View source for Wi-Fi positioning system

{{Short description|Geolocation system}}
'''Wi-Fi positioning system''' ('''WPS''', also abbreviated as '''WiPS''' or '''WFPS''') is a [[Geolocation|geolocation]] system that uses the characteristics of nearby [[Wireless access point|Wi‑Fi access point]] to discover where a device is located.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lindner|first1=Thomas|last2=Fritsch|first2=Lothar|last3=Plank|first3=Kilian|last4=Rannenberg|first4=Kai|date=2004|editor-last=Lamersdorf|editor-first=Winfried|editor2-last=Tschammer|editor2-first=Volker|editor3-last=Amarger|editor3-first=Stéphane|title=Exploitation of Public and Private WiFi Coverage for New Business Models|journal=Building the E-Service Society|series=IFIP International Federation for Information Processing|volume=146|language=en|publisher=Springer US|pages=131–148|doi=10.1007/1-4020-8155-3_8|isbn=978-1-4020-8155-2|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

It is used where [[Earth:Satellite navigation|satellite navigation]] such as [[Engineering:GPS|GPS]] is inadequate due to various causes including [[Engineering:Error analysis for the Global Positioning System#Multipath effects|multipath]] and signal blockage indoors, or where acquiring a satellite fix would take too long. <ref> Magda Chelly, Nel Samama. Detecting visibility in heterogeneous simulated environments for positioning purposes. IPIN 2010 : International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Sep 2010, Hoenggerberg, Switzerland. ⟨hal-01345039⟩ [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01345039]</ref> Such systems include assisted GPS, urban positioning services through hotspot databases, and [[Indoor positioning system|indoor positioning system]]s.<ref>Magda Chelly, Nel Samama. New techniques for indoor positioning, combining deterministic and estimation methods. ENC-GNSS 2009 : European Navigation Conference - Global Navigation Satellite Systems, May 2009, Naples, Italy. pp.1 - 12. hal-01367483 [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01367483/]</ref> Wi-Fi positioning takes advantage of the rapid growth in the early 21st century of wireless access points in urban areas.<ref>Magda Chelly, Anca Fluerasu, Nel Samama. A universal and autonomous positioning system based on wireless networks connectivity. ENC 2011 : European Navigation Conference, Nov 2011, London, United Kingdom. hal-01302215[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01302215]</ref>

The most common technique for positioning using wireless access points is based on a rough proxy for the strength of the received signal (''[[Received signal strength indication|received signal strength indication]]'', or ''RSSI'') and the method of "fingerprinting".<ref name=":2">P. Bahl and V. N. Padmanabhan, “RADAR: an in-building RF-based user location and tracking system,” in Proceedings of 19th Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (INFOCOM ’00), vol. 2, pp. 775–784, Tel Aviv.Israel, March 2000.</ref><ref>Y. Chen and H. Kobayashi, “Signal strength based indoor geolocation,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC ’02), vol. 1, pp. 436–439, New York, NY, USA, April–May 2002.</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last1=Youssef|first1=M. A.|last2=Agrawala|first2=A.|last3=Shankar|first3=A. Udaya|title=Proceedings of the First IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications, 2003. (PerCom 2003) |chapter=WLAN location determination via clustering and probability distributions |date=2003-03-01|pages=143–150|doi=10.1109/PERCOM.2003.1192736|isbn=978-0-7695-1893-0|citeseerx=10.1.1.13.4478|s2cid=2096671 }}</ref> Typically a wireless access point is identified by its SSID and [[MAC address]], and these data are compared to a database of supposed locations of access points so identified. The accuracy depends on the accuracy of the database (e.g. if an access point has moved its entry is inaccurate), and the precision depends on the number of discovered nearby access points with (accurate) entries in the database and the precisions of those entries. The access point location database gets filled by correlating mobile device location data (determined by other systems, such as Galileo or GPS) with Wi‑Fi access point MAC addresses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gps.about.com/od/glossary/g/wifi_position.htm|title=Wi-Fi Positioning System|access-date=2014-12-19|archive-date=2014-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219112654/http://gps.about.com/od/glossary/g/wifi_position.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The possible signal fluctuations that may occur can increase errors and inaccuracies in the path of the user. To minimize fluctuations in the received signal, there are certain techniques that can be applied to filter the noise.

In the case of low precision, some techniques have been proposed to merge the Wi-Fi traces with other data sources such as geographical information and time constraints (i.e., [[Time geography|time geography]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Danalet|first1=Antonin|last2=Farooq|first2=Bilal|last3=Bierlaire|first3=Michel|title=A Bayesian approach to detect pedestrian destination-sequences from WiFi signatures|journal=Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies|volume=44|pages=146–170|doi=10.1016/j.trc.2014.03.015|url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/199471|year=2014}}</ref>

== Motivation and applications ==
Accurate indoor localization is becoming more important for Wi‑Fi–based devices due to the increased use of [[Augmented reality|augmented reality]], social networking, health care monitoring, personal tracking, [[Inventory control|inventory control]] and other indoor [[Location awareness|location-aware]] applications.<ref name=":0">J. Xiong and K. Jamieson, “Arraytrack: A
fine-grained indoor location system,” NSDI ’13.</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|date = 2009-11-01|pages = 1–6|doi = 10.1109/GLOCOM.2009.5425237|first1 = Jie|last1 = Yang|first2 = Yingying|last2 = Chen| title=GLOBECOM 2009 - 2009 IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference | chapter=Indoor Localization Using Improved RSS-Based Lateration Methods |isbn = 978-1-4244-4148-8|citeseerx = 10.1.1.386.4258| s2cid=2125249 }}</ref>

In [[Wireless security|wireless security]], it is an important method used to locate and map [[Rogue access point|rogue access point]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=C. |last2=Zheng |first2=X. |last3=Chen |first3=Y. |last4=Yang |first4=J. |title=Locating Rogue Access Point Using Fine-Grained Channel Information |journal=IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing |date=September 2017 |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=2560–2573 |doi=10.1109/TMC.2016.2629473 |issn=1558-0660|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cisco Prime Network Control System Configuration Guide, Release 1.0 - Chapter 6: Monitoring Maps [Cisco Prime Network Control System Series Appliances] |url=https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/wireless/ncs/1-0/configuration/guide/NCS10cg/maps.html |website=Cisco |access-date=19 December 2020}}</ref>

The popularity and low price of Wi-Fi network interface cards is an attractive incentive to use Wi-Fi as the basis for a localization system and significant research has been done in this area in the past 15 years.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3" />

== Problem statement and basic concepts ==
The problem of Wi‑Fi–based indoor localization of a device is that of determining the position of client devices with respect to access points. Many techniques exist to accomplish this, and these may be classified based on the four different criteria they use:  ''[[Received signal strength indication|received signal strength indication]]'' (''RSSI''), ''fingerprinting'', ''angle of arrival'' (''AoA'') and ''time of flight'' (''ToF'').<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|publisher = ACM|date = 2015-01-01|location = New York, NY, USA|isbn = 978-1-4503-3542-3|pages = 269–282|series = SIGCOMM '15|doi = 10.1145/2785956.2787487|first1 = Manikanta|last1 = Kotaru|first2 = Kiran|last2 = Joshi|first3 = Dinesh|last3 = Bharadia|first4 = Sachin|last4 = Katti| title=Proceedings of the 2015 ACM Conference on Special Interest Group on Data Communication | chapter=SpotFi | s2cid=8728165 }}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last1=Youssef|first1=Moustafa|last2=Youssef|first2=Adel|last3=Rieger|first3=Chuck|last4=Shankar|first4=Udaya|last5=Agrawala|first5=Ashok|title=Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Mobile systems, applications and services |chapter=PinPoint |date=2006-01-01|series=MobiSys '06|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=165–176|doi=10.1145/1134680.1134698|isbn=978-1595931955|s2cid=232045615 }}</ref>

In most cases the first step to determine a device's position is to determine the distance between the target client device and a few access points. With the known distances between the target device and access points, [[Trilateration|trilateration]] algorithms may be used to determine the relative position of the target device,<ref name=":1" /> using the known position of access points as a reference. Alternatively, the angles of arriving signals at a target client device can be employed to determine the device's location based on [[Triangulation|triangulation]] algorithms.<ref name=":3" />

