Unsolved:Zār

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Short description: Demon or evil spirit in Middle East and Horn of African cultures


Zār ceremony on Hormuz Island

In the cultures of the Horn of Africa and adjacent regions of the Middle East,[1] Zār (Arabic: زار, Ge'ez: ዛር) is the term for a demon or spirit assumed to possess individuals, mostly women, and to cause discomfort or illness. The so-called zār ritual or zār cult is the practice of reconciling the possessing spirit and the possessed individual. Zār possession is often considered lifelong and thr rituals associated with it are a form of adorcism, though some have falsely attributed it as an exorcism rite because it involves possession.[2] It is similar to the Maghreb's Hamadsha,[3] Hausa Animism,[4] and various African Traditional religions, such as Voodou.

Zār is also a form of predominantly (not solely) women's[5] entertainment that has become popular in the contemporary urban culture of Cairo and other major cities of the Islamic world. Participants have compared it to how those not involved in zār go to the discotheque.[6] Zār gatherings involve food and musical performances and they culminate in ecstatic dancing, lasting between three and seven nights.[7] The tanbūra, a six-string bowl lyre,[8] is often used in the gathering.[9] Other instruments include the manjur, a leather belt sewn with many goat hooves, and various percussion instruments.[9]

The term zār may be used to mean various different things in the places the belief is found: it may refer to the hierarchy of zār spirits, an individual spirit of this type, the ceremonies concerning these spirits, the possessed person, or the troubles caused by these spirits. [10]

History

Scholarship in the early 20th century attributed Abyssinian (Ethiopian and Eritrean) origin[11] to the custom, although there were also proposals suggesting Persian or other origins. Thus, Frobenius suggested that zār and bori, a comparable cult in Hausa culture, were ultimately derived from a Persian source. Modarressi (1986) suggests a Persian etymology for the term.[12] The first known instance of the word zār used in Ethiopia to refer to a possessing spirit is from a 16th century Ge'ez manuscript. However, it is unknown if zār rituals were being practiced in 16th century Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and if so, what form they took.[13]

The origin of the word is unclear; Walker (1935) suggested the name of the city of Zara in northern Iran, or alternatively the Arabic root z-w-r "to visit" (for the possessing spirit "visiting" the victim). The Encyclopedia of Islam of 1934 favoured an Ethiopian origin of the word.[14] Hager El Hadidi suggested a possible Hebrew origin from zwr (in Hebrew meaning to "turn aside, deviate, go away") or zr ("one who distances or removes himself"), owed to Jewish craftsmen in the Red Sea area.[15]

The practice allegedly originated in Harar, Ethiopia via Sheikh Abadir, and was introduced by Harari and Somali women to Aden in Yemen.[16] Messing (1958) states that the cult was particularly well-developed in Northern Ethiopia (Amhara), with its center in the town of Gondar. One late 19th-century traveler describes the Abyssinian "Sár" cultists sacrificing a hen or goat and mixing the blood with grease and butter, in the hopes of eliminating someone's sickness. The concoction was then hidden in an alley, in the belief that all who passed through the alley would take away the patient's ailment.[17]

Mirzai Asl (2002) suggests that the introduction to Iran likewise took place in the 19th century (Qajar period) by Africans brought to Iran via the Indian ocean slave trade.[18] Natvig (1988) reports that the zār cult "served as a refuge for women and effeminate men" in the Sahel (Sudan) region under Islamic rule.[19]

Varieties

Among extant varieties of Zār cults are "zār Sawāknī (the zār from the area of Suakin ["Dalūka, that is, zār Sawāknī"[20]]) and zār Nyamānyam (the zār of the Azande)":[21] "the Nyam-Nyam have zār nugāra, with Babīnga and Nakūrma". "Babīnga and Nakūrma are recognized as Azande ancestral spirits". Nugāra (big drum) = "nuqara ... of the Dega tribe ... was originally from Wau".[22] "Besides the nugāra of the Azande, other zār cults mentioned were those of the Dār Fertit ("Fertit peoples include "the Karra, Gula, Feroge, and Surro"[23]), the Shilluk people, and the Dinka people and the dinia Nuba cult".[24]

Spirits

Zār spirits are often identified with jinn or "winds".[25][26][3] Zār spirits may be inherited, with a spirit afflicting an older close relative going on to afflict their child or other younger relative.[10]

Egypt

In Egypt, there are said to be 66 zār spirits, however, the spirits named vary depending on which ritual leader one speaks to, and none will name all 66. They are loosely grouped into families, and spirits are paired together as husband/wife, brother/sister (in the Cariene Upper Egyptian zār practice, this is how all spirits are paired[27]), or father/daughter.[28] They are also grouped into other overlapping pantheons, such as the kings of the earth, seas, and heavens, the sultans of the red, yellow, and green jinn, and the guards of thresholds.[29] They are thought of as "spirit doubles" like the akran (sing. karin or karineh)- in essence, "We all have zār, only some people don't know it."[30] Some explicitly identify the zār spirit and the karin, a type of jinn, as being the same.[25] The akran are facsimiles of their human counterpart, and in Upper Egypt are generally understood to be of the same race, sex, and temperament as the human. When the human is sick, the karin is sick. When the human dies, the karin dies- though, interestingly, tales exist of a karineh's children dying, and the spirit trying to take her human counterpart's children by killing them. In some parts of Egypt this is explained by stating that the dead child goes it its mother's karineh.[31] However, zār spirits of either sex may possess a person[32]- Yawra Bey is a male spirit, but he frequently possesses women. Further, if a person is possessed by one spirit, they are considered to be possessed by the other spirit they are paired with, even if they do not display symptoms of possession for the other spirit.[27] Sometimes a person of one sex, while a spirit of the opposite sex explicitly acts through them, is referred to by the spirit's name and sex (for example, record exists of a woman possessed by "Sheikh Muhammad", who would be referred to as such when the Sheikh was called forth).[33]

