Chemistry:Single-entity electrochemistry
Single-Entity Electrochemistry (SEE) refers to the electroanalysis of an individual unit of interest. A unique feature of SEE is that it unifies multiple different branches of electrochemistry. Single-Entity Electrochemistry pushes the bounds of the field as it can measure entities on a scale of 100 microns to angstroms.[1] Single-Entity Electrochemistry is important because it gives the ability to view how a single molecule, or cell, or "thing" affects the bulk response, and thus the chemistry that might have gone unknown otherwise. The ability to monitor the movement of one electron or ion from one unit to another is valuable, as many vital reactions and mechanisms undergo this process. Electrochemistry is well suited for this measurement due to its incredible sensitivity.[1] Single-Entity Electrochemistry can be used to investigate nanoparticles, wires, vesicles, nanobubbles, nanotubes, cells, and viruses, and other small molecules and ions.[2] Single-entity electrochemistry has been successfully used to determine the size distribution of particles as well as the number of particles present inside a vesicle or other similar structures[3]
Early history
Coulter Counter
The Coulter Counter was created by Wallace H. Coulter in 1949. The Coulter counter consists of two electrolyte reservoirs that are connected by a small channel, through which a current of ions flow. Each particle drawn through the channel causes a brief change to the electrical resistance of the liquid. The change in the electrical resistance causes a disturbance in the electric field. The counter detects these changes in electrical resistance; the size of the particles in the field is proportional to magnitude of the disturbance in the electric field.[4]
Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology
Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology was developed by Neher and Sakmann in 1976. This technique allowed measurements of individual proteins through ion channels. A glass pipette was fixed to the cell membrane, and the ion currents though the ion channels were measured.[1] The Patch-Clamp method increased the sensitivity of detection by three orders of magnitude over previous methods, and the time resolution for the measurements was decreased to nearly 10 microseconds.[5] The success of this method was a result of the ability to create a high resistance seal between the glass micropipette and the cell membrane; isolating the system chemically and electrically.
Single-Cell Electrochemistry
While it is useful to study bulk cell entities, there is an underlying need to study an individual or single cell as it will provide a better understanding of how it contributes to the entity as a whole. It was found that the utilization of electrochemical techniