 2010">Fitzpatrick, Laura. ''Is There Such a Thing as Life After Death?''. ''Time'' magazine, online, Jan. 22, 2010</ref> 

Based on the results from an analysis of scholarly NDE-related periodical literature, the decade between 2001 and 2011 signaled an expansion of the field of near-death studies by including new authors and new publication venues.<ref name="Loseu et al."/> Research has also entered into other fields of interest, such as the mental health of military veterans. Goza, Holden & Kinsey studied NDEs among combat veterans. They found, among other things, that combat soldiers reported "less intense" near-death experiences, compared to NDErs in the civilian population.<ref name="Goza et al.">Goza, Tracy H., Holden, Janice M. & Kinsey, Lee. Combat Near-Death Experiences: An Exploratory Study. ''Military Medicine'', 179,10:1113, 2014</ref>

The first clinical paper from The AWARE-project (AWAreness during REsuscitation), another prospective study, was published in 2014. The research was a multicenter observational study including US, UK and Austrian medical sites.<ref name="Parnia et.al 2014">Parnia S, et al. AWARE – AWAreness during REsuscitation – A prospective study. ''Resuscitation'', Vol. 85, Issue 12, p1799-1805, December 01, 2014.</ref><ref name="Weintraub">Weintraub, Pamela. Seeing the light. ''Psychology Today'', September 02, 2014, [http://www.psychologytoday.com www.psychologytoday.com], retrieved January 3, 2023</ref><ref name="Robb">Robb, Alice. The Scientists Studying Life After Death Are Not Total Frauds. ''The New Republic'', October 8, 2014, [http://www.newrepublic.com www.newrepublic.com], retrieved January 3, 2023</ref><ref name="Lichfield"/><ref name="Rice ">Rice, DT, Nudell, NG, Habrat, DA, Smith, JE and Ernest, EV, CPR induced consciousness: sedation protocols for this special population. ''British Paramedic Journal'' 2016, vol. 1(2) 24–29</ref><ref name="Orlando 2021"/> In the study Parnia and colleagues<ref name="Parnia et.al 2014"/> found that 9% of patients who completed stage 2 interviews reported experiences compatible with NDEs. A follow-up study, AWARE II, was completed in November 2022 (not yet peer-reviewed), and has resulted in 28 participants completing interviews, with 6 reporting a NDE. <ref name="AWARE II">Parnia, S, et al. Awareness During Resuscitation - II: A Multi-Center Study of Consciousness and Awareness in Cardiac Arrest. ''SSRN'', January 11, 2023, [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4246760]</ref>

In a study from 2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charland-Verville |first1=Vanessa |last2=Paula |first2=Demetrius Ribeiro de |last3=Martial |first3=Charlotte |last4=Cassol |first4=Helena |last5=Antonopoulos |first5=Georgios |last6=Chronik |first6=Blaine Alexander |last7=Soddu |first7=Andrea |last8=Laureys |first8=Steven |date=2020-01-30 |title=Characterization of near death experiences using text mining analyses: A preliminary study |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=e0227402 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0227402 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6992169 |pmid=31999716|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1527402C |doi-access=free }}</ref> Charland-Verville and colleagues studied the near-death experiences of 158 participants through [[Text mining|text mining]]. This study found that analyzing these experiences by the way participants explain them through speech can allow researchers to understand even more about NDEs, rather than just relying on the memories and self-reports of participants, which are less confidential than scientific evidence. It was also demonstrated that non-verbal communication like gestures and emotions can allow researchers to further understand NDEs and their effect on people who have had them.

