View source for Chemistry:Olive oil regulation and adulteration

[[Image:Consejo oleicola DSCF0508.JPG|thumb|right|300px|International Olive Council building]]
'''Olive oil regulation and adulteration''' are complex issues overseen and studied by various governmental bodies, non-governmental organizations, and private researchers across the world. The most frequent type of adulteration is that oil of lower quality is mixed into olive oil.

==Background of regulation==
The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The [[Organization:International Olive Council|International Olive Council]] (IOC) is an [[Social:Intergovernmental organization|intergovernmental organization]] with 16 member states plus the [[Social:European Union|European Union]] based in [[Place:Madrid|Madrid]], {{wipe|Spain}}. It promotes [[Biology:Olive oil|olive oil]] around the world by tracking production, defining quality standards, and monitoring authenticity. More than 98 percent of the world's olives are grown in IOC member nations.<ref>[http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/ International Olive Council]</ref> 

The IOC officially governs 95 per cent of international production and holds great influence over the rest. IOC terminology is precise, but it can lead to confusion between the words that describe production and the words used on retail labels. Olive oil is classified by how it was produced, by its [[Chemistry:Chemistry|chemistry]], and by its flavor. All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste. This paste is then [[Engineering:Malaxation|malaxed]] to allow the microscopic oil droplets to concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure (traditional method) or [[Medicine:Centrifuge|centrifugation]] (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}
===United States===
The {{wipe|United States}} is not a member of the IOC, and the US Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its classifications, such as extra-virgin olive oil. In October 2011, the United States adopted new olive oil standards, revising those that had been in place since 1948, which affected importers and domestic growers and producers by ensuring conformity with the benchmarks commonly accepted in the U.S. and abroad.<ref>[http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-grades/usda-olive-oil-standards-begin/8087 "New U.S. Olive Oil Standards in Effect Today"] ''Olive Oil Times''</ref>

As of 1998, US Customs regulations on "country of origin" have stated that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.<ref>Durant, John. US Customs Department, Director Commercial Rulings Division [http://rulings.customs.gov/index.asp?ru=561712&qu=%22HQ+561712%22&vw=detail Country of origin marking of imported olive oil; 19 CFR 134.46; "imported by" language] 2000-09-05. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116115422/http://rulings.customs.gov/index.asp?ru=561712&qu=%22HQ+561712%22&vw=detail |date=2009-01-16 }}</ref><ref>United States International Trade Commission Rulings [http://www.faqs.org/rulings/rulings2006HQ967925.html See reference to HQ 560944 ruling of the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) on April 27, 1998, "''blending of Spanish olive oil with Italian olive oil in Italy does not result in a substantial transformation of the Spanish product''"] 2006-02-28.</ref> Yet most major US brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print. These products are a mixture of olive oil from more than one nation and it is not clear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. This practice makes it difficult for high quality, lower cost producers outside of Italy to enter the US market, and for genuine Italian producers to compete.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

In the United States, the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) does not routinely test imported olive oil for adulteration.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

== Testing for purity ==
[[File:Valentina Domenici 2015.jpg|thumb|left|200px|UV-Vis spectroscopy analysis of olive oil samples in an Italian laboratory]]
The detection of olive oil adulteration is often complicated with no single test that can accomplish the task. A battery of tests is employed to determine olive oil authenticity and identity of the adulterant. Included in this testing regime is the determination of [[Chemistry:Olive oil acidity|free acidity]], [[Chemistry:Peroxide value|peroxide value]], [[Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy|Ultraviolet light extinction]], fatty acid composition, sterol composition, triglyceride composition, wax content, [[Biology:Steroid|steroid]]al hydrocarbons, and the Bellier test.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Olive Oil Composition Evaluation| doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740610409|volume=61| issue=4|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|pages=435–437|year = 1993|last1 = Amr|first1 = Ayed S.| last2=Abu-Al-Rub| first2=Ala'A I.}}</ref> Methods employing chromatography/[[Physics:Mass spectrometry|mass spectrometry]] and spectroscopy are also used to detect adulteration of olive oil<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Gromadzka, J. |author2=Wardencki, W. |title= Trends in edible vegetable oils analysis. Part B. Application of different analytical techniques|journal=Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=33–43 |year=2011|doi=10.2478/v10222-011-0002-z |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Andrikopoulos, K.N. |author2=Giannakis, G.I. |author3=Tzamtis, V. |title= Analysis of olive oil and seed oil triglycerides by capillary gas chromatograsphy as a tool for the detection of the adulteration of olive oil|journal=Journal of Chromatographic Science |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=137–145 |year=2011|doi=10.1093/chromsci/39.4.137 |pmid=11318065 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Tay, A. |author2=Singh, R.K. |author3=Krishnan, S.S. |author4=Gore, J.P. |title= Authentication of Olive Oil Adulterated with Vegetable Oils Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy|year=2002|doi=10.1006/fstl.2001.0864 |volume=35 |journal=LWT – Food Science and Technology |pages=99–103}}</ref> 

