Biology:Abortive flower
Abortion in flowers and developing fruits is a common occurrence in plants.[1]
An abortive flower[2] is a flower that has a stamen but an under developed, or no pistil.[3] It falls without producing fruit or seeds, due to its inability to fructify. Flowers require both male and female organs to reproduce, and the pistils and ovary serve as female organs, while the stamens are considered male organs. Illustrative examples include Urginea nagarjunae and Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae.
Studies have shown that hermaphrodites or bisexual flowers have higher rates of fruit abortions than unisexual flowers.[4][5]
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Causes of fruit & flower abortion
Pollinated flowers and fruits can abort selectively. It could be because of the order of pollination, the number of developing seeds, pollen source, or some combination of these.[6] Flowers and fruits can also abort because of outside causes like insufficient light, unsuitable photo-period, high temperature, nutrient deficiency, ethylene, drought stress.[7]
Evidently, the abortion of fruits and flowers can also increase the fitness of a plant.[8]
There is research to suggest that random selective abortions based on the timing of fertilization could increase the genetic quality of seeds.[9] The age of the flower also has an effect on the percentage of abortion. The older the flower, the more likely it is to be aborting the fruit or pollen.[10]
Plants have also been found to selectively abort seeds and fruit as a means of defense against herbivorous insects.[8][11]
References
- ↑ Bawa, K. S.; Webb, C. J. (1984). "Flower, Fruit and Seed Abortion in Tropical Forest Trees: Implications for the Evolution of Paternal and Maternal Reproductive Patterns". American Journal of Botany 71 (5): 736–751. doi:10.2307/2443371. ISSN 0002-9122. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2443371.
- ↑ Smith, Arma A. (1896). "Abortive Flower Buds of Trillium". Botanical Gazette 22 (5): 402–403. doi:10.1086/327429. ISSN 0006-8071. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/222680.
- ↑ "Websters Dictionary 1828 - Webster's Dictionary 1828 - abortive" (in en-US). http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/abortive.
- ↑ Burd, Martin (1998). ""Excess" Flower Production and Selective Fruit Abortion: A Model of Potential Benefits". Ecology 79 (6): 2123–2132. doi:10.2307/176715. ISSN 0012-9658. https://www.jstor.org/stable/176715.
- ↑ Sutherland, Steve (1987). "Why Hermaphroditic Plants Produce Many More Flowers Than Fruits: Experimental Tests with Agave mckelveyana". Evolution 41 (4): 750–759. doi:10.2307/2408885. ISSN 0014-3820. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2408885.
- ↑ Stephenson, A G (1981). "Flower and Fruit Abortion: Proximate Causes and Ultimate Functions" (in en). Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 12 (1): 253–279. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.001345. ISSN 0066-4162.
- ↑ "Causes of Flower Bud Abortion - Greenhouse Product News" (in en-US). Greenhouse Product News. https://gpnmag.com/article/causes-of-flower-bud-abortion/.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Meyer, Katrin M.; Soldaat, Leo L.; Auge, Harald; Thulke, Hans-Hermann (March 2014). "Adaptive and Selective Seed Abortion Reveals Complex Conditional Decision Making in Plants". The American Naturalist 183 (3): 376–383. doi:10.1086/675063. ISSN 0003-0147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/675063.
- ↑ Ezoe, Hideo (2018-06-09). "Excessive flower production as an anti-predator strategy: when is random flower abortion favored?" (in en). Population Ecology 60 (3): 275–286. doi:10.1007/s10144-018-0625-6. ISSN 1438-3896.
- ↑ Ferguson, Nesta (1924). "On The Determination of the Percentage of Abortive Pollen in Plants". Journal of Experimental Biology 2: 65–73. doi:10.1242/jeb.2.1.65. http://jeb.biologists.org/content/2/1/65.
- ↑ Burkhardt, Anne; Delph, Lynda F.; Bernasconi, Giorgina (2009). "Benefits and Costs to Pollinating, Seed-Eating Insects: The Effect of Flower Size and Fruit Abortion on Larval Performance". Oecologia 161 (1): 87–98. ISSN 0029-8549. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40310117.
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