==Psychometrics==
Several psychometric instruments have been adapted to near-death research. In 1980,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martial |first=Charlotte |last2=Simon |first2=Jessica |last3=Puttaert |first3=Ninon |last4=Gosseries |first4=Olivia |last5=Charland-Verville |first5=Vanessa |last6=Nyssen |first6=Anne-Sophie |last7=Greyson |first7=Bruce |last8=Laureys |first8=Steven |last9=Cassol |first9=Héléna |date=2020-11-01 |title=The Near-Death Experience Content (NDE-C) scale: Development and psychometric validation |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/253760/1/NDE-C_scale_manuscript_FINAL.pdf |journal=Consciousness and Cognition |language=en |volume=86 |pages=103049 |doi=10.1016/j.concog.2020.103049 |issn=1053-8100}}</ref> Ring developed the ''Weighted Core Experience Index'' in order to measure the depth of NDEs,<ref name="Greyson 1983"/> and this index has been used by other researchers for this purpose.<ref name="Lester">Lester, David. "Depth of Near-Death Experiences and Confounding Factors". ''Perceptual and Motor Skills'', 2003,96, 18.</ref> The index has also been used to measure the impact of near-death experiences on dialysis patients.<ref name="Lai et.al 2007">Lai et al. "Impact of near-death experiences on dialysis patients: a multicenter collaborative study". ''Am J Kidney Dis''. 2007 Jul;50(1): 124–32, 132.e1-2.</ref> According to some commentators<ref name="Griffith"/> the index has improved the consistency in the field. However, Greyson notes that although the index is a "pioneering effort", it is not based on statistical analysis, and has not been tested for internal coherence or reliability.<ref name="Greyson 1983"/> In 1984 Ring developed an instrument called the ''Life Changes Inventory'' (LCI) in order to quantify value changes following an NDE. The instrument was later revised and standardized and a new version, the LCI-R, was published in 2004.<ref name="Greyson & Ring 2004">Greyson, Bruce; Ring, Kenneth. "The Life Changes Inventory – Revised." ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', Vol 23(1), 2004, 41–54.</ref>

Greyson<ref name="Greyson 1983"/> developed ''The Near-Death Experience Scale''. This 16-item scale was found to have high internal consistency, [[Reliability (statistics)|split-half reliability]], and [[Reliability (statistics)|test-retest reliability]]<ref name="Greyson 2003"/><ref name="Greyson 1983"/> and was correlated with Ring's ''Weighted Core Experience Index''. Questions formulated by the scale address such dimensions as: cognition (feelings of accelerated thought, or "life-review"), affect (feelings of peace and joy), paranormal experience (feelings of being outside of the body, or a perception of future events) and transcendence (experience of encountering deceased relatives, or experiencing an unearthly realm). A score of 7 or higher out of a possible 32 was used as the standard criterion for a near-death experience.<ref name="Greyson 2003"/> The scale is, according to the author,<ref name="Greyson 2003"/><ref name="Greyson 1983"/> clinically useful in differentiating NDEs from [[Medicine:Organic brain syndrome|organic brain syndromes]] and nonspecific stress responses. The NDE-scale was later found to fit the [[Rasch model|Rasch rating scale model]].<ref>Lange R, Greyson B, Houran J. "A Rasch scaling validation of a 'core' near-death experience". ''British Journal of Psychology''. Volume: 95 Part: 2 pp. 161-177, 2004</ref> The instrument has been used to measure NDEs among cardiac arrest survivors,<ref name="Parnia et.al 2001"/><ref name="Parnia et.al 2014"/> coma survivors,<ref name="Thonnard et.al 2013">Thonnard M, Charland-Verville V, Brédart S, Dehon H, Ledoux D, Laureys S, Vanhaudenhuyse A. Characteristics of near-death experiences memories as compared to real and imagined events memories. ''PLoS One''. 2013;8(3):e57620. Mar 27.</ref> out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients/survivors,<ref name="Klemenc-Ketis, Kersnik, Grmec 2010"/><ref name="Klemenc-Ketis 2013">Klemenc-Ketis Z. "Life changes in patients after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: the effect of near-death experiences". ''Int J Behav Med''. 2013 Mar;20(1): 7–12.</ref><ref name="Martens 1994">Martens PR. "Near-death-experiences in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors. Meaningful phenomena or just fantasy of death?" ''Resuscitation''. 1994 Mar;27(2): 171–75.</ref> substance misusers,<ref name="Corazza &Schifano 2010">Corazza O, Schifano F. "Near-death states reported in a sample of 50 misusers". ''Subst Use Misuse''. 2010 May;45(6): 916–24.</ref> and dialysis patients.<ref name="Lai et.al 2007"/>