Test results are measured against the International Olive Council trade standard to identify abnormalities. Each test provides key information which allows a decision to be made with respect to the grade of olive oil and the identity of any adulterants. However, the International Olive Council does not test for deodorisation which makes up the bulk of fake extra-virgin oils. Soft column deodorisation is the process where steam is forced through a tank of inferior oil which removes all taste, colour and nutrients, colouring is then added before the tank is topped up with real extra-virgin oil to add flavour.<ref name=Bogle/>

A test published in 1887 described the detection of olive oil adulterated with [[Chemistry:Mineral oil|mineral oil]] by a simple [[Chemistry:Titration|titration]] of the [[Chemistry:Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acid]] moieties present in natural vegetable oils. The procedure involved boiling 10 milliliters of olive oil with 40 milliliters of approximately 1 [[Physics:Molar concentration|molar]] [[Chemistry:Potassium hydroxide|potassium hydroxide]] in 95% [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]], adding water to 100&nbsp;grams to dissolve the saponified lipids, and titrating against a normal [[Chemistry:Sulfuric acid|sulfuric acid]] solution using [[Chemistry:Phenolphthalein|phenolphthalein]] as a pH indicator dye. The base stock solution was titrated to neutralize an equal quantity of the acid, so without the presence of vegetable oil it would require 40 milliliters of acid to cause a color change, but in the pure oils tested ([[Biology:Almond|almond]], benne, cottonseed, cod liver oil, [[Biology:Linseed oil|linseed oil]], and olive oil, only 6 milliliters were required.  In accordance with this, olive oil adulterated with 10% mineral oil required 8 milliliters, and with 20% 11 milliliters. The adulterated oil tested in 1887 required 14 to 17 milliliters to neutralize, so it might have been 30–40% mineral oil.<ref>Pharm. Zeitsch. f. Russl., 1887, 65 ''translated in'' {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4m0CAAAAYAAJ&dq="olive+oil"+"adulterated+with+mineral+oil"&pg=PA277|title=Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association|last1=Meeting|first1=American Pharmaceutical Association|year=1887}}</ref>

DNA analysis methods, based on the use of [[Biology:Polymerase chain reaction|polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) (e.g. [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] fingerprinting), have also been used. These techniques require extensive sample preparation, which needs specific optimization to ensure extraction of sufficient DNA, and that PCR inhibitors are not affecting the analysis. To date, there is no DNA extraction method applicable to any sample.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Woolfe, M. |author2=Primrose, S. |title= Food Forensics: Using DNA Technology To Combat Misdescription and Fraud|year=2004|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2004.03.010|pmid=15109807 |volume=22|issue=5 |journal=Trends in Biotechnology|pages=222–226}}</ref>

In 2014, an “invisible oil tag” using artificial, sub-micrometer-sized DNA barcodes was suggested by researchers from ETH Zurich. The barcodes consist of magnetically recoverable silica particles containing synthetic DNA sequences, which are added to the oil in a very small amount (down to 1 ppb) and can be retrieved at any time for authenticity test by PCR/sequencing. The advantages of this method, compared to conventional techniques are its low-cost, minimal sample preparation and minute volumes, and its universalness, since it can be applied to any oil type/sample.<ref name=Puddu>{{cite journal |title=Magnetically Recoverable, Thermostable, Hydrophobic DNA/Silica Encapsulates and Their Application as Invisible Oil Tags|author1=Puddu, M. |author2=Paunescu, D. |author3=Stark, W.J. |author4=Grass, R.N. |year=2014|doi=10.1021/nn4063853 |pmid=24568212 |volume=8 |issue = 3|journal=ACS Nano |pages=2677–2685}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/small-world/2014/mar/27/bionic-spinach-invisible-barcodes-nanotube-computers-nanotechnology|title=Invisible barcodes|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2014-03-27|last1=Venema|first1=Liesbeth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 30, 2014 |title=Scientists Hope To Stamp Out Counterfeit Olive Oil With a Dash of DNA |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/weird-science/scientists-hope-stamp-out-counterfeit-olive-oil-dash-dna-n92956 |website=NBC News}}</ref>

=== Industry certifications of quality ===
As of 2015, the ''North American Olive Oil Association'' offered a Quality Seal Program to guarantee authenticity of olive oil. Members of the association agreed to have their oils tested twice a year to ensure the oil meets or exceeds the International Olive Council (IOC) standards. The testing includes both sensory (taste/smell) and chemical tests for purity. Samples are purchased from the retail marketplace to ensure that the products tested are the same as the ones purchased by consumers. The test samples are not selected and submitted by olive oil producers. Brands pay for the testing through a yearly licensing fee.<ref>{{cite web|title=NAOOA Certified Quality Seal Program|url=http://www.aboutoliveoil.org/qualityseal.html|website=About Olive Oil|access-date=10 July 2015}}</ref>

The ''California Olive Oil Council'' tests samples of olive oil submitted by producers for extra virgin quality. The samples are provided by the producers. The testing is primarily sensory with some chemical tests.<ref>{{cite web|title=Olive Oil Quality Seals? Take Your Pick|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-quality-seals/34742|website=Olive Oil Times|access-date=10 July 2015|date=2013-06-13}}</ref>

The ''Extra Virgin Alliance'' offers the EVA Mark of quality and authenticity. The EVA standard includes both sensory and chemical parameters for olive oils at their Best Before Date.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

=== Simple home tests ===

==== Refrigeration ====
There is a persistent mistaken belief that when genuine olive oil (or, in some versions, [[Biology:Olive oil#Retail grades in IOC member nations|extra virgin]] olive oil specifically) is refrigerated, it will solidify or become much more viscous. This mistaken belief is based on the fact that olive oil is composed mainly of the [[Chemistry:Monounsaturated fat|monounsaturated fat]] [[Chemistry:Oleic acid|oleic acid]], and pure oleic acid (triolein) has a melting point of 5 ˚C, which is slightly above the high end of proper refrigerator temperature. Thus, if olive oil were pure triolein, it would solidify in a properly set refrigerator. However, olive oil is a complex mixture with significant variability in its fatty acid structure, and can be anywhere from 55% to 83% [[Chemistry:Oleic acid|oleic acid]],<ref name=oos>{{cite web |url=http://www.oliveoilsource.com/page/chemical-characteristics |title=Olive Oil : Chemical Characteristics }}</ref><ref name=Beltran2004>{{cite journal |url=http://hera.ugr.es/doi/15058025.pdf |title=Influence of Harvest Date and Crop Yield on the Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oils from Cv. Picual |author=Beltran|year=2004 |display-authors=0}}</ref> with the remainder a mixture of [[Chemistry:Polyunsaturated fat|polyunsaturated fat]] and [[Chemistry:Saturated fat|saturated fat]], as well as containing waxes, phytosterols, and other compounds that affect its melting temperature. Thus, in practice, many olive oils have significantly lower melting temperatures.<ref name=Gawel2010>{{cite web|last=Gawel|first=Richard|title=The 'Home Fridge Test' for Authenticity of Extra Virgin Olive Oil – The Reasons why it doesn't work|url=http://www.aromadictionary.com/EVOO_blog/?p=550|work=Slick Extra Virgin|access-date=8 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=NAOOA2012>{{cite web|title=Myth – the Extra Virgin Olive Oil Fridge Test|url=http://www.aboutoliveoil.org/FridgeTestMyth.pdf|work=All About Olive Oil|publisher=North American Olive Oil Association|access-date=8 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731162158/http://www.aboutoliveoil.org/FridgeTestMyth.pdf|archive-date=31 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=OOtimes2013a>{{cite web|last=Flagg|first=Nancy|title=Olive Oil Fridge Test? Don't Count On It|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/olive-oil-fridge-test/32830|work=Olive Oil Times|access-date=8 August 2013|date=February 15, 2013}}</ref> In fact, one might expect a refined seed oil with very high oleic acid content (such as high oleic sunflower oil) to be more likely to solidify in the refrigerator, based on their fatty acid composition and lack of minor compounds.<ref name=Gawel2010 />

The "fridge test" for adulteration was evaluated by scientists at the Olive Center at the [[Organization:University of California, Davis|University of California, Davis]]. Researchers put seven samples of different oils into a refrigerator at 4.7 ˚C, including a premium extra-virgin olive oil; low-quality extra-virgin olive oil; a blend of virgin and refined olive oil; refined canola oil; refined safflower oil; a 50:50 mixture of the premium extra virgin olive oil with the blended olive oil; and a 50:50 mixture of the premium extra virgin olive oil with the refined safflower oil. Several days of refrigeration was required before congealing of any of the samples became apparent. Although none of the samples solidified fully, the three which contained either 100% extra virgin olive oil or a 50:50 mix of extra virgin and blended olive oil had partially solidified after a week, whereas the other samples remained clear.  The authors conclude that refrigeration is not reliable in detecting olive oil adulteration.   However, based on these results, the absence or any visible congealing after a week of refrigeration would not be an encouraging sign if the olive oil had been sold as pure extra virgin.<ref name=Li2013>{{cite web|last1=Li|first1=Xueqi|title=Refrigeration is not reliable in detecting olive oil adulteration|url=http://static.oliveoiltimes.com/library/ucd-fridge-test.pdf|publisher=UC Davis Olive Center|access-date=8 August 2013|author2=Selina Wang, Dan Flynn}}</ref>

==== Ignition ====
Pure olive oil should burn in an [[Engineering:Oil lamp|oil lamp]]. The ignition test however, like the refrigerator test, is not conclusive.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Matteo Biccari |title=Fake DIY Tests On Olive Oil |url=https://oliobiccari.com/blogs/blog-news/fake-diy-tests-auf-olivenol |website=www.oliobiccari.com |publisher=Matteo Biccari |access-date=19 April 2020 |ref=fake diy tests on olive oil |language=en, de |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808083138/https://oliobiccari.com/blogs/blog-news/fake-diy-tests-auf-olivenol |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Investigations, incidents, and recalls ==
As of 2021, the most frequent type of adulteration of olive oil is that oil of lower quality is mixed into it.<ref name="Food Control">{{Cite journal |last=Casadei |first=Enrico |last2=Valli |first2=Enrico |last3=Panni |first3=Filippo |last4=Donarski |first4=James |last5=Farrús Gubern |first5=Jordina |last6=Lucci |first6=Paolo |last7=Conte |first7=Lanfranco |last8=Lacoste |first8=Florence |last9=Maquet |first9=Alain |last10=Brereton |first10=Paul |last11=Bendini |first11=Alessandra |last12=Gallina Toschi |first12=Tullia |date=2021-06-01 |title=Emerging trends in olive oil fraud and possible countermeasures |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713521000402 |journal=Food Control |volume=124 |pages=107902 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107902 |issn=0956-7135|doi-access=free |hdl=11390/1198175 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Adulterated oil is usually no more serious than passing off inferior, but safe, products as superior olive oil, however in 1981 almost 700 people died, it is believed, as a consequence of consuming [[Biology:Rapeseed oil|rapeseed]] (canola) oil adulterated with [[Chemistry:Aniline|aniline]] intended for use as an industrial lubricant, but sold  as olive oil in Spain (see [[Unsolved:Toxic oil syndrome|toxic oil syndrome]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE0DC1630F932A15756C0A96F948260|title=Trial in Spain on Toxic Cooking Oil Ends in Uproar|last=Riding|first=Alan|date=1989-05-21|work={{wipe|New York Times}}|access-date=16 November 2008}}</ref>

In 1993, the FDA ordered a recall of Rubino U.S.A. Inc., (Cincinnati, Ohio) olive oils which were nothing more than [[Biology:Canola oil|canola oil]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ENFORCE/ENF00237.html |title=Recalls on Rubino Olive Oil |website=Food & Drug Administration |access-date=2009-03-01 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119124739/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ENFORCE/ENF00237.html |archive-date=January 19, 2009 }}</ref>

In 1997, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency began conducting tests on 100 oils claimed to be 100% olive oil and in 1999 the CFIA concluded that 20 per cent of the oils were fake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/consumers/market/files/food/oliveoil/index.html |title=CFIA Oil Authenticity |access-date=2009-03-01 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418055344/http://www.cbc.ca/consumers/market/files/food/oliveoil/index.html |archive-date=April 18, 2009 }}</ref>
 
In 2007, NPR reported that with Italian extra-virgin [[Biology:Olive oil|olive oil]] in high demand with concomitant high prices, adulterated olive oil had become the biggest source of agricultural fraud problems in the [[Social:European Union|European Union]].<ref name=npr>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12571726 Olive Oil Fraud Rampant as Demand Skyrockets], ''National Public Radio'', August 7, 2007</ref> Some oil labeled "extra-virgin" is diluted with cheaper olive oils or other vegetable oils. In some cases, lampante, or "lamp oil," which is made from spoiled olives fallen from trees, is used, even though it can't legally be sold as food. One fraud ring was accused of coloring low-grade soy oil and [[Biology:Canola oil|canola oil]] with industrial [[Biology:Chlorophyll|chlorophyll]], and flavoring it with beta-carotene.<ref name=npr/> 

In August 2007, the''The New Yorker'' stated that major Italian shippers routinely adulterate olive oil and that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" actually meets the specification.<ref>Mueller, Tom. [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/13/070813fa_fact_mueller ”Slippery Business”] ''The New Yorker''. 2007-08-13.</ref> In some cases, [[Chemistry:Colza oil|colza oil]] with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.<ref>[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/ EUbusiness.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309195531/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23 |date=2008-03-09 }}</ref> This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F05%2F07%2Fnfood07.xml |title=Telegraph article |access-date=2010-05-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311063258/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F05%2F07%2Fnfood07.xml |archive-date=March 11, 2008 }}</ref> In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.<ref>[http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/ Eubusiness.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309195531/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23 |date=2008-03-09 }}</ref> Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.<ref name="telegraph"/>

In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/05/witaly105.xml | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306140406/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/05/witaly105.xml | url-status=dead | archive-date=2008-03-06 | work=The Daily Telegraph | location=London | title=Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud | first=Malcolm | last=Moore | date=2008-03-05 | access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding [[Biology:Chlorophyll|chlorophyll]] to [[Chemistry:Sunflower oil|sunflower]] and soybean oil and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad. 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp |title=Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam |website= The Scotsman|access-date=2009-03-01 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109171716/http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp |archive-date=January 9, 2009 }}</ref>

In December 2008, the Guardia Civil in La Rioja (Spain) warned about the possible sale of adulterated olive oil in the area. This warning came after 550 litres of oil was found in a large container labelled "Astispumante 1510" in Rincón de Soto and after the theft of 1,750 litres of oil was reported in the area on December 18, 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olives101.com/2008/12/22/spain-adulterated-olive-oil-warning-in-la-roija/ |title=Spain: Adulterated olive oil warning in La Roija |access-date=19 March 2014|date=2008-12-22 }}</ref>

In the first week of March 2010, researchers at the [[Organization:University of California|University of California]] at Davis' Olive Center purchased three bottles each of 14 imported olive oils and five California oils at retail stores in three different regions of California (Sacramento County, San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles County). All of the oils were labeled "extra-virgin olive oil." Samples were shipped to the Australian Oils Research Laboratory in Wagga Wagga, and were analyzed by their laboratory (which is recognized by the IOC to provide chemical analysis of olive oil) and tested by their sensory panel (which is recognized by the IOC as qualified to perform olive oil sensory analysis). Duplicate testing was performed at the UC Davis olive oil research project laboratories. Sixty-nine percent of the imported olive oils and 10% of the California oils failed to meet the IOC/USDA taste standards for extra-virgin olive oil. Samples that failed had a median of up to 3.5 IOC-standardized sensory defects (such as rancid, fusty, and musty). The standard IOC/USDA chemical tests only identified 31% of the failed oils as defective, primarily by exceeding the IOC/USDA limit for ultraviolet absorbance of late oxidation products (K232 and K268); two more recently introduced German chemical tests (now incorporated into the Australian extra-virgin standard) were each more than twice as effective at detection of defective oils.<ref name=Frankel2010>{{cite web |author1=Frankel, E.N. |author2=Mailer, R.J. |author3=Wang, S.C. |author4=Shoemaker, C.F. |author5=Guinard, J.-X. |author6=Flynn, J.D. |author7=Sturzenberger, N.D. |title=Tests indicate that imported "extra virgin" olive oil often fails international and USDA standards |url=http://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/news-events/news/files/olive%20oil%20final%20071410%20.pdf |publisher=Robert Mondavi Institute for Wine and Food Science/Olive Center, University of California at Davis |access-date=22 October 2013 |date=July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012155310/http://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/news-events/news/files/olive%20oil%20final%20071410%20.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A subsequent round of testing in 2011 found similar results.<ref name=Frankel2011>{{cite journal |author1=Frankel, E.N. |author2=Mailer, R.J. |author3=Wang, S.C. |author4=Shoemaker, C.F. |author5=Guinard, J.-X. |author6=Flynn, J.D. |author7=Sturzenberger, N.D. |title=Evaluation of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Sold in California |date=April 2011 |url=http://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/files/report%20041211%20final%20reduced.pdf |publisher=University of California at DavisOlive Center at the Robert Mondavi Institute |access-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020092826/http://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/files/report%20041211%20final%20reduced.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The UC Davis report was contested by the North American Olive Oil Association on the grounds that UC Davis has a conflict of interest due to the fact that they market their own olive oil and have an interest in promoting olive oil from California. The IOC stated that the study contained "[an] evident undercurrent of aggressive, inexplicable criticism of imported olive oil quality".<ref>{{cite web|title=UC Davis Study of Imported Olive Oils Flawed By Across-the-Board Bias|url=http://naooa.org/page-913042/570547|website=North American Olive Oil Association|access-date=10 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711055929/http://naooa.org/page-913042/570547|archive-date=11 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In March 2011, the Florence, Italy, prosecutor’s office, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo) and Pietro Coricelli. The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents".<ref>[http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/details-expected-thursday-investigations-deodorized-olive-oils/14291 “Investigations Into Deodorized Olive Oils”] ''Olive Oil Times''. 2011-03-29.</ref> However, in June 2017 the Italian Antitrust Authority (Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato), found them guilty of unfair business practices regarding their olive oil brands and imposed fines on them and the discount supermarket chain Lidl, amounting to nearly €1 million.

In 2012, ''The Advertiser'' wrote that while only less than 10% of world olive oil production met the criteria for labeling as extra-virgin, it had been estimated that up to 50% of retail oil is labeled "extra-virgin".<ref name=Bogle>Deborah Bogle. [http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/oils-ant-oils/story-e6frea83-1226351980512 “Oils ain't oils in the olive grove”]. ''The Advertiser'' May 12, 2012, pp. 11–14.</ref> Tests by the Australian Olive Association (AOA) in 2012 showed that every imported brand of extra-virgin olive oil fell below the standard that would be required for AOA certification. The AOA has been campaigning to have the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission force supermarkets to adhere to the code. Standards Australia has adopted a code of practice for the testing of olive oils; however, while allowing oils to be certified as being genuine extra-virgin, the code regarding labeling is voluntary.<ref name=Bogle />
 
In 2013, "Figures released at the [IOC's] Workshop on Olive Oil Authentication, held in Madrid June 10–11, showed that one in four olive oils sampled in Spain, and nearly one in three in Canada, failed recent official fraud tests."<ref name=Butler2013>{{cite journal|last=Butler|first=Julie|title=Scientists Pool Expertise in Fight Against Fake Olive Oils|url=http://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/madrid-meeting-olive-oil-authentication|journal=Olive Oil Times|access-date=22 October 2013|date=October 4, 2013}}</ref>

In June 2017, the ''Olive Oil Times'' published, that according to independent testing, oil from the brands Bertolli, Carapelli, Coricelli, Primadonna, and Sasso labelled as "extra virgin" was in fact only "virgin".<ref>[https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-business/europe/italian-antitrust-authority-fines-lidl-deoleo-coricelli/51896] ''Olive Oil Times''. 2017-06-23.</ref>

In December 2023, it was reported that the Spanish Civil Guard and the Italian Carabinieri had arrested 11 people, who adulterated more than 260,000 liters, or roughly 68,000 gallons, of olive oil with lampante oil in Tuscany, Sicily and Ciudad Real in November<ref name="st">{{Cite news |date=2023-12-04 |title=Police in Spain and Italy Seize 68,000 Gallons of Adulterated Olive Oil |language=en-US |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/police-in-spain-and-italy-seize-68000-gallons-of-adulterated-olive-oil/ |access-date=2023-12-05}}</ref>

==See also==
* ''Extra Virginity: The Sublime and Scandalous World of Olive Oil''  Tom Mueller's book on olive oil

== References ==
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Adulteration]]

{{Sourceattribution|Olive oil regulation and adulteration}}