A combination of these techniques may be used to improve the precision of a system.<ref name=":3" />

== Techniques ==

=== Signal strength ===
RSSI localization techniques are based on measuring rough relative signal strength at a client device from several different access points, and then combining this information with a propagation model to determine the distance between the client device and the access points. [[Trilateration]] (sometimes called multilateration) techniques can be used to calculate the estimated client device position relative to the expected position of access points.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />

Though one of the cheapest and easiest methods to implement, its disadvantage is that it does not provide very good precision (median of 2–4m), because the RSSI measurements tend to fluctuate according to changes in the environment or multipath fading.<ref name=":2" />

[[Company:Cisco Systems|Cisco Systems]] uses RSSI to locate devices through its access points. Access points collect the location data and update the location on the Cisco cloud called ''Cisco DNA Spaces''.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Fast locate in Cisco |url=https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/wireless/controller/9800/17-2/config-guide/b_wl_17_2_cg/fastlocate_for_cisco_catalyst_series_access_points.pdf |journal=Cisco Documents}}</ref>

=== Monte Carlo sampling ===
[[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo sampling]] is a statistical technique used in indoor Wi-Fi mapping to estimate the location of wireless nodes. The process involves creating wireless signal strength maps using a two-step parametric and measurement-driven ray-tracing approach. This accounts for the absorption and reflection characteristics of various obstacles in the indoor environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Zaruba |first1=G.V. |last2=Huber |first2=M. |last3=Kamangar |first3=F.A. |last4=Chlamtac |first4=I. |chapter=Monte Carlo sampling based in-home location tracking with minimal RF infrastructure requirements |date=2004 |title=IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference, 2004. GLOBECOM '04 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1379045 |publisher=IEEE |volume=6 |pages=3624–3629 |doi=10.1109/GLOCOM.2004.1379045 |isbn=978-0-7803-8794-2|s2cid=6875248 }}</ref>

The location estimates are then computed using [[Recursive Bayesian estimation|Bayesian filtering]] on sample sets derived by Monte Carlo sampling. This method has been found to provide good location estimates of users with sub-room precision using received signal strength indication (RSSI) readings from a single access point.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zàruba |first1=G. V. |last2=Huber |first2=M. |last3=Kamangar |first3=F. A. |last4=Chlamtac |first4=I. |date=April 2007 |title=Indoor location tracking using RSSI readings from a single Wi-Fi access point |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11276-006-5064-1 |journal=Wireless Networks |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.1007/s11276-006-5064-1 |s2cid=9043157 |issn=1022-0038}}</ref>

=== Fingerprinting ===
Traditional fingerprinting is also RSSI-based, but it simply relies on the recording of the signal strength from several access points in range and storing this information in a database along with the known coordinates of the client device in an offline phase. This information can be deterministic<ref name=":2" /> or probabilistic.<ref name=":7" /> During the online tracking phase, the current RSSI vector at an unknown location is compared to those stored in the fingerprint and the closest match is returned as the estimated user location. Such systems may provide a median accuracy of 0.6m and tail accuracy of 1.3m.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Youssef|first1=Moustafa|last2=Agrawala|first2=Ashok|date=2007-01-04|title=The Horus location determination system|journal=Wireless Networks|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|pages=357–374|doi=10.1007/s11276-006-0725-7|s2cid=62768948 |issn=1022-0038}}</ref>

Its main disadvantage is that any changes to the environment, such as adding or removing furniture or buildings, may change the "fingerprint" that corresponds to each location, requiring an update to the fingerprint database. However, integration with other sensors such as cameras can be used in order to deal with a changing environment.<ref>Wan Mohd Yaakob Wan Bejuri, Mohd Murtadha Mohamad, Maimunah Sapri and Mohd Adly Rosly (2012). Ubiquitous WLAN/Camera Positioning using Inverse Intensity Chromaticity Space-based Feature Detection and Matching: A Preliminary Result. International Conference on Man-Machine Systems 2012 (ICOMMS 2012), Penang, MALAYSIA.    [https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1204/1204.2294.pdf See publication here], [https://arxiv.org/abs/1204.2294 or click here if broken link]</ref>