In addition to the terms zār and jinn, zār spirits may be referred to as a arafit (ghost), reeh (wind), dastour (spirit), asyad (master),[25] or with the title Sheikh or Sheikha.[32][33] The possessed person is called me'affrat, maryouh, or menzar.[25] The primary possessing spirit may be called "the spirit of (his/her) head", or "master of (his/her) head".[34] This spirit is identified in the girding ceremony, and it's identification is necessary if one wishes to become a zār leader.[35]

The zār spirits are said to be attracted to deserted places, dark areas, doorways, staircases, around water sources, in cemeteries, in toilets, and in garbage dumps. First experiences of possession often occur in one's teen years in a bathroom.[25] Zār spirits are not seen as evil, though they can be vengeful- trivial offenses, such as accidentally stepping on an invisible zār spirit, often provoke the spirit to possess someone and cause illness or misfortune.[36] In other instances, possession may occur when a person is frightened suddenly.[32]

The possessed person in Egypt is usually said to be being "worn" by the spirit, like a piece of clothing,[25][33] however Hausa influence is evident in the zār of the Grand Lady (a series of rites specific to menopause), where the zar leader who hosts the titular spirit (or spirit in the associated pantheon) is called a horse (kodya) instead, creating a riding metaphor. The zār of the Grand Lady is unique in Egypt as it is a qualified zār leader (the kodya) who hosts the spirit during the ritual instead of the person the spirit is afflicting.[37]

Each spirit is associated with specific songs, colors, sacrificial animals, and each spirit possessing a person must be placated. In addition to songs and animals (usually of a specific color or pattern), they may demand specific incense, clothes, jewelry, and candles.[38] Christian spirits often call for consumption of alcohol, such as whisky.[39] In the early 20th century in Upper Egypt, different songs were needed, but only one sacrificial animal was necessary,[32] however, in modern Cairo, it seems each spirit gets its own sacrifices as well as its own songs.[40] If a song displeases the zār spirit, the possessed person may not be able to remain in the room where it is being played. Once placated, the spirits may aid the possessed person in divination and providing medical aid.[32][33]

In Egypt different spirits rise and fall; they are connected to different bands specializations in different songs, and when a band ceases to exist, many of the spirits they played for will as well, with the most popular spirits and their songs being adopted into other bands.[41] It used to be a band would be associated to a single pantheon, but this trend of fading bands and adopting of spirits has blurred these boundaries.[42] For example, the zār 'afnu, a band made up of Black Egyptian women of slave descent, no longer exists, but many of its spirits (the Harbiya, or Liwa, pantheon) are invoked by Tambura bands and in the Grand Lady's pantheon. Yawra Bey and Rakousha belong to the Harbiya pantheon.[43]

The spirits currently known in Egypt include Yawra Bey (who is one of the most popular)[44][45] and his daughter Rakousha. Yawra is a handsome dark skinned playboy spirit, said to be an Ottoman officer, who wears a red tarboosh and sash, and possesses young women and is said to make her suitors think she is ugly, or to cause marital issues and homosexuality. He will prevent marriage until he is placated. He loves to smoke, loves perfume, and his animal sacrifices must be red. The jewelry used to placate him is usually rings set with rubies, or their glass and plastic imitations.[45] He also likes whiskey and beer (some bring soft drinks instead due to religious prohibitions), and some zār ceremonies spill a bit of beer over the head of the person he possesses.[39] In the Upper Egyptian tradition (Yawra being from the Sudani tradition) his equivalent was Rumi Nagdi, who was associated with green and the crescent moon and star.[46] Yawra’s daughter, Rakousha, is a child spirit. She is placated with pink silky clothes, luxury items, and gold jewelry. Her sacrifice is a speckled hen, and she loves candy[45] and games, so her diviners use playing cards instead of the more usual coffee cups, prayer beads, or dream interpretations. She also likes charm or "toy" bracelets.[47] Her Upper Egyptian counterpart was Rumi's daughter Marouma, who also likes the color green, gardens, and is offered pomegranates. Unlike Rakousha, she is an adult.[46]

Other spirits include Gado, a Nigerian spirit associated with the bathroom (which is like a portal connecting the human and spirit worlds) and summoned by drumming. His wife is Meram or Maryouma, and their sacrifical animals are black rabbits.[34] Light brown candles are used for them (because they wear light brown burnous). Drops of blood from the rabbits and candies are dropped into the toilet for them during their zār. Gado is the messenger between the human and spirit worlds. He and Meram cause infertility and madness, and they are provoked by hot water or human blood (specifically menstral or hymen blood) being put in the toilet.[48]

There is also the spirits of the pantheon of the Grand Lady, seven male (Rumi Nagdi, Hakim Basha, Yawra Bey, Rima Basha, Collita Basha, Welzami Basha, and 'Okashi Basha, all of whom also belong to the Sudani Tumbura and Upper Egyptian pantheons) and seven female (Arzuki, Shurumbella, Rora, Dawa Baba Kiri, Magaziya, the Lady Inmatan Yaro, and Folla, the only "white" female spirit). Rumi Nagdi and Hakim Basha get white sheep or chickens as sacrifices. The others get black chickens or sheep. The Grand Lady inflicts blindess, arthritis, nightmares, and paralysis on others.[49]

Other spirits that have been known to Egyptian zārs are:

• Azuz, a child spirit.[34]

• Salila, the Sudani pantheon's spirit of bathing, associated with grace and beauty.[50] When possessed by her, one acts out bathing, combing their hair, and dances with a mirror or water jug on the head.[51][52]

• Sayed El Dair, spirit of the monastery, placated with wine, wearing priest's clothes, and observing Coptic fasts and feasts.[53]

• the Sultans mentioned before, such as El Sultan El Ahmar, who is placated by wearing a red cloak, red candles, and sacrificing red chickens.[53]

• El Sudani, "the Sudanese", placated by wearing a green galabiya and sacrificing both a male and female turkey.[53]

• El Nabi, "the Prophet", placated by wearing a white galabiya and sacrificing a lamb or two pigeons.[53]

• Al-Sa'iedeyya, "the Upper Egyptian woman", a female Upper Egyptian spirit placated by wearing a tulle bi telli dress and balancing a water jug on one's head. [39]

• Abu Damfa, a male Upper Egyptian spirit placated by wearing a dark colored galabiya and dancing the naboot.[39]

• Sitt Safina, a mermaid and sister of the Sultan of the Seas, appeased by submerging one's head in a tub of water with swimming fish.[39]

• the Abyssinians, a pair appeased by wearing a silver[53] belt and diadem with pellet bells and holding a stick with jingles as one dances. [39]

• and at one point the Khedive Abbas Hilmi.[39]

Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, zār is used as a term for malevolent spirits or demons. At the same time, many Ethiopians believe in benevolent, protective spirits, or adbar.[54]

It is commonly thought that the origin of the zār is that Eve had 30 children, and tried to hide 15 of them from God in the Garden of Eden to protect them from God's envy. God knew she had done this, and declared they should remain invisible forever, and those 15 became the ancestors of the zār spirits.[26]

Belief in such spirits is widespread among both Christians and Muslims.[55] Ĥēṭ ("thread"[56])[clarification needed] is a term of for the possessing spirits. Tumbura is another term.[clarification needed] Named individual tumbura include: Nuba, Banda, Gumuz, Sawākiniyya, Lambūnāt, Bābūrāt, Bāshawāt, Khawājāt.[57] Depending on which spirit an individual is possessed by, they will don different costumes, such a traditional loincloth for Nuba, a straw loincloth for Bada, a red fez for Bāśawāt, and a pith-helmet and khaki shorts for Ĥawājāt.[58]

According to legend, there are eighty-eight "Sároch", emissaries of evil all under the service of a spirit named "Warobal Mama",[59] who dwells in Lake Alobar in the Menz region.[60]

Zār beliefs are common today even among Ethiopian immigrants to North America, Europe, or Israel. For example, Beta Israel are often raised with both Jewish and Zār beliefs, and individuals who believe they house a spirit are bound to attend to it despite other demands. However, ceremonies can be performed by shamans to persuade a spirit to leave, thus releasing the person from their duties to that spirit.[61]

Iran

In southern Iran, zār is interpreted as a "harmful wind" assumed to cause discomfort or illness. Types of such winds include Maturi, Šayḵ Šangar, Dingemāru, Omagāre, Bumaryom, Pepe, Bābur, Bibi, Namrud.[62] The film The African-Baluchi Trance Dance is a 2012 film that depicts a variety of zar-related activities in southeastern Iran.[63] In Baluchistan, the spirits are called Gowat ("wind"), bad (also "wind"), jinn (jinn-e zār), or zār,[3] and are thought to be contagious. Possession is permanent, and the zār is not as strongly associated with women, and is instead more associated with the poor in general.[26] Some state that the rich will never need to worry about zār possession. The spirits are said to prefer the young and strong, though they will afflict the old and weak as well. They are also attracted to people with melancholy and weak personalities.[10]

Those who have been possessed and done a zār before are called Ahl-e-Hava (Eve’s family), or "People of the Air/Wind",[3] and must attend every zār. If the spirit asked for something like clothes to be placated, those must be worn to future zār ceremonies, and nothing the spirit asked for can be sold. The Ahl-e-Hava must always wear clean, white clothes, abstain from alcohol, not touch dead bodies (human or animal), not commit adultery,[26] not do anything illegal, wear perfume, bathe often, among other prohibitions, or else the spirit possessing them will cause them trouble.[10]

The spirits are described as "mounting" the people they possess, treating them like horses. They have names, are associated with specific colors, are said to be of specific religions (Muslim, Jewish, Christian, or "infidel") and national origins, and there are unique ways to deal with them.[3] The "infidel" spirits are considered more dangerous, and may kill the person they possess, while Muslim spirits rarely do so. The possessed person may be called markab (mount) or faras (horse), and the spirit may be called habub or pehpeh.[10]

Some divide the winds into "winds that can see" (bina) and "blind winds" (bad-i kur). Bina know everything about the whole world, and will answer questions if asked. Bina have had offering ceremonies and votive meals (sufra), drunk blood, heard and been honored by poetry and songs. They are also called "clear/pure winds" (bad-i saf) and are said to never disturb the people they possess. The "blind winds", by contrast, are never calm or "clear", and bother the people they possess. They have never been honored as the bina have, and the rituals effectively transform these "blind spirits" into "spirits that can see".[10]

Locally, spirits referred to as zār are "infidels", and are also called "red winds" (bad-i surkh), and come from Zanzibar, Somalia, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, and India, the former three being considered more dangerous. They can be identified by what language they speak, and will do so after drinking blood, but only to the zār leader (Bābā or Māmā). There are over 72 different zār, with corresponding ailments. Nuban are spirits that make those that possess sad, handicapped, and infirm. Mashayikh are Muslim spirits, "pure" (pak), and settled on Muslim coasts. Bad-i jinn live on or under the Earth, are interconnected, and dangerous. Bad-i pari (fairies) are further divided into Muslim and "infidel" fairies. Bad-i div/dib (devils) are over 40 meters tall, live in deserts or islands, and if they touch a human, they will turn into a statue and die. Bad-i qul (ogres) look like drunks from afar, and may try to kill en-masse. A specific spirit called Maturi is known for asking for golden items.[10]

Sudan

In Sudan, spirits are particularly attracted to married women between 35 to 55, because of their fertility, and covet women who use henna, soap, perfume, and scented oil, and wear gold and diaphanous toubs.[26]

Ceremonies

Generally, the zār follows this pattern: the possessed person becomes ill or is struck by misfortune, often seeks the help of more conventional medicine (as is often encouraged by zār leaders[26]), and once this fails, they seek out the aid of the zār community.[3] In Egypt, zār and conventional medicine may be used simultaneously.[64] In Egypt, Bahrain, and Oman it has historically been noted that zār leaders are not only mostly women, but also mostly Black.[10]

In Iran and Egypt, the zār spirit is identified by the response of the possessed to the music. Different tunes are played, changing every so often to invoke different spirits.[26]

Egypt

Identifying the possessing spirit may take quite some time, potentially years, especially as zār possession may not be suspected by the possessed or their family, even if they assume another type of possession and seek out exorcism as treatment. Further, they may be reluctant to seek out the zār community if they are not already apart of it, as it is a long term commitment requiring a fair amount of expense. The zār leader or an old initiate is consulted in identifying the spirit and it's demands. The sid al-ras aids them in this. One of the rituals to do so involves using incense in the home of the possessed person to make the spirit come forward and speak through the possessed person, make them sleepy, or appear in their dreams. The spirit may also be found through coffee cup divination, or a similar method.[64]

If the spirit is stubborn or this home ritual cannot be done, another ritual called "revealing the trace" (kashf al-atar) is done. The zār leader takes a piece of cloth with the "smell" of the possessed person's body (such as underwear or a headscarf) and piece of paper with the possessed person's name and their mother's name written on it. Before going to sleep, the zār leader performs a rite with incense and places the two items under their pillow for three consecutive days, prompting the spirit to appear in their dreams. This is called tabyita.[64] Upon identifying the spirit, reconciliation rites may be arranged, though these may not be for awhile.[65]

The hadra (presence) is a weekly public musical ritual held in the home of the zār leader,[65] limited to musical part of placating the spirits, and may temporarily appease spirits on the part of those who can't yet commit the money or time for an initation.[66] This may be located near a saint's shrine, though it has long been illegal to hold zār rituals at shrines themselves. Initates who know rheir spirits may also call this ritual tazkira (reminder), which is the purpose it serves for them. New and old initiates go into trance and dance at these, and the crowd consists of those who can't afford their yearly zār ceremony, those who attend regularly, and curious outsiders.[65] Zār leaders and musicians watch the crowd (who sit on the floor at the edges of the room) and encourage people to the dance floor based on their reactions, such as facial expressions, which indicate possession.[67][68] A possessed person who hasn't identified their spirit may attend up to three hadras and the spirit may be summoned during this, with music and incense, and the leader may ask the spirits to fulfill their demands.[64] Before going on the dancefloor, one gives money to the band, which is ritually circled around the person's head, kissed, and put away to be divided up later. If a possessed person passes out, they have pressure put on their head and are sprinkled with rosewater. [67] Some zār leaders keep costumes on hand for use at hadras that correspond to certain spirits.[69]

Initiation rites may be called sulha (reconciliation), 'adq (contract), or midan (vista), as well as 'edwa (feast), tazkira (reminder) for those who are already initiated, or madyafa or diyafa (hosting) if the sacrifice is a sheep, goat, or larger animal, like a camel or bull. It is a celebration done to acknowledge and placate the spirits using sacrifice, dance, offerings (like incense, spirit paraphernalia, etc), and other rituals. 'Akkam ("in a bundle"/"one in all") may occur, a rite where the initate and all their guests consume the sacrificed animal together. Non-initates may not eat the meat of this animal; doing so may provoke the spirits.[65] At one time these rituals took seven days and nights. On the seventh day, a rite signifying the end of ritual seculsion occurred where parts of the skulls of the sacrificed animals would be disposed of in the Nile. Today this most commonly begins at sunset, occurs over the course of a day and an evening, and marks the beginning of a 7 (sometimes 3 or 5) day period of seclusion. During seclusion the possessed only eats of the animal sacrifice, abstains from sex and opposite sex affection. During this time one is "with the spirits" (ma'a al-asyad). A rite may be performed alone to end the period, called "as clear as milk" (safi ya laban), or one have a zār of the river (zār al-bahr) where the bones of sacrifices are disposed of. At all of these, milk products like yogurt or rice pudding are used, with white symbolizing the end of a spirit's anger. [70]

Zārs are broadly of two types: silent ('al-sakt) and drummed zār (daqqet). The first is more common, because it is less expensive and more private. Being known to be involved in the zār can be a source of anxiety. During the silent zār, one sets an offering table the evening before and performs a ritual animal sacrifice. The offerings on the table may include clothes, food, candles, and special objects. The blood of the animal is collected on a plate and used for anointing the jewelry, body, and parts of the home. The sacrificed animal is then cooked and eaten. It is done by a zār leader or the initate alone, if they are experienced. The remaining blood is poured into the toilet as an offering to the spirits. After the silent zār, many go to the hadra later that day or the next day.[66]

The drummed zār is characterized by music, which is used to draw the spirits to manifest by making the possessed dance. The changes in facial expression are considered to be that of the spirit.[66] In parts of Upper Egypt, those whose spirits are known covered their faces at one time to hide the facial expressions during trance, which could be grotesque.[53] In private zārs, the possessed buys a trousseau of dresses, shawls, and scarves, which they often wear to every zār ceremony they attend.[69]

Once placated the zār spirits protect the possessed, bring them prosperity, and can help them divine. After the initial placation of the spirit or spirits, the person tries to hold a zār once a year to continue to keep the peace. If they cannot afford it, they often attend a hadra (a type of weekly ceremony), sometimes after having a "silent" zār at home.[65][71]

COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Zar_amulet_TMnr_5693-8
A silver amulet with an Arabic inscription.

Jewelry is important in the zār. Even if an initiate ceases going to zārs, they keep their jewelry for the rest of their life, so they don't offend the spirits.[69] The jewelry, as well as the initate's body, is anointed with sacrificial animal blood upon initiation, and re-anointed periodically, signifying the contract they have with the spirits. For this reason initates may be called mitzaffar or mitzaffara (anointed with the blood of sacrificial animals).[66] The jewelry and amulets are re-anointed with blood at every zār ceremony.[69] It is most commonly silver, with bells in odd numbers, and often adorned with incised images of specific spirits, either by themselves or in pairs.[39] It is often called fadat al-me‘affrateen (silver of the possessed). One of the most common amulets is the "heart" (qalb), either shaped like a tablet or framed heart, made of glass, plastic, or semiprecious stone. Many amulets are also inscribed with the throne verse from the Qur’an, or other Islamic phrases.[69] Pieces are often selected by the possessed going into trance and picking ones they have seen in dreams or visions. While initates are often Muslims, the silversmiths are often Coptic Christians.[72]

Zārs are flexible, with durations expanding and collapsing depend on the economics and other concerns of the possessed. The numbers 1, 3, 5, and 7 appear often for durations, spirits in pantheons, numbers of items used in rituals, and more.[70] The Fatiha is recited at the start of many zār ceremonies in a ritual called "the Openings" (al-fawatih), accompanied by use of incense (this being a separate rite called al-bukhoor) to purify the bodies of those present and make them attractive to spirits. Certain scents are said to be more attractive to certain spirits. At the start, money is discreetly placed on the tray the incense burner is held on; the zār leader kisses it, touches to their head, and puts it away. The tray is held under the possessed person's chin as the Fatiha is recited; aloud by the zār leader, silently by everyone else. A veil is often put over the person's head so the incense will gather underneath it to be inhaled. The tray is passed under the right arm, left arm, and placed between the legs so the smoke goes under the person's garment, then the right and left foot is lifted over the burner as the recitation continues. This is also used to diagnose possession and to invite spirits into dreams.[73]

Before animals are sacrificed, they are given ablution in clean water, their faces being washed three times. Basins for this water and to collect the blood are needed. Candles are distributed among initates and lit. The zār jewelry is taken off and put in a specially bought china plate (tabaq ghasheem) which will be used to collect blood. A call for gifts of money happens during the ablution.[74]

The mayanga (from a Hausa word meaning "cemetery") is only built by serious zār participants who have undergone multiple initations and wish to become zār leaders. It is a private shrine where the bones of animal sacrifices are placed, and can provide direct access to one's possessing spirits, and resultingly increases a person's power. This power in the mayanga must be renewed with sacrificial remains and blood. The mayanga may be used even after the person who originally built it has died.[75]

To become a zār leader, one must undergo the "girding" (al-hizam) ceremony and identify the "master of the head" (sid al-ras), who helps them in divination. Those who inherit their position from their parents also undergo a special ritual where their parent passes on their incense burner and box. Those chosen by their spirits to become leaders buy these items new, and during their girding ceremony anoint them with sacrificial animal blood. The sacrifices for the "girding" ceremony may include 2-4 sheep, a camel, or a bull. Not all who undergo the "girding" ceremony become public zār leaders- some really only offer services to family and friends (called sheikh habaybo or sheikhat habayebha), and others who don't provide services to others are called sheikh nafso or sheikhat nafsaha (his/her own sheikh).[35]

Iran

In Iran, zār leaders are called Bābā zār or Māmā zār (or just Bābā (male) or Māmā (female)[3]), instead of Sheikh or Sheikha, and zār leaders are Black.[26] They often inherit their position from their parents, and they either appoint a successor, or the local community elects a new leader after their death. They have their own stands, with drums, other instruments, and clay pots for incense.[10] Before seeking their help, a possessed person may have sought the help of a sheikh or mulla.[3] Unlike in Egypt, they may not necessarily be possessed themselves, though this is the case for many.

Newly possessed people stay in a bamboo hut on the beach[10] or in the home of Bāba/Māmā zār in the week before their first zār and after a payment for the ceremony has been agreed upon,[3] during which they are bathed in seawater and rubbed with a mix of herbs and spices (such as basil, saffron, bukhish (a local plant), cardamom, walnut, chicken's tongue, guraku, and gešt/gasht (an Indian wood from Mumbai)) soaked in rosewater and called girkou.[10][62] They also may drink some of this.[10] This is called the separation phase by researchers.[26] This time can last a day, or it may take several weeks, and may also include certain foods, contact with women,[10] or looking at certain animals (such as dogs and chickens) being forbidden.[3] The morning after this time ends, they are bathed and rubbed with a mixture containing the "dust of seven paths" and seven leaves of seven thornless plants.[10]

Some reports say that after this and before the zār itself, the possessed person is laid on the floor, with their big toes tied together by goat hair, fish oil is rubbed under their nose, and the Bābā or Māmā skips around while brandishing a bamboo stick (bakol), and threatens the spirit.[3] Others say the same, except fish oil is rubbed on the body and goat hair is burned under the nose.[10]

The zār itself (also called the incorporation phase by researchers) takes place in a U shaped area called a Maidān, with the possessed person, tea,[3] and a tablecloth in the center. The tablecloth has lotus fruits (kunar), food, the meat and blood of the animal sacrifice,[10] eggs, dates, confetti, and herbs on it. The possessed person has their head covered with white cloth, then a tray with aromatic herbs laid over burning charcoal is passed around as incense, and musical proceedings begin.[26] Different instruments are used, such as flutes, but the most important of which are drums. Three types are reportedly used are the modendo/mudendu, gap dohol (large drums, the former being a kettledrum), and kesar (a small drum).[3] The instruments are fumigated with incense before the ceremony, and in front of the modendo, a silver tray of gashtahsuz and kundruk (dried incense herbs) is placed before it. The Bābā or Māmā plays this drum while singing, and signals the beginning of the ceremony and music woth their bamboo stick.[10] Singing may be in a different language or it may be sounds without meaning.[26]

As people enter, they do not greet each other or speak while sitting. If they drink tea or coffee, they do not put it on the floor and instead hold it until someone comes and collects cups. People sit on the floor, men and women beside each other, and men and women dance and sing together, responding in chorus to the Bābā or Māmā.[10]

Once identified, the leader communicates with the spirit in a language that's a mixture of Persian, Arabic, Swahili, and Indian[62] (often Malayalam or Marathi), one of these languages by themselves, or potentially in gibberish,[3] to find out why the possession happened and what the spirit wants. To assure the spirit its demands will be met, a cloth is tied around the possessed person's arm (a "binding").[62] This is also allows the possessed person time to gather the money and requested items for placating the spirit.[10]

Bābās and Māmās specialize in which spirits they can deal with- if they find the person is possessed by a spirit they cannot deal with, they recommend a Bābā or Māmā that can manage the spirit.[3] If regular Bābās and Māmās fail, they may send the person to a gaptaran, the most powerful Bābā or Māmā in a region. If the ritual is for zār infidel spirit, no one is allowed to mention God, the Prophet, or the 14 holy persons, or else the spirit will never be placated. If after trying multiple times for many days, the spirit cannot be placated, the Bābās and Māmās will cease to work with the patient and they will be considered tahrans, an outcast and hated status. [10]

If the demand is simple, it is handled at this ceremony. If it isn't, another ceremony is held where the demand is fulfilled. The zār or bazi (ceremony)[10] can last for up to a week.[26] During its duration, no one leaves- if they are tired, they sleep there.[10] Demands can vary from wanting a small piece of bamboo, to prayers, to wanting an animal sacrifice (typically a sheep or goat), to white perfumed fabric,[10] to wanting the possessed person to be beaten with a piece of bamboo. In the last case, beatings may be repeated at subsequent zārs, or may be done whenever the person feels ill again. This is a common treatment for sailors that go out to sea for a month or more.[3] The bamboo usually has two silver beads or is decorated with silver rings, and on the day before the ceremony, it is covered with henna and fish oil. The surface will also be decorated with silver. Another common request is for a special veil called a lang or languta, made of two pieces of local shateh fabric, eight meters in length and sewn together with blue, yellow, and green silk thread.[10]

Some participants claim to have drunk the blood of animal sacrifices in the ceremonies,[62] and some say Bābās and Māmās increase in credibility with the more blood they consume.[10]

In the past, it was reported beautiful young virgin[10] women in bright clothes ("daughters of the wind" dukhtaran-i hava, also seen in Bahrain) would show up and sing[62] and dance,[10] but this no longer seems to be the case.[3] Those who attend ceremonies to sing and play instruments but are not possessed are called safi or "people of love" (ahl-i ashq).[10]

Today, due to legal prohibitions, the only official zārs take place in the form of performances at folkloric music festivals, though private zārs still occur as a healing practice.[10]

See also

  • Buda (folk religion)
  • Fann at-Tanbura
  • Mazaher
  • Superstition in Ethiopia