In the late 1980s Thornburg developed the ''Near-Death Phenomena Knowledge and Attitudes Questionnaire''.<ref name="Walker and Russell">Walker, Barbara & Russell, Robert D. "Assessing psychologists' knowledge and attitudes toward near-death phenomena". ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', Vol. 8, Number 2,  103–110</ref> The questionnaire consists of 23 true/false/undecided response items assessing knowledge, 23 [[Social:Likert scale|Likert scale]] items assessing general attitudes toward near-death phenomena, and 20 [[Social:Likert scale|Likert scale]] items assessing attitude toward caring for a client who has had an NDE.<ref name="Barnett 1991">Barnett, Linda. "Hospice Nurses' Knowledge and Attitudes Toward the Near-Death Experience". ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 9(4), Summer 1991</ref> Content validity was established by using a panel of experts selected from nursing, sociology, and psychology. The instrument was also found to satisfy the criteria for internal consistency.<ref name="Walker and Russell"/> The instrument has been used to measure attitudes toward, and knowledge of, near-death experiences in a college population,<ref>Ketzenberger, Kay E. & Keim, Gina L. "The Near-Death Experience: Knowledge and Attitudes of College Students". ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', Volume 19, Number 4, 227–32</ref> among clergy,<ref>Bechtel, Lori J.; Chen, Alex; Pierce, Richard A.; Walker, Barbara A. "Assessment of clergy knowledge and attitudes toward near-death experiences". ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', Vol 10(3), 1992, 161–70.</ref> among registered psychologists,<ref name="Walker and Russell"/> and among hospice nurses.<ref name="Barnett 1991"/>

Martial and colleagues <ref name="Martial et al. 2020">Martial et al. The Near-Death Experience Content (NDE-C) scale: Development and psychometric validation. ''Conscious Cogn.'' 2020 Nov;86:103049. {{doi|10.1016/j.concog.2020.103049}}.</ref> developed the ''Near-Death Experience Content (NDE-C) scale'', a 20-item scale constructed in order to reassess the Greyson NDE-scale and to validate the new NDE-C scale. The authors found weaknesses in the original NDE-scale, but good psychometric properties for the new NDE-C scale.

Greyson has also used mainstream psychological measurements in his research, for example: ''The Dissociative Experiences Scale'',<ref name="Greyson 2000"/> a measure of dissociative symptoms; and ''The Threat Index'',<ref>Greyson, Bruce. "Reduced death threat in near-death experiencers". ''Death Studies'', Vol. 16, Issue 6, 1992.</ref> a measure of the threat implied by one's personal death.

==Near death studies community==

=== Research organizations and academic locations ===

The field of near-death studies includes several communities that study the phenomenology of NDEs. One of the most influential is IANDS, an international organization based in Durham, North Carolina, US, that promotes research and education on the phenomenon of near-death experiences.<ref name="Kinsella 2017"/><ref name="IANDS PressKit">IANDS. [https://iands.org/images/stories/pdf_downloads/IANDS_2021_Press_Kit_compressed_3.pdf] Durham: International Association for Near-Death Studies. IANDS 2021 Press Kit. Accessed May 8, 2022</ref> Among its publications is the peer-reviewed ''[[Unsolved:Journal of Near-Death Studies|Journal of Near-Death Studies]]''.<ref name="Griffith"/><ref name="Kinsella 2017"/> The organization also maintains an archive of near-death case histories for research and study.<ref>[http://iands.org/research/nde-research/nde-archives31.html IANDS: NDE Archives]. Accessed 2011-02-06.</ref>

Another research organization, the Louisiana-based Near Death Experience Research Foundation, was established by radiation oncologist [[Biography:Jeffrey Long|Jeffrey Long]] in 1998.<ref name="Beck 2010"/><ref name="MacDonald 2011"/><ref name="Adler 2007">Adler, Jerry. "Back From the Dead". ''Newsweek'', July 23, 2007</ref> The foundation maintains a website and a database of near-death cases.<ref name="MacDonald 2011"/>

Several universities have been associated with near-death studies: the [[Organization:University of Connecticut|University of Connecticut]] (US),<ref name="Greyson 2003"/> Southampton University (UK),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/blog/2008/sep/18/research|work=The Guardian|title=Postcards from heaven: scientists to study near-death experiences|access-date=8 May 2022|first=Rachel|last=Stevenson|date=18 September 2008}}</ref> [[Organization:University of North Texas|University of North Texas]] (US)<ref name="UNT 2011">UNT (University of North Texas) News. "UNT research produces new findings on combat soldiers' near-death experiences". online, July 11, 2011</ref> and the Division of Perceptual Studies at the [[Organization:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]] (US).<ref name="Graves 2007"/><ref name="Athappilly Greyson Stevenson 2006"/><ref name="Greyson 2013"/>

===Conferences===

IANDS holds conferences on the topic of near-death experiences. The first meeting was a medical seminar at [[Organization:Yale University|Yale University]], New Haven, Connecticut, in 1982. The first clinical conference was in Pembroke Pines, Florida, and the first research conference was in Farmington, Connecticut in 1984. Since then conferences have been held in major U.S. cities, almost annually.<ref>[http://iands.org/about/about-iands27/fact-sheet.html "IANDS Fact Sheet, As of December, 2010"]. Accessed 2012-02-09.</ref> Many of the conferences have addressed a specific topic, defined in advance of the meeting. In 2004 participants gathered in Evanston, Illinois  under the headline: "Creativity from the light".<ref name="Anderson 2004"/><ref name="Daily Northwestern 2004">Gordon, Scott. "Evanston's brush with death." ''The Daily Northwestern'', online, June 30, 2004</ref> A few of the conferences have been arranged at academic locations. In 2001 researchers and participants gathered at [[Organization:Seattle Pacific University|Seattle Pacific University]].<ref name="Forgrave, 2001">Forgrave, Reid. "A glimpse of the 'other side': Seattle conference unites near-death individuals". ''The Seattle Times'', online, July 27, 2001</ref> In 2006 the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center became the first medical institution to host the annual IANDS conference.<ref name="Hopper, 2006">Hopper, Leigh. "Conference to shed light on 'near-death' experiences". ''The Houston Chronicle'', online, October 25, 2006</ref>

The first international medical conference on near-death experiences was held in 2006.<ref name="Williams 2007"/> Approximately 1,500 delegates, including people who claim to have had NDEs, attended the one-day conference in Martigues, France. Among the researchers at the conference were Moody and anesthetist and intensive care doctor Jean-Jacques Charbonnier.<ref name="Cosmos Magazine 2006">Cosmos Magazine Staff. "Near-death experiences go under the French microscope". ''Cosmos Magazine'', June 18, 2006. Cosmos Media Pty Ltd</ref>

===Relevant publications===

IANDS publishes the quarterly ''[[Unsolved:Journal of Near-Death Studies|Journal of Near-Death Studies]]'', the only scholarly journal in the field.<ref name="Griffith"/> IANDS also publishes ''Vital Signs'', a quarterly newsletter that is made available to its members and that includes commentary, news and articles of general interest.<ref>[https://iands.org/research/publications/vital-signs.html IANDS: ''Vital Signs'']. Accessed May 8, 2022.</ref>

One of the first introductions to the field of near-death studies was ''A Collection of Near-Death Research Readings: Scientific Inquiries Into the Experiences of Persons Near Physical Death,'' edited by Craig R. Lundahl and released in 1982.<ref name="Kamerman">Kamerman, J. (1984). A Collection of near-death research readings (Book Review). ''Contemporary Sociology'', 13, 120.</ref><ref name="Adams 1982">Adams, Rebecca G. Book review: A Collection of Near-Death Research Readings: Scientific Inquiries Into the Experiences of Persons Near Physical Death. ''Sociological Inquiry''. Fall 87, Vol. 57 Issue 4, p447-448. 2p. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb00249.x</ref> An early general reader was ''The Near-Death Experience: Problems, Prospects, Perspectives,'' published in 1984.<ref name="Greyson & Flynn">Bruce Greyson (Editor), Charles P. Flynn (Editor) (1984) ''The Near-Death Experience: Problems, Prospects, Perspectives''. Charles C Thomas Pub Ltd</ref> In 2009, the ''Handbook of Near-Death Experiences: thirty years of investigation'' was published. It was an overview of the field based on papers presented at the IANDS conference in 2006.<ref name="HandBook-Field"/><ref name="Corazza 2010">Corazza, Ornella. Mortality. Book review: The handbook of near-death experiences: thirty years of investigation. ''Mortality'', May 2010, Vol. 15 Issue 2, p180-181. 2p. DOI: 10.1080/13576275.2010.482784.</ref> ''Making Sense of Near-Death Experiences: A Handbook for Clinicians'' was published in 2011''.''<ref name="Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2011">Mahendra Perera, Karuppiah Jagadheesan, Anthony Peake (editors) (2011) ''Making Sense of Near-Death Experiences: A Handbook for Clinicians.'' Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 176 pp</ref> The book had many contributors and described how the NDE could be handled in psychiatric and clinical practice.<ref name="Russell 2011">Russell, Rebecca. "Book reviews: Making Sense of Near-Death Experiences: A Handbook for Clinicians". ''The British Journal of Psychiatry'' (2012) 201: 415</ref> In 2017 the University of Missouri Press published ''The Science Of Near-death Experiences,''<ref name="Hagan">Hagan, John C. (editor) (2017). The science of near-death experiences. Columbia: University of Missouri Press</ref> a compilation of articles that were originally published in the medical journal ''Missouri Medicine'' between 2013 and 2015.<ref>Van Way, Charles W. Book review: The Science of Near-Death Experiences by John C. Hagan III, MD, Editor. ''Missouri Medicine'', January/February 2018, 115:1, 2</ref>

==Recognition and criticism==

According to literature<ref name="HandBook-Field"/> the field of near-death studies is associated with discovery, challenges, and controversy. Skepticism towards the findings of near-death studies, and the validity of the near-death experience as a subject for scientific study, has been widespread. According to Knapton, in ''The Daily Telegraph'',<ref>Knapton, Sarah. First hint of 'life after death' in biggest ever scientific study. ''The Telegraph'', online, Oct 7, 2014</ref> the subject was, until recently, controversial. Both scientists and medical professionals have, in general, tended to be skeptical.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Petre 2000">Petre, Jonathan. ''Soul-searching doctors find life after death''. ''The Telegraph'', online,  Oct. 22, 2000</ref><ref name="O'Connor 2004">O'Connor, Anahad. "Following a Bright Light to a Calmer Tomorrow". ''New York Times'', online, April 13, 2004</ref><ref>Ziegler, Jan. Near-death Experiences Deemed Worthy Of Serious Research . October 06, 1985, ''Chicago Tribune'' online. Accessed September 21, 2014</ref>  According to commentators in the field<ref name="Bush 1991"/> the early study of near-death experiences was met with "academic disbelief". Acceptance of NDEs as a legitimate topic for scientific study has improved,<ref name="Mauro 1992"/> but the process has been slow.<ref name="Graves 2007"/> According to literature<ref name="Griffith"/> "psychiatrists have played a role in the recognition of the "near-death" phenomenon as well as popularization of the subject and subsequent research". Kinsella<ref name="Kinsella 2017"/> noted that "Growing scholarly interest has followed popular interest in the subject".

Skeptics have remarked that it is difficult to verify many of the anecdotal reports that are being used as background material in order to outline the features of the NDE.<ref name="Mauro 1992"/><ref name="Beck 2010"/>

Internet Infidels commentator Keith Augustine has criticized the survivalist interpretation of NDEs. He also criticized "weaknesses in the research methodology, paucity of the data, and gaps in the arguments".<ref name="Augustine 2007">Augustine, K. "Psychophysiological and cultural correlates undermining a survivalist interpretation of near-death experiences". ''Journal of Near Death Studies'', 26 (2): 89–125 (2007).</ref><ref name="Greyson 2007">Greyson, Bruce. "Commentary on 'Psychophysiological and Cultural Correlates Undermining a Survivalist Interpretation of Near-Death Experiences'". ''Journal of Near-Death Studies'', 26(2), Winter 2007</ref> Greyson responded by suggesting that the materialist model favored by Augustine is supported by even less data than the "mind-brain separation model" favored by many researchers within the field of near-death studies.<ref name="Greyson 2007"/>