=== Angle of arrival ===
[[File:Antenna array example.png|thumb|602x602px|Linear array of antennas receiving a signal. The phase-shift difference of the received signal arriving at antennas equally separated by a "d" distance is used to compute the angle of arrival of the signal.<ref name=":3"/>]]
With the advent of MIMO Wi-Fi interfaces, which use multiple antennas, it is possible to estimate the [[Angle of arrival|AoA]] of the multipath signals received at the antenna arrays in the access points, and apply [[Triangulation|triangulation]] to calculate the location of client devices. SpotFi,<ref name=":3" /> ArrayTrack<ref name=":0" /> and LTEye<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|publisher = ACM|date = 2014-01-01|location = New York, NY, USA|isbn = 978-1-4503-3073-2|pages = 29–30|series = S3 '14|doi = 10.1145/2645884.2645891|first1 = Swarun|last1 = Kumar|first2 = Ezzeldin|last2 = Hamed|first3 = Dina|last3 = Katabi|first4 = Li|last4 = Erran Li| title=Proceedings of the 6th annual workshop on Wireless of the students, by the students, for the students | chapter=LTE radio analytics made easy and accessible | hdl=1721.1/100518 | s2cid=53224063 }}</ref> are proposed solutions which employ this kind of technique.

Typical computation of the AoA is done with the MUSIC algorithm. Assuming an antenna array of <math>M</math> antennas equally spaced by a distance of <math>d</math> and a signal arriving at the antenna array through <math>L</math> propagation paths, an additional distance of <math>d \sin\theta</math> is traveled by the signal to reach the second antenna of the array.<ref name=":3" />

Considering that the <math>k</math>-th propagation path arrives with angle <math>\theta_k</math> with respect to the normal of the antenna array of the access point, <math>\gamma_k</math> is the attenuation experienced at any antenna of the array. The attenuation is the same in every antenna, except for a phase shift which changes for every antenna due to the extra distance traveled by the signal. This means that the signal arrives with an additional phase of

<math>-2\pi \cdot  d \cdot \sin(\theta) \cdot  (f/c) \cdot  (2-1)</math>

at the second antenna and

<math>-2\pi \cdot  d \cdot  \sin(\theta) \cdot  (f/c) \cdot  (m-1)</math>

at the <math>m</math>-th antenna.<ref name=":3" />

Therefore, the following complex exponential can be used as a simplified representation of the phase shifts experienced by each antenna as a function of the AoA of the propagation path:<ref name=":3" />

<math display="block">\phi(\theta_k) = \exp(-j\cdot 2\pi\cdot  d\cdot \sin(\theta_k)\cdot  f/c)</math>

The AoA can then be expressed as the vector <math>\vec a(\theta_k)\gamma_k</math> of received signals due to the <math>k</math>-th propagation path, where <math>\vec a(\theta_k)</math> is the steering vector and given by:<ref name=":3" /><math display="block"> \vec a(\theta_k) = [ 1,\ \phi(\theta_k),\ \dots,\ \phi(\theta_k)^{M-1}]^T</math>There is one steering vector for each propagation path, and the steering matrix <math>\mathbf{A}</math> (of dimensions <math>M \cdot  L</math>) is then defined as:<ref name=":3" /><math display="block">\mathbf{A} = [\vec a(\theta_1), \dots, \vec a(\theta_L)]</math>and the received signal vector <math>\vec x</math> is:<ref name=":3" /><math display="block">\vec x = \mathbf{A}\vec \Gamma</math>where <math>\vec \Gamma = [\vec \gamma_1 \dots \vec \gamma_L]</math> is the vector complex attenuations along the <math>L</math> paths.<ref name=":3" /> [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing|OFDM]] transmits data over multiple different sub carriers, so the measured received signals <math>\vec x</math> corresponding to each sub carrier form the matrix <math>\mathbf{X}</math> expressed as:<ref name=":3" /><math display="block">\mathbf{X} = [\vec x_1 \dots \vec x_L] = \mathbf{A} [\vec \Gamma_1 \dots \vec \Gamma_L] = \mathbf{AF}</math>The matrix <math>\mathbf{X}</math>  is given by the channel state information ([[Channel state information|CSI]]) matrix which can be extracted from modern wireless cards with special tools such as the Linux 802.11n CSI Tool.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Linux 802.11n CSI Tool|url = https://dhalperi.github.io/linux-80211n-csitool/|website = dhalperi.github.io|access-date = 2015-11-10}}</ref>

This is where the MUSIC algorithm is applied in, first by computing the eigenvectors of <math>\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}^H</math> (where <math>\mathbf{X}^H</math> is the conjugate transpose of <math>\mathbf{X}</math>) and using the vectors corresponding to eigenvalue zero to calculate the steering vectors and the matrix <math>\mathbf{A}</math>.<ref name=":3" /> The AoAs can then be deduced from this matrix and used to estimate the position of the client device through [[Triangulation|triangulation]].

Though this technique is usually more accurate than others, it may require special hardware in order to be deployed, such as an array of six to eight antennas<ref name=":0" /> or rotating antennas.<ref name=":4" /> SpotFi<ref name=":3" /> proposes the use of a superresolution algorithm which takes advantage of the number of measurements taken by each of the antennas of the Wi-Fi cards with only three antennas, and also incorporates ToF-based localization to improve its accuracy.

=== Time of flight ===
[[File:Time of flight.png|thumb|570x570px|Figure showing a measuring station sending a DATA frame to a client station and waiting until receiving the ACK. <math>\delta</math> is the scheduling delay (offset) originated at the target client device, and it depends on how much time it takes for the ACK to be scheduled. T_P is the signal propagation time between transmitter and receiver, and is usually assumed to be the same on the way to the target and back. T_ACK is the time needed to transmit the ACK frame. The time of flight corresponds to the T_MEASURED. Picture reproduced from  <ref name=":6"/>]]

[[Physics:Time of flight|Time of flight]] (ToF) localization approach takes timestamps provided by the wireless interfaces to calculate the ToF of signals and then use this information to estimate the distance and relative position of one client device with respect to access points. The granularity of such time measurements is in the order of nanoseconds and systems which use this technique have reported localization errors in the order of 2m.<ref name=":3" /> Typical applications for this technology are tagging and locating assets in buildings, for which room-level accuracy (~3m) is usually enough.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title = Radio Frequency Time-of-Flight Distance Measurement for Low-Cost Wireless Sensor Localization|journal = IEEE Sensors Journal|date = 2011-03-01|issn = 1530-437X|pages = 837–845|volume = 11|issue = 3|doi = 10.1109/JSEN.2010.2072496|first1 = S.|last1 = Lanzisera|first2 = D.|last2 = Zats|first3 = K.S.J.|last3 = Pister|bibcode = 2011ISenJ..11..837L| s2cid=15835286 }}</ref>

The time measurements taken at the wireless interfaces are based on the fact that RF waves travel close to the speed of light, which remains nearly constant in most propagation media in indoor environments. Therefore, the signal propagation speed (and consequently the ToF) is not affected so much by the environment as the RSSI measurements are.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|publisher = ACM|date = 2014-01-01|location = New York, NY, USA|isbn = 978-1-4503-3279-8|pages = 13–20|series = CoNEXT '14|doi = 10.1145/2674005.2674998|first1 = Andreas|last1 = Marcaletti|first2 = Maurizio|last2 = Rea|first3 = Domenico|last3 = Giustiniano|first4 = Vincent|last4 = Lenders|first5 = Aymen|last5 = Fakhreddine| title=Proceedings of the 10th ACM International on Conference on emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies | chapter=Filtering Noisy 802.11 Time-of-Flight Ranging Measurements |citeseerx = 10.1.1.673.2243| s2cid=11871353 }}</ref>

Unlike traditional ToF-based echo techniques, such as those used in [[Engineering:Radar|RADAR]] systems, Wi-Fi echo techniques use regular data and acknowledgement communication frames to measure the ToF.<ref name=":6" />

As in the RSSI approach, the ToF is used only to estimate the distance between the client device and access points. Then a [[Trilateration|trilateration]] technique can be used to calculate the estimated position of the device relative to the access points.<ref name=":5"/> The greatest challenges in the ToF approach consist in dealing with clock synchronization issues, noise, sampling artifacts and multipath channel effects.<ref name=":5"/> Some techniques use mathematical approaches to remove the need for clock synchronization.<ref name=":8" />

More recently, the Wi-Fi Round Trip Time standard has provided fine ToF ranging capabilities to Wi‑Fi.