References

  1. ↑ "found in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Arabia, south and south-west Iran, Egypt and the Sudan." Natvig, Richard (1987). "Oromos, Slaves, and Zar Spirits: a Contribution to the History of the Zar Cults". The International Journal of African Historical Studies 20 (4): 647–668. doi:10.2307/219657. 
  2. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 12. ISBN 9781617977718. https://www.everand.com/read/604374449/Zar-Spirit-Possession-Music-and-Healing-Rituals-in-Egypt. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 Beeman, William O.. The Zar in the Persian Gulf: Performative dimensions. https://www.academia.edu/19470542/The_Zar_in_the_Persian_Gulf_Performative_dimensions. 
  4. ↑ "Bori – OCCULT WORLD" (in en-US). https://occult-world.com/bori/. 
  5. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 19. ISBN 9781617977718. https://www.everand.com/read/604374449/Zar-Spirit-Possession-Music-and-Healing-Rituals-in-Egypt#. 
  6. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 35. ISBN 9781617977718. https://www.everand.com/read/604374449/Zar-Spirit-Possession-Music-and-Healing-Rituals-in-Egypt. 
  7. ↑ Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (2009). The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology. Infobase Publishing. p. 277. ISBN 978-1-4381-3191-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=NHosWhaeWDQC&pg=PA277. 
  8. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 52
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Template:Cite NewGrove2001
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 10.28 Khosronejad, P. (2013). "The people of the air : healing and spirit possession South Iran". Shamanism and Islam: Sufism, Healing Rituals and Spirits in the Muslim World. pp. 131-167. 
  11. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 17. ISBN 9781617977718. https://www.everand.com/read/604374449/Zar-Spirit-Possession-Music-and-Healing-Rituals-in-Egypt. 
  12. ↑ Taghi Modarressi, "The Zar Cult in South Iran," in R. Prince, ed., Trance and Possession States, Montreal, 1986, pp. 149-55.
  13. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 57. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  14. ↑ cited after Fakhouri (1968), p. 49.
  15. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 58. ISBN 9781617977718. https://www.everand.com/read/604374449/Zar-Spirit-Possession-Music-and-Healing-Rituals-in-Egypt. 
  16. ↑ Spaulding, Jay (1996). "Women of the Zar and Middle-Class Sensibilities in Colonial Aden, 1923-1932". African Languages and Cultures. Supplement (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) (3): 173. https://www.jstor.org/stable/586659. 
  17. ↑ William Cornwallis Harris, The Highlands of Aethiopia, volume 2, p. 291
  18. ↑ Behnaz A. Mirzai Asl, "African Presence in Iran: Identity and its Reconstruction in the 19th and 20th Centuries," Revue française d'histoire d'Outre Mer 89, 2002, pp. 229-46.
  19. ↑ Natvig, Richard (July 1988), "Liminal Rites and Female Symbolism in the Egyptian Zar Possession Cult", Numen 35 (1): 57–68, doi:10.2307/3270140 
  20. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 141
  21. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 12
  22. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 64
  23. ↑ Makris p. 222, n. 5:15
  24. ↑ Makris 2000, pp. 64-65
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 62. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  26. ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 26.10 26.11 Mianji, Fahimeh; Semnani, Yousef (September 2015). "Zār Spirit Possession in Iran and African Countries: Group Distress, Culture-Bound Syndrome or Cultural Concept of Distress?". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (4): 225–232. ISSN 1735-4587. PMID 27006667. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 202. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  28. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 66. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  29. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 64. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  30. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 13. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  31. ↑ Blackman, Winifred (1929). "The Fellahin of Upper Egypt". The Geographical Journal 73 (2): 69–71. doi:10.2307/1783550. Bibcode: 1929GeogJ..73..171R. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Blackman, Winifred (1929). "The Fellahin of Upper Egypt". The Geographical Journal 73 (2): 197–200. doi:10.2307/1783550. Bibcode: 1929GeogJ..73..171R. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Blackman, Winifred (1929). "The Fellahin of Upper Egypt". The Geographical Journal 73 (2): 184–185. doi:10.2307/1783550. Bibcode: 1929GeogJ..73..171R. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 105–112. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 72-74. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  36. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 67. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  37. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  38. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 79. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 39.7 "Meet the Masters of the Underworld". https://rawi-publishing.com/articles/zaramulets/. 
  40. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 107. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  41. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 212. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  42. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 83. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  43. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 206–207. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  44. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 100. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 203–205. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 209–210. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  47. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 216–217. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  48. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  49. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 156–158. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  50. ↑ kajetan_admin (2019-02-13). "EGYPTIAN ZAR" (in en-US). https://jujusounds.com/2019/02/13/zar-cairo/?lang=en. 
  51. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 85. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  52. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 153–154. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.5 Fakhouri, Hani (1968). "The Zar Cult in an Egyptian Village". Anthropological Quarterly 41 (2): 49–56. doi:10.2307/3316878. ISSN 0003-5491. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3316878. 
  54. ↑ Turner, John W. Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: Faith and Practices. A Country Study: Ethiopia. Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, eds. Washington: Library of Congress Federal Research Division, 1991.
  55. ↑ Beckwith, Carol, Angela Fisher, and Graham Hancock. African Ark. New York: Henry N. Abrams, Inc., 1990.
  56. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 195
  57. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 197
  58. ↑ Makris 2000, p. 198–203
  59. ↑ William Cornwallis Harris, The Highlands of Aethiopia, volume 2, p. 269
  60. ↑ William Cornwallis Harris, The Highlands of Aethiopia, volume 2, p. 343
  61. ↑ Edelstein, Monika (2002). "Lost Tribes and Coffee Ceremonies: Zar Spirit Possession and the Ethno-Religious Identity of Ethiopian Jews in Israel". Journal of Refugee Studies 15 (2): 153–170. doi:10.1093/jrs/15.2.153. http://webhome.weizmann.ac.il/home/liorg/zar.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2015. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 62.5 Maria Sabaye Moghaddam, ZĀR, Encyclopedia Iranica (2009).
  63. ↑ Hegland, Mary Elaine. 2017. Review essay. Iranian Studies 50.1:169-172.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 74-76. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 65.3 65.4 Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 77-79. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 81–82. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 34-35. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  68. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 98. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 86-87. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 80-81. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  71. ↑ Al Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 116–117. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  72. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager (20 December 2016). Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 36–39. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  73. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 167-171. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  74. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 172-175. ISBN 9781617977718. 
  75. ↑ El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 184. ISBN 9781617977718. 