The findings of NDE research have been contested by several writers in the fields of [[Social:Psychology|psychology]] and [[Biology:Neuroscience|neuroscience]]. [[Biography:Susan Blackmore|Susan Blackmore]]<ref name="Beck 2010"/> has contested the findings of NDE research, and has instead argued in favour of a neurological explanation. Psychologist Christopher French<ref name="French 2005"/><ref name="French 2001">French, Christopher. "Commentary." ''The Lancet'' 358, pp. 2010–11, 2001</ref> has reviewed several of the theories that have originated from the field of near-death studies. This includes theories that present a challenge to modern neuroscience by suggesting a new understanding of the mind-brain relationship in the direction of transcendental, or paranormal, elements. In reply to this French considers the conventional scientific understanding, and introduces several non-paranormal factors, as well as psychological theory, that might explain those near-death experiences that defy conventional scientific explanations. However, he does not rule out a future revision of modern neuroscience, awaiting new and improved research procedures.

Jason Braithwaite, a Senior Lecturer in Cognitive Neuroscience in the Behavioural Brain Sciences Centre, [[Organization:University of Birmingham|University of Birmingham]], issued an in-depth analysis and critique of the survivalist's neuroscience of some NDE researchers, concluding, "it is difficult to see what one could learn from the paranormal survivalist position which sets out assuming the truth of that which it seeks to establish, makes additional and unnecessary assumptions, misrepresents the current state of knowledge from mainstream science, and appears less than comprehensive in its analysis of the available facts."<ref>Braithwaite, J. J. [https://www.academia.edu/574245/Towards_a_Cognitive_Neuroscience_of_the_Dying_Brain "Towards a Cognitive Neuroscience of the Dying Brain"]. The Skeptic, Volume 21, Issue 2 (2008).</ref>

Martens<ref name="Martens 1994"/> noted the "lack of uniform nomenclature", and "the failure to control the studied  population with an elimination of interfering factors", as examples of criticism directed towards near-death research. Engmann<ref>Engmann, B: The cart was put before the horse - Basic problems in NDE research. ''Resuscitation''. 2015 Dec;97:e13. DOI: 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.03.029 https://www.resuscitationjournal.com/article/S0300-9572(15)00808-4/fulltext</ref> points out that NDE research does not fulfil quality criteria of medical studies, namely [[Philosophy:Objectivity (science)|objectivity]].

But criticism of the field has also come from commentators within its own ranks. In an open letter to the NDE community Ring has pointed to the "issue of possible religious bias in near-death studies". According to Ring the field of near-death studies, as well as the larger NDE movement, has attracted a variety of religious and spiritual affiliations, from a number of traditions, which makes ideological claims on behalf of NDE research. In his view this has compromised the integrity of research and discussion.<ref name="Ring 2000"/>

==See also==
* [[Unsolved:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]]
* [[Unsolved:Parapsychology|Parapsychology]]
* Human Consciousness Project

==Notes==

:a.{{note|a}}  van Lommel et.al, 2001: Table 2
:b.{{note|b}} The diagnostic label of "Religious or spiritual problem" is included in DSM-IV under the category of "Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention". See American Psychiatric Association (1994) "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association (Code V62.89, Religious or Spiritual Problem).

:c.{{note|c}} Reported memories were assessed by the Greyson NDE Scale.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iands.org/ The International Association for Near-Death Studies, Inc.]
* [http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/ University of Virginia Health System – Division of Perceptual Studies]
* [http://www.newdualism.org/nde-online.html Links to 290 online NDE Scientific Papers]

{{Death}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Near-Death Studies}}
[[Category:Medical aspects of death]]
[[Category:Near-death experiences|*]]
[[Category:Parapsychology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Near-death studies}}