== Privacy concerns ==
Citing the specific privacy concerns arising out of WPS, Google suggested a unified approach for excluding a particular access point from taking part in determining location using WPS, supposedly by every access point owner deliberately opting out for each access point to be excluded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/blog/2011/11/20/googles-approach-of-a-nomap-wifi-zone/460.aspx |title=Infosecurity Blogs |publisher=Infosecurity Magazine |access-date=2015-09-17}}</ref> Appending "_nomap" to a wireless access point's SSID excludes it from Google's WPS database.<ref>[https://support.google.com/maps/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=1725632 Google Help - Location-based services - How do I opt out?] Obtained 2012-05-30</ref> Mozilla honors _nomap as a method of opting out of its location service.<ref name="MLS Opt-Out">{{cite web |url=https://location.services.mozilla.com/optout |title=MLS-Opt-Out | work=mozilla.com |access-date=2 September 2014}}</ref>

== Public Wi-Fi location databases ==
<!-- Please keep this list in alphabetical order!! -->

A number of public Wi-Fi location databases are available (only active projects):
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Unique&nbsp;Wi-Fi networks
! Observations
! Free database download
! SSID lookup
! BSSID lookup
! Data License
! Opt-out
! Coverage map
! class="unsortable" | Comment
|-
| Combain Positioning Service<ref>{{cite web |url=http://combain.com/ |title=Combain Positioning Service |access-date=2019-01-03}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"|>2,400,000,000<ref name="combain1">{{cite web|title = Wifi Positioning {{!}} Wifi Location {{!}} Cell ID - Combain|url = https://combain.com|access-date = 2019-01-03}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| >67,000,000,000<ref name="combain1"/>
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}
| {{yes}}
| {{Proprietary}}
| {{yes|_nomap}}
| [http://combain.com/coverage-wifi-positioning-wifi-location/ Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706233142/http://combain.com/coverage-wifi-positioning-wifi-location/ |date=2015-07-06 }}
| Also Cell ID database.
|-
| LocationAPI.org by Unwired Labs <ref>{{cite web |url=http://unwiredlabs.com/coverage |title=Unwired LocationAPI Coverage |access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"|>1,500,010,000<ref>{{cite web|title = Unwired Labs Location API - Geolocation API and Mobile Triangulation API, Cell Tower database|url = http://www.locationapi.org/coverage|website = Unwired Labs Location API - Geolocation & Mobile Triangulation API|access-date = 2017-06-06|first = Unwired|last = API}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| >4,100,000,000
| {{no}}
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}
| {{Proprietary}}
| {{no}}
| [http://unwiredlabs.com/coverage Map]
| Also Cell ID database
|-
| [[Earth:Mozilla Location Service|Mozilla Location Service]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://location.services.mozilla.com/ |title=Mozilla Location Service |access-date=2015-10-26}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| >2,474,690,000<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=MLS - Statistics |url=https://location.services.mozilla.com/stats |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=location.services.mozilla.com}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| >785,561,160,000<ref name=":9" />
| {{Partial}}
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}
| {{Proprietary}} <ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/CloudServices/Location/FAQ|title=CloudServices/Location/FAQ - MozillaWiki}}</ref>
| {{yes|_nomap}}<ref name="MLS Opt-Out"/>
| [http://location.services.mozilla.com/map Map]
| Also Cell ID database whose data are [[Social:Public domain|public domain]]. Also bluetooth.
|-
| Mylnikov GEO<ref name="mylnikov1">{{cite web |url=https://www.mylnikov.org/archives/1170|title=Mylnikov GEO Wi-Fi|access-date=2015-05-19}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"|860,655,230<ref name="mylnikov1"/>
|
| {{yes}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mylnikov.org/download |title=Mylnikov GEO Wi-Fi Database Download |access-date=2015-05-19}}</ref>
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}
| {{Open source|MIT}}<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.mylnikov.org/archives/1135 |title=Mylnikov GEO license |access-date=2014-12-19}}</ref>
| {{N/A}} (aggregator)
| [https://find-wifi.mylnikov.org/ Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914023420/http://find-wifi.mylnikov.org/ |date=2017-09-14 }}
| Also Cell ID database<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.mylnikov.org/archives/1059 |title=Mylnikov GEO Mobile Cells Database |access-date=2014-12-19}}</ref>
|-
| [[Company:Navizon|Navizon]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navizon.com/wifi-cell-tower-location-database |title=Navizon Global Positioning System |access-date=2015-06-21 |archive-date=2021-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119081128/http://navizon.com/wifi-cell-tower-location-database |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 480,000,000
| style="text-align:center;"| 21,500,000,000
| {{no}}
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}
| {{Proprietary}}
| {{no}}
| [http://www.navizon.com/navizon_coverage_wifi.htm Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622064529/http://www.navizon.com/navizon_coverage_wifi.htm |date=2015-06-22 }}
| Based on crowd-sourced data. Also Cell ID database.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navizon.com/navizon_coverage_wifi.htm |title=Navizon WiFi Coverage Map |access-date=2015-06-21 |archive-date=2015-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622064529/http://www.navizon.com/navizon_coverage_wifi.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| radiocells.org<ref>{{cite web|url=http://radiocells.org/|title=Radiocells.org|access-date=2018-07-06|archive-date=2018-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521100147/https://radiocells.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 13,610,728
|
| {{yes}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://radiocells.org/downloads/wifi_data |title=Radiocells.org Database Download |access-date=2018-07-06 |archive-date=2016-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308122936/http://radiocells.org/downloads/wifi_data |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://radiocells.org/lookup |title=Wifi Access Point finder |access-date=2015-01-30 |archive-date=2016-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208033928/http://radiocells.org/lookup |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| {{Open source|[[Software:Open Database License|ODbL]]}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.radiocells.org/license |title=Radiocells.org license |access-date=2018-07-06 |archive-date=2019-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922142300/https://radiocells.org/license |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|{{yes|_nomap}}
| [http://radiocells.org/default/world Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208041433/http://radiocells.org/default/world |date=2016-02-08 }}
| Based on crowd-sourced data. Also Cell ID database. Including raw data
|-
| [[Engineering:WiGLE|WiGLE]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wigle.net|title=WiGLE|access-date=2014-12-19}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"|1,205,634,974<ref name="wigle1">{{cite web|url=https://www.wigle.net/stats|title=WiGLE Stats|website=www.wigle.net|access-date=2018-12-24}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| 16,460,980,303<ref name="wigle1"/>
| {{no}}
| {{yes}}<ref name="WiGLE map">{{cite web |url=https://wigle.net/map |title=WiGLE Wireless Network Map |access-date=2014-12-19}}</ref>
| {{yes}}<ref name="WiGLE map"/>
| {{Proprietary}}
| {{yes|_nomap}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wigle.net/phpbb/viewtopic.php?t=2330|title=On _nomap and _optout - WiGLE.net|website=www.wigle.net|access-date=2019-09-15}}</ref> request
| [http://wigle.net/map Map]
| Also Cell ID and Bluetooth databases.
|}

== See also ==
* [[Earth:Automatic vehicle location|Automatic vehicle location]]
* [[Hybrid positioning system]]
* [[Indoor positioning system]]
* [[MAC address]]
* [[Earth:Mobile phone tracking|Mobile phone tracking]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

;General
{{refbegin}}
* Anthony LaMarca, Yatin Chawathe, Sunny Consolvo, Jeffrey Hightower, Ian Smith, James Scott, Tim Sohn, James Howard, Jeff Hughes, Fred Potter, Jason Tabert, Pauline Powledge, Gaetano Borriello, Bill Schilit: Place Lab: Device Positioning Using Radio Beacons in the Wild. In Pervasive (2005)
{{refend}}

[[Category:Wireless networking]]
[[Category:Wi-Fi]]

{{Sourceattribution|Wi-Fi positioning system}}