General references

  • Lewis, I. (Ioan) M. 1991. Zar in context: The past, the present and future of an African healing cult. In I. M. Lewis, A. Al-Safi, & S. Hurreiz (Eds.), Women's medicine: The Zar Bori cult in Africa and Beyond (pp. 1–16). Edinburgh, U.K.: Edinburgh University Press.

Further reading

Ethiopia
  • Arieli, A.; Aychek, S. (1996). "Mental disease related to being belief in being possessed by the 'Zar' spirit". Harefuah: Journal of the Israel Medical Association 126: 636–642. 
  • Aspen, Harald. Amhara Traditions of Knowledge: Spirit Mediums and Their Clients. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2001.
  • Edelstein, Monika (2002). "Lost Tribes and Coffee Ceremonies: Zar Spirit Possession and the Ethno-Religious Identity of Ethiopian Jews in Israel". Journal of Refugee Studies 15 (2): 153–170. doi:10.1093/jrs/15.2.153. 
  • Finneran, Niall (2003). "Ethiopian Evil Eye Belief and the Magical Symbolism of Iron Working". Folklore 114 (3): 427–432. doi:10.1080/0015587032000145414. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F0015587032000145414. 
  • Grisaru, N.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (1997). "Possession by the "Zar" among Ethiopian immigrants to Israel: psychopathology or culture-bound syndrome?". Psychopathology 30 (4): 223–233. doi:10.1159/000285051. PMID 9239794. 
  • Witzum, E.; Grisaru, N.; Budowski, D. (1996). "The 'Zar' possession syndrome among Ethiopian immigrants to Israel: cultural and clinical aspects". British Journal of Medical Psychiatry 69 (3): 207–225. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1996.tb01865.x. PMID 8883974. 
  • Kahana, Y. 1985. The zar spirits, a category of magic in the system of mental health care in Ethiopia. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 31.2:125-143.
  • Leiris, Michel (1934). "Le Culte des Zars à Gondar". Aethiopica 4 (96–103): 125–136. 
  • Leiris, Michel (1938). "La Possession aux Génies "Zar" en Éthiopia du Nord". Journale de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique 35: 107–125. 
  • Messing, Simon. 1958. Group therapy and social status in the Zar cult of Ethiopia. American Anthropologist 60:1120-1126. (Same title later published in Culture and Mental Health, M. Opler, ed., 319-322. New York: Macmillan, also in 1972, in The Target of Health in Ethiopia, 228-241. New York: MSS Information Corporation.)
  • Torrey, E. Fuller (1967). "The Zar cult in Ethiopia". International Journal of Social Psychiatry 13 (3): 216–223. doi:10.1177/002076406701300306. PMID 5585776. 
  • Tubiana, Joseph. 1991. Zar and Buda in Northern Ethiopia. In I. M. Lewis, A. Al-Safi, & S. Hurreiz (Eds.), Women's medicine: The Zar Bori cult in Africa and beyond pp. 19–33. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
  • Young, Allan (1975). "Why Amhara get kureynya: sickness and possession in an Ethiopian Zar cult". American Ethnologist 2 (3): 567–584. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.3.02a00130. 
Sudan
  • Boddy, Janice. Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan University of Wisconsin Press (30 November 1989)
  • Kapteijns, Lidwien and Jay Spaulding. 1994. "Women of the Zar and Middle-Class Sensibilities in Colonial Aden, 1923-1932," Sudanic Africa 5 (), pp. 7–38. Also in 1996, Voice and Power, (African Languages and Cultures, supplement 3), ed. by R.J. Hayward and I. M. Lewis, 171-189.
  • Makris, G.P. (2000). Changing Masters: Spirit Possession and Identity Construction among Slave Descendants and Other Subordinates in the Sudan. Evanston, IL: Northwestern U. ISBN:0-8101-1698-7
  • Farah Eisa Mohamed. 2004. "ZAR: SPIRIT POSSESSION IN THE SUDAN." African Folklore: An Encyclopedia, Philip M.Peek and Kwesi Yankah, editors, 1061-1063. New York & London: Routledge.
Egypt
  • Fakhouri, Hani. "The Zar Cult in an Egyptian Village." Anthropological Quarterly, vol. 41, no. 2 (April 1968), pp. 49–56.
  • Seligmann, Brenda Z. "On the Origin of the Egyptian Zar." Folklore, vol. 25, no. 3 (September 30, 1914), pp. 300–323.
Somalia
  • Giannattasio, F (1983). "Somalia: La Terapia Corentico-musicale del Mingi". Culture Musicale, Quaderni di Ethnomusicologia 2 (3): 93–119. 
Iran
  • Modarressi, Taghi. 1968. The zar cult in south Iran. In Trance and possession states. ed. Raymond Prince. Montreal: R. M. Bucke Memorial Society.

Further reading

  • El Hadidi, Hager. Zar: Spirit Possession, Music, and Healing Rituals in Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press: Cairo, New York, 2016.

External links



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