Biology:Pre-modern forest conservation practices in Southern Nigeria

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The Entrance of an Ancient Sacred Forest: Achi Umuola in Enugu State.

Long before deforestation became an issue of major concern, different cultural practices and traditions of the world has substantially conserved nature with divers approaches.[1] This does not exclude the local communities of Nigeria where the traditions passed down from one generation to the next has played a great role in preserving some forest to this day.[citation needed]

Nigeria is blessed with tremendous width of forestland area, the marsh backwoods at the edge of Southern part of the country, the tropical rainforest in the South-western pivot and the lush savannah in the middle belt. Nigeria is positioned among the nations of the world with plenty of forest assets.[2] Forest areas in Nigeria cover about 110,890 km2 of the country's total land mass, which is about 910,770 km2, This means that forests cover about 12.18% of vegetation cover of the country.[citation needed]

Deforestation is an unethical act of cutting down trees or clearing out of forest without replanting or replacing them (reforestation). Deforestation is known to be associated with more negative implications than positive ones as it is mostly anthropogenic.

Importance of Forest to Nigerian Communities

As numerous as communities and cultures are in different regions of the world, so is the values and symbolic functions of the forest.[3] They encompasses cultural, social, and economic significance in a way that could be represented both physically and intangibly, including language, history, art, religion, medicine, politics, and social structures.[4] The locals in southern Nigeria holds the believe that spirits of ancestors' are sometimes entombed in forest trees as well as those of newborns.[5] In addition, forests can be perceived from both positive and negative points, as a source of generous benefits and potential harm respectively. it also can be viewed as a source of development as well as hindrance[6] In the preceding lines, this article will disclose some of the ways in which forests are culturally, socially, and economically valued.

A sacred Iroko Tree in Emudo Nenwe

Cultural significance

  • A bridge between the physical world and the spiritual realm: Numerous cultures and beliefs associate the tree with significant symbolic meaning. It frequently refers to connections between humans and the spiritual realm of their ancestors.[7] The tree is a protective figure, a maternal symbol, and a site where people may connect with their deity and ancestors. The tree can also be exploited by evil spirits to their advantage. The tree is a symbol of the interconnectedness of all things, and it bridges the heavens to the earth, the living to the dead, and the material to the spiritual. The symbolic significance of the tree is illustrated in numerous myths and tales, and it is valued as prized cultural icons that links people to their particular past.[8]
  • The home of deities or higher power, it attracts worship: Some trees are believed to be the dwelling place of the spirits.[9] The Iroko (chlorophora excelsa or milicia excelsa) are sacred trees throughout the whole southeastern region.[10] According to a study that examined the religious significance of several forest species for distinct West African civilizations, it was mostly guarded while sacrifices and gift where presented to it. There were many communities around it, and sometimes the Iroko was planted there. The tree was especially associated with pregnancy and childbirth. For instance, the Ibo people of southern Nigeria consider it to be the source of the souls of the newborn.[11]

Social Significance

Forest deity in Osogbo Groove

Specific forest resources may contain social-cultural symbols that connect individuals to a particular history, to a region's values, or to particular groups.[12]

  • A reliable judiciary system: In the social fabric of southern Nigeria, the significance of a forest emerges as a force of moral redemption. Within this context, an immoral act is often followed by a ritual of atonement, in which a tree plays a vital role. This tree symbolizes a giver of life, a harbinger of death, or a guarantor of the hero's survival. It becomes a powerful mediator in situations where human resolution fails, particularly in conflicts stemming from the violation of traditional societal norms and rules. Trees often serve as mediators and decision-makers in judicial disputes due to their consistency in reflecting significant symbolic images.[5][13]
  • A secured location for events: Forests are often seen as a place of refuge and protection, providing shelter from danger and harm. Finally, forests provide the venue for religious, social, and healing ceremonies. It is also seen as places to connect with nature and the divine.[5][12]
  • Source of divers products for hospitality: The forests provides varieties of products that ranges from food and drinks to outfits and musical instruments for traditional ceremonies.[14] While some of these products are rarely used on a day-to-day basis, they still form essential parts of the vast cultural traditions. Forest foods are intentionally featured in many cultural ceremonies such as marriages, funerals, initiations, installation of chiefs, and birth celebrations. Palm wine and cola nuts are important symbolic foods throughout humid West Africa. In Nigeria, palm wine is of paramount importance at most social functions. It is used in activities such as pouring libations, offering prayers, and heralding events. Cola nuts are regarded as important symbols of welcome and hospitality.[15] For Muslims of the region, cola nuts are sacred as it is something given to them by the prophet. It's a symbol of friendship and feature in all festive occasions. Among the Igbo of Southern Nigeria, all discussions, prayers, and ceremonies begin with the breaking of cola nuts(Orji). Without cola, these occasions are not regarded as serious (Okigbo 1980).[16]
Forest Products

Economic significance

  • Distributor of resources: Forests is believed to play a huge role in making each community in southern Nigeria special by providing them with a unique raw material or commodity that distinguishes their identity and sustains their way of life.[17] These distinct resources not only contribute to the local economy but also shape the cultural heritage of these communities. For example:
  • The Ibibio and Annang people of Akwa Ibom State are known for their raffia palm products. Raffia palm is a versatile material that can be used to make mats, baskets, hats, and other items.[18]
  • The Ijaw people of Bayelsa State are known for their fishing. The forests of the Niger Delta provide the Ijaw people with a rich source of fish, which is a major source of food and income for the community.[19]
  • The Efik people of Cross River State are known for their palm oil production.[20] Palm oil is a popular cooking oil in Nigeria, and it is also used to make a variety of other products, such as soap and cosmetics.
  • Source of medicinal materials: The mystical properties of certain forest resources often play a significant role in traditional healing practices.[14][21] For example, in many cultures, it is believed that certain plants and animals have magical properties that can be used to heal the sick.[citation needed] Certain places in the forest may also be considered sacred, and it is believed that spending time in these places can promote healing. The symbolism of forest elements, such as trees, rivers, and mountains, is also thought to have therapeutic value.[22] Forests are seen as places to connect with nature and the divine. They are also seen as a source of nourishment and sustenance for humans and other beings.

Traditional Methods of forest Conservation

In pre-modern Nigeria, traditional techniques of forest conservation were crucial for maintaining the nation's unique biodiversity and supplying local populations with supplies.[citation needed] These techniques frequently drew on indigenous knowledge and traditions that had been passed down through the years.

Dedication and Branding of forests

  • Private forests: Before the enactment of the 1978 Land Use Decree, which transferred all land-management authorities from traditional institutions to state and district government, land in southern Nigeria was owned by lineages or large families. On such family land, people only have the right to utilize it.[23] The only land that was available to the governor was that which had specifically been purchased as Crown land for public use. The sole restriction placed by law on the lineages and other local landowners was a requirement to get government approval before transferring rights to foreigners. On this note forest lands are allocated to rulers and chiefs, sometimes the are given as gifts as such its prohibits any form of public activity without the owners permission.[24]
  • Sacred groves: Sacred forests have a special status and have been preserved for many years by local people, mostly because of their spiritual significance.[7] In Nigeria, selective logging of trees for commercial or social gain is fairly frequent, as is deforestation or loss of vegetation. For many plants and animals, sacred forests are their last remaining habitat, and they provide protection for endangered species.[25] They are also essential for controlling the microclimate. When it comes to sacred forests, conservation may not be in conflict with human usage of the land, but rather is required to maintain the socioeconomic worth of the forest.[25] Government involvement is rare in these situations, and as population and poverty levels rise, it falls more and more on the locals to safeguard the woods.[citation needed]

Establishment of traditional Obligations

  • Cultural taboos: Previously the management of some forest areas are done using fetishized ancient practices. They are founded on belief systems that are achieved by using taboos.[26] Taboos are social rules or restraints that prevent people from exploiting biological resources individually, as a family, or as a community. They are based on collaboratively reached agreements between members of land-holding communities to promote biodiversity protection.[27] Taboos controls the accessibility of biodiversity and how it is used, harvested, and protected. Also, they entail preserving certain terrestrial ecosystems and the water surface, including wetlands, rivers, and lakes. Young, old, males, and females are all subject to taboos.[citation needed]
  • Traditional agricultural practices: the southern Nigerians have a long history of applying traditional agricultural practices that positively supports forest conservation. These practices have evolved over generations and are deeply rooted in the people's cultural and ecological perspective.[28] Some of these activities include:
  • The practice of intercropping. This involves planting different crops together in the same field. This is beneficial for both the crops and the forest. For example, intercropping can help to reduce soil erosion and improve soil fertility. It can also help to control pests and diseases.[29]
  • The practice of fallowing. This involves allowing a piece of land to rest for a period of time after it has been cultivated. This allows the soil to recover and the forest to regenerate.[30]
  • The seasonal communal practices: In southern part of Nigeria, there are several seasonal communal practices and traditions like their involvement in various festivals and ceremonies that serve as reminders of the importance of preserving the natural environment.[31] These include:
  • The new yam festival which promotes sustainable forest management practices, such as planting and harvesting yams in a way that does not damage the forest ecosystem. It links the forest to cultural and religious beliefs, which helps to ensure that it is respected and protected by the community.[32]
  • Likewise is the establishment of forest Guards as some communities appoint individuals or groups to be responsible for monitoring and protecting the forest from illegal activities such as logging, poaching, and encroachment.

Spreading the legacy of historic folklores

Many forests in the southern part of Nigeria are associated with ancient tales which has greatly played an important role in their preservation.[33] The preservation of the Osun-Osogbo grove is one of many which is deeply intertwined with traditional folklore, this played a significant role in both cultural and ecological conservation. Folklore and mythological beliefs have established the grove as a sacred place, leading to reverence for the deity Osun and fear of divine retribution for its desecration.[34] These beliefs have created a strong cultural bond, ensuring the grove's protection. Additionally, traditional narratives pass down the grove's history, rituals, and taboos, serving as a means of cultural preservation and community engagement. The Osun-Osogbo grove showcases the power of folklore in safeguarding natural and cultural heritage.

The Benefits of Pre-modern Conservation methods

In pre-modern Nigeria, traditional techniques of forest conservation played an indispensable role in safeguarding the nation's unparalleled biodiversity while simultaneously providing essential resources to sustain local populations.[35] These time-honored methods were deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge and cultural traditions that had been meticulously preserved and transmitted across generations. Some of its benefits include:

  • Ecosystem Preservation: Traditional forest conservation methods were instrumental in preserving the intricate ecosystems of Nigeria's diverse landscapes. These ecosystems encompassed a wide array of flora and fauna, including unique plant species, rare animals, and countless microorganisms.[36] By protecting their forests, indigenous communities inadvertently safeguarded these ecosystems and the delicate balance of species within them.
  • Resource Sustainability: The utilization of these traditional techniques was not an outright rejection of resource extraction from the forests but rather a sustainable approach to it.[37] Local communities relies on forests for a myriad of resources, such as timber, medicinal plants, food, and materials for crafting tools and shelter.[38] The conservation practices ensured that these resources remained abundant for future generations.
  • Cultural Significance: Forests held profound cultural significance in pre-modern Nigeria. They were often regarded as sacred spaces, housing spirits or deities that were revered by the communities.[5] This spiritual connection reinforced the commitment to protecting the forests, as their destruction was seen as a violation of the sacred.[39]
  • Community Cohesion: Traditional forest conservation practices fostered a strong sense of community cohesion and responsibility. Decision-making regarding resource use was typically a collective effort, involving elders and community leaders. This collective responsibility ensured that no single individual or group could exploit the forests to the detriment of others.[40]
  • Biodiversity Hotspot: Nigeria's forests were not just nationally significant but also globally important for biodiversity. The nation's forests were home to a plethora of endemic species found nowhere else on Earth. By preserving these habitats, traditional techniques inadvertently contributed to the conservation of globally rare and endangered species.[41]
  • Interconnectedness of Resources: Indigenous knowledge emphasized the interconnectedness of resources within the forest ecosystem. For instance, certain plant species might be crucial for the survival of particular animal species.[42] This holistic perspective guided conservation practices, ensuring that no resource was depleted to the detriment of others.
  • Sustainable Agriculture: Forest conservation methods extended beyond the forest boundaries. Communities often practiced sustainable agriculture that integrated forest resources, such as using nutrient-rich leaf litter for soil fertility or relying on specific tree species for shade and protection of crops.[43]

Decline in Traditional Conservation Practices

The fading away of traditional methods of forest conservation practices in Nigeria is a complex and multifaceted issue with significant environmental, cultural, and socio-economic implications.[3] Traditional forest conservation practices have been an integral part of Nigeria's indigenous societies for centuries, serving as a sustainable means of managing and preserving forest ecosystems.[44] However, over the years, various factors have contributed to the decline of these traditional methods.[citation needed] Here is an introduction to this important issue:

Exposure to new knowledge

  • Education and civilization: exposure to new knowledge through education and civilization contributed to the decline in traditional methods of forest conservation practices in Southern Nigeria[45] through the following ways:
  1. Introduction of Modern Agricultural Practices: As people in Southern Nigeria gained access to education and were exposed to modern agricultural techniques, they began to adopt practices that prioritized higher crop yields and economic development.[46] These modern methods often involved clearing large areas of forests for agriculture, which led to deforestation and a decline in traditional forest conservation practices.
  2. Shift in Values and Priorities: Education and exposure to civilization often bring about a change in people's values and beliefs.[47] Traditional forest conservation practices in many cultures are rooted in spiritual or cultural beliefs that emphasize the sacredness of nature and the need to protect it. Education and exposure to modern ideas may lead people to question or abandon these traditional beliefs in favor of more secular or economic values, which may prioritize short-term gains over long-term sustainability.
  • The emergence of Christianity: The impact Christianity on traditional forest conservation practices in Nigeria primarily centers around sacred forests due to the perception within Christianity that certain practices might be considered idolatrous or pagan.[48] In some instances, the sacred forests, which hold profound significance in numerous indigenous belief systems and religions, might have been regarded as having pagan or idolatrous associations by certain individuals who converted to Christianity. Consequently, this perception could potentially result in a decrease in the upkeep and veneration of these revered sites.[49] For example:
  1. In the southeastern region of Nigeria, some Christian have actively discouraged the practice of sacred forests. They have argued that sacred forests are pagan and should be destroyed. This has led to the loss of many sacred forests in this region.[citation needed]
  2. In the Niger Delta region, some Christian communities have converted their sacred forests into farmland. This has been done to meet the growing demand for food and to generate income.[50]

Meeting-up with development trend

  • The emergence of Industrialization: The growth of industries has increased the demand for timber products, this have led to commercial logging operations.[citation needed] These operations are often profit-driven and may not adhere to sustainable forest management practices. Traditional conservation methods, which prioritize long-term forest health, may be disregarded in favor of short-term economic gains.[51]
  • Global Market Demands: Southern Nigeria, like many regions, is influenced by global market demands. Exports of agricultural products, timber, and other natural resources can drive deforestation as producers seek to meet international market demands, most times at the expense of traditional conservation practices.[52][53]

The increasing human population

  • The need for more income: Commercial Logging and Exploitation are modern economic opportunities that has led to increased logging and exploitation of forest resources for profit. This economic incentive often outweighs the traditional values of forest conservation.[citation needed] People may prioritize short-term economic gain over long-term sustainability.
  • The expansion of infrastructures and settlements: As southern Nigeria experiences infrastructure development, such as road construction and urbanization due to the increasing population, it often requires the clearing of land, including forests. This process can directly lead to deforestation and the destruction of ecosystems that were previously protected by traditional conservation practices.[54]
  • Agricultural Expansion: Meeting the food demands of a growing population has led to the expansion of agriculture. In southern Nigeria,[55] this has often involved clearing forests for crop cultivation and livestock grazing. Traditional methods of sustainable land use and rotational farming may be abandoned in favor of more intensive and less environmentally friendly practices.[citation needed]

The Emerging Forest Conservation Practices in Southern Nigeria

The emerging forest conservation practices are of paramount importance in the region due to the demise of the old traditional practices and the need for sustainable environmental management.[56] Southeastern Nigeria being a home to diverse range of ecosystems, faced significant threats, such as deforestation, illegal logging, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development.[57] In response to these challenges, the traditional conservation practices have undergone transitioning and emerged in the region.[58]

References

  1. ↑ Hundera, K. (2007). "Traditional Forest Management Practices in Jimma Zone, South West Ethiopia" (in en). Ethiopian Journal of Education and Sciences 2 (2): 1–10. doi:10.4314/ejesc.v2i2.41982. ISSN 1998-8907. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ejesc/article/view/41982. 
  2. ↑ Ayeni, A. O. (2013) (in en). Forestry in Nigeria: A brief historical overview, phases of development and present challenges. https://africanremotesensing.org/forestry-in-nigeria-a-brief-historical-overview-phases-of-development-and-present-challenges-2/. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Odok, Godwin Etta (2019-05-04). "Commodification of forestlands and assault on indigenous knowledge within forest-dependent communities of Cross River State, Nigeria" (in en). Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 74 (2): 126–131. doi:10.1080/0035919X.2019.1600069. ISSN 0035-919X. Bibcode: 2019TRSSA..74..126O. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0035919X.2019.1600069. 
  4. ↑ Henwood, KAREN; Pidgeon, NICK (2001-06-01). "Talk About Woods and Trees: Threat of Urbanization, Stability, and Biodiversity". Journal of Environmental Psychology 21 (2): 125–147. doi:10.1006/jevp.2000.0196. ISSN 0272-4944. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494400901968. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "3. THE CULTURAL AND SYMBOLIC IMPORTANCE OF FOREST RESOURCES". https://www.fao.org/3/t9450e/t9450e06.htm. 
  6. ↑ Suazo, Adan E. (2022), Suazo, Adan E., ed., "Revisiting Abundance Theory" (in en), The Risk of Water Conflicts in Aotearoa-New Zealand: Emergence and Intensification (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 1–13, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06660-3_1, ISBN 978-3-031-06660-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06660-3_1, retrieved 2023-09-17 
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  10. ↑ Ouinsavi, C.; Sokpon, N.; Bada, O. (2005-03-21). "Utilization and traditional strategies of in situ conservation of iroko (Milicia excelsa Welw. C.C. Berg) in Benin". Forest Ecology and Management 207 (3): 341–350. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.10.069. ISSN 0378-1127. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112704008102. 
  11. ↑ Oliver-Bever, Bep (1986-01-23) (in en). Medicinal Plants in Tropical West Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26815-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=e1I9AAAAIAAJ&dq=Iroko+tree+is+mostly+sacrificed+to+in+west+africa&pg=PP12. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Daniel, K. S.; Udeagha, A. U.; Jacob, D. E. (2016-09-16). "Socio- cultural importance of sacred forests conservation in south southern Nigeria" (in en). African Journal of Sustainable Development 6 (2): 251–268. ISSN 2315-6317. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsd/article/view/144035. 
  13. ↑ Ellis, Stephen (November 2008). "The Okija Shrine: Death and Life in Nigerian Politics" (in en). The Journal of African History 49 (3): 445–466. doi:10.1017/S0021853708003940. ISSN 1469-5138. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/okija-shrine-death-and-life-in-nigerian-politics/104CC98D7536D0389CC6C608F74159B2#fn078. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Nwosu, Maria O. (2002-09-01). [0255:ESOSPO2.0.CO;2 "Ethnobotanical studies on some pteridophytes of Southern Nigeria"] (in en). Economic Botany 56 (3): 255–259. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2002)056[0255:ESOSPO2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 1874-9364. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2002)056[0255:ESOSPO]2.0.CO;2. 
  15. ↑ Adebisi, Atilade Akanmu (2004). A case study of Garcinia kola nut production-to-consumption system in J4 area of Omo forest reserve, South-west Nigeria (Report). Center for International Forestry Research. pp. 115–132. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep02033.13. 
  16. ↑ Saico, S; Neliswa, S (2012). "AN EXAMINATION OF THE UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL WOODLANDS IN SWAZILAND – A CASE OF KA BHUDLA COMMUNITY". Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 14 (1): 18. https://jsd-africa.com/Jsda/Vol14No1-Spring2012A/PDF/An%20Examination%20of%20the%20Utilization%20and%20Management.Saico%20Sibusiso%20Singwane.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Malleson, R.; Asaha, S.; Egot, M.; Kshatriya, M.; Marshall, E.; Obeng-Okrah, K.; Sunderland, T. (2014-06-01). "Non-timber forest products income from forest landscapes of Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria – an incidental or integral contribution to sustaining rural livelihoods?". International Forestry Review 16 (3): 261–277. doi:10.1505/146554814812572449. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cfa/ifr/2014/00000016/00000003/art00001;jsessionid=7su06g3ffj18q.x-ic-live-01. 
  18. ↑ Adetola, Umoh Samuel Uwem, Oyewo (2016). "The Raffia Palm Industry in Nigeria: A Case Study of Annang Society in Akwa Ibom State". Indigenous People and Economic Development. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315588346. ISBN 978-1-315-58834-6. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315588346-21/raffia-palm-industry-nigeria-case-study-annang-society-akwa-ibom-state-umoh-samuel-uwem-oyewo-adetola. 
  19. ↑ Object, object. The Ijo (Ijaw) People of Delta State: Their Early History and Aspects of Social and Cultural Practices. https://core.ac.uk/reader/234668573. 
  20. ↑ Jones, G. I. (April 1974). "From Slaves to Palm Oil - Old Calabar 1600—1891. The Impact of the International Economy upon a Traditional Society. By A. J. H. Latham. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. Pp. 150. Maps 6. Charts, graphs and tables 20. £5." (in en). The Journal of African History 15 (2): 328–330. doi:10.1017/S0021853700000955. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/abs/from-slaves-to-palm-oil-old-calabar-16001891-the-impact-of-the-international-economy-upon-a-traditional-society-by-a-j-h-latham-oxford-clarendon-press-1973-pp-150-maps-6-charts-graphs-and-tables-20-5/5FC80910A087A78236005362EE3E34CA. 
  21. ↑ Omokhua, Ge (2011-11-18). "Medicinal and Socio-Cultural Importance of Costus Afer (Ker Grawl) in Nigeria". African Research Review 5 (5). doi:10.4314/afrrev.v5i5.22. ISSN 2070-0083. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/afrrev/article/view/72323. 
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  23. ↑ Chukwuone, N. A.; Okorji, C. E. (2008-03-01). "Willingness to pay for systematic management of community forests for conservation of non-timber forest products in Nigeria's rainforest region: implications for poverty alleviation" (in en). Frontis: 117–137. https://library.wur.nl/ojs/index.php/frontis/article/view/1578. 
  24. ↑ "Land reform in Nigeria: progress, problems prospects - OICRF". https://www.oicrf.org/-/land-reform-in-nigeria-progress-problems-prospects. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Onyekwelu, Jc; Olusola, Ja (2014). "Role of Sacred Grove in in-Situ Biodiversity Conservation in Rainforest Zone of South-Western Nigeria". Journal of Tropical Forest Science 26 (1): 5–15. ISSN 0128-1283. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23617008. 
  26. ↑ Jimoh, Saka Oladunni; Ikyaagba, Emmanuel Tertsea; Alarape, Abideen Abiodun; Obioha, Emeka E.; Adeyemi, Adesoji Akinwumi (September 2012). "The Role of Traditional Laws and Taboos in Wildlife Conservation in the Oban Hill Sector of Cross River National Park (CRNP), Nigeria" (in en). Journal of Human Ecology 39 (3): 209–219. doi:10.1080/09709274.2012.11906513. ISSN 0970-9274. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09709274.2012.11906513. 
  27. ↑ Colding, Johan; Folke, Carl (2001). "Social Taboos: "Invisible" Systems of Local Resource Management and Biological Conservation". Ecological Applications 11 (2): 584–600. doi:10.2307/3060911. ISSN 1051-0761. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3060911. 
  28. ↑ Korieh, Chima J. (2010). The Land Has Changed: History, Society, and Gender in Colonial Nigeria. University of Calgary Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv6gqqmd. ISBN 978-1-55238-268-4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv6gqqmd. 
  29. ↑ Enete, Anselm A.; Madu, Ignatius I.; Mojekwu, Jospehat C.; Onyekuru, Anthony N.; Onwubuya, Elizabeth A.; Eze, Fidelis (2011) (in en). Indigenous Agriculural Adaptation to Climate Change: Study of Southeast Nigeria. https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=381331741. 
  30. ↑ Okebalama, Chinyere Blessing; Igwe, Charles; Okolo, Chukwuebuka (2017-12-01). "Soil Organic Carbon Levels in Soils of Contrasting Land Uses in Southeastern Nigeria" (in en). Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 20 (3). doi:10.56369/tsaes.2439. ISSN 1870-0462. http://www.revista.ccba.uady.mx/ojs/index.php/TSA/article/view/2439. 
  31. ↑ Nwosu, P.U. (July 2010). "The Role of Okonko Society in Preserving Igbo Environment" (in en). Journal of Human Ecology 31 (1): 59–64. doi:10.1080/09709274.2010.11906298. ISSN 0970-9274. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906298. 
  32. ↑ Manus, Ukachukwu Chris (2007-06-30). "The Sacred Festival of Iri Ji Ohuru in Igboland, Nigeria" (in en). Nordic Journal of African Studies 16 (2). doi:10.53228/njas.v16i2.69. ISSN 1459-9465. https://njas.fi/njas/article/view/69. 
  33. ↑ Osemeobo, G. J. (March 1994). "The role of folklore in environmental conservation: evidence from Edo State, Nigeria" (in en). International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 1 (1): 48–55. doi:10.1080/13504509409469860. ISSN 1350-4509. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13504509409469860. 
  34. ↑ Onyekwelu, J.; Stimm, B.; Mosandl, R.; Amadu, L.; Agbo-Adediran, Adewale O. (2019). "Significance of Traditional Forest Management System in Biodiversity Conservation and Ecosystem Services Provision: Case Study of Osun"=Osogbo Sacred Grove, Nigeria". Forstliche Forschungsberichte 219: 132–148. 
  35. ↑ Olorunfemi, Felix; Fasona, Mayowa; Oloukoi, Grace; Elias, Peter; Adedayo, Vide (February 2016). "Traditional Knowledge in the Use and Management of Forest Ecosystem for Livelihoods and Food Security in Nigerian Savanna" (in en). Journal of Human Ecology 53 (2): 167–175. doi:10.1080/09709274.2016.11906969. ISSN 0970-9274. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09709274.2016.11906969. 
  36. ↑ Adeyanju, Samuel Oluwanisola; Bulkan, Janette; Onyekwelu, Jonathan C.; Peterson St-Laurent, Guillaume; Kozak, Robert; Sunderland, Terry; Stimm, Bernd (2022-06-16). "Drivers of Biodiversity Conservation in Sacred Groves: A Comparative Study of Three Sacred Groves in Southwest Nigeria". International Journal of the Commons 16 (1): 94. doi:10.5334/ijc.1143. ISSN 1875-0281. 
  37. ↑ Anoliefo, Geoffrey; Nwokeji, Paul; Ikhajiagbe, Beckley (2015-11-10). "Influence of Traditional Taboo Practices on Natural Resource Conservation in Uli, Ihiala Local Government Area of Anambra State Nigeria; Sustainable Community Development.". Journal of Environmental Sustainability 4 (4). ISSN 2159-2519. https://scholarworks.rit.edu/jes/vol4/iss4/2. 
  38. ↑ "NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPs): A PATHWAY FOR RURAL POVERTY REDUCTION IN NIGERIA - PDF Free Download". https://docplayer.net/85171753-Non-timber-forest-products-ntfps-a-pathway-for-rural-poverty-reduction-in-nigeria.html. 
  39. ↑ ODOK, AOBI; ETTA, J.N.; IMANYI, V.U. (2023). "CULTURAL PRACTICES AND NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION IN NNEWI SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ANAMBRA STATE". Multi-Disciplinary Journal of Research and Development Perspectives 12 (1): 103. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374004872. 
  40. ↑ Nkansah-Dwamena, Ernest (2023-12-01). "Lessons learned from community engagement and participation in fostering coexistence and minimizing human-wildlife conflict in Ghana". Trees, Forests and People 14: 100430. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100430. ISSN 2666-7193. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666719323000626. 
  41. ↑ Ajadi, Bolakale Saheed (2021). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF INDIGENOUS AND MODERN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM OF IN-SITU FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA (Thesis thesis). UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN.
  42. ↑ Oladeji, S. O.; Osanyinleye, G. D.; Lawal, A. (2021-07-23). "ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSERVATION VALUES OF OSUN OSOGBO SACRED GROVE, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA" (in en). Tanzania Journal of Forestry and Nature Conservation 90 (2): 97–114. ISSN 2408-8137. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tjfnc/article/view/210928. 
  43. ↑ Rajasekaran, B.; Warren, D. M.; Babu, S. C. (1991). "Indigenous natural-resource management systems for sustainable agricultural development—a global perspective" (in en). Journal of International Development 3 (3): 387–401. doi:10.1002/jid.4010030312. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jid.4010030312. 
  44. ↑ Okoji, Maurice Akpan (2001-09-01). "Depletion of forest resources in south eastern Nigeria: who loses?" (in en). Environmentalist 21 (3): 197–203. doi:10.1023/A:1017979303340. ISSN 1573-2991. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017979303340. 
  45. ↑ Kpone-Tonwe, Sonpie (2001). "Leadership Training in Precolonial Nigeria: The Yaa Tradition of Ogoni". The International Journal of African Historical Studies 34 (2): 385–403. doi:10.2307/3097487. ISSN 0361-7882. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097487. 
  46. ↑ Onyima, Blessing Nonye (2016-08-02). "Nigerian cultural heritage: preservation, challenges and prospects" (in en). OGIRISI: A New Journal of African Studies 12: 273–292. doi:10.4314/og.v12i1.15. ISSN 1597-474X. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/og/article/view/141270. 
  47. ↑ Newman, Jay (1977). "Education as Civilization". The Journal of Educational Thought 11 (3): 203–212. ISSN 0022-0701. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23768660. 
  48. ↑ Njoku, Ndu Life; Ihenacho, Chijioke L.; Onyekwelibe, James C. (2017). "The Encounter with "Evil Forests" in Igbo-land: The Legacy of Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Missionaries' Interactions with African Culture" (in en). Journal of Social History 50 (3): 466–480. doi:10.1093/jsh/shw040. ISSN 0022-4529. https://academic.oup.com/jsh/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jsh/shw040. 
  49. ↑ Atindehou, Massogblé Marc Lucrèce; Azihou, Akomian Fortuné; Dassou, Hospice Gbèwonmédéa; Toyi, Sêwanoudé Mireille; Dangnigbe, Prosper; Adomou, Aristide Cossi; Ouedraogo, Amadé; Assogbadjo, Achille Ephrem et al. (2022-12-01). "Management and protection of large old tree species in farmlands: Case of Milicia excelsa in southern Benin (West Africa)". Trees, Forests and People 10: 100336. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100336. ISSN 2666-7193. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666719322001431. 
  50. ↑ Ijaola, Samson Oluwatope (2016). "From colonialism to neo-colonialism, Christianity in cultural demythologization and ecological crises in the Niger Delta, Nigeria". AFRREV IJAH: An International Journal of Arts and Humanities 5 (3): 161–178. doi:10.4314/ijah.v5i3.14. ISSN 2227-5452. https://www.academia.edu/50313136. 
  51. ↑ Harvan, Mary (1991-01-01), ""The Gods of the Delta": Religion in the Literature of Ken Saro—Wiwa and the Ogoni Movement" (in en), Mapping the Sacred (Brill): pp. 241–263, doi:10.1163/9789004490222_016, ISBN 978-90-04-49022-2, https://brill.com/display/book/9789004490222/B9789004490222_s016.xml, retrieved 2023-10-11 
  52. ↑ Isikhuemen, ekeoba M. (2014-01-01). Rainforest degradation in southern Nigeria: role of forestry institutions. https://www.academia.edu/47815187. 
  53. ↑ Oluduro, Olubayo (June 2012). "Oil exploration and ecological damage: the compensation policy in Nigeria" (in en). Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d'études du développement 33 (2): 164–179. doi:10.1080/02255189.2012.693049. ISSN 0225-5189. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02255189.2012.693049. 
  54. ↑ Ewah, James Oshuo (May 2012). "The Effects of Creating Access Roads on the Integrity of Conserved Areas: A Case Study of Okwangwo Rainforest in Cross River National Park, Nigeria" (in en). Journal of Human Ecology 38 (2): 105–115. doi:10.1080/09709274.2012.11906479. ISSN 0970-9274. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09709274.2012.11906479. 
  55. ↑ Okafor, J.C. (January 1976). "Development of forest tree crops for food supplies in Nigeria". Forest Ecology and Management 1: 235–247. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(76)90028-1. ISSN 0378-1127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(76)90028-1. 
  56. ↑ "The Need for a Legal Regime for Sustainable Forest Management in Nigeria | InforMEA". https://www.informea.org/en/literature/need-legal-regime-sustainable-forest-management-nigeria. 
  57. ↑ Ite, Uwem E (1998-04-01). "New wine in an old skin: The reality of tropical moist forest conservation in Nigeria". Land Use Policy 15 (2): 135–147. doi:10.1016/S0264-8377(98)80010-0. ISSN 0264-8377. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837798800100. 
  58. ↑ Bisong, Fe; Animashaun, A (2007-08-23). "Participatory land use planning for community based forest management in South-Eastern Nigeria". Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research 4 (1). doi:10.4314/lwati.v4i1.36840. ISSN 1813-2227. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/lwati/article/view/36840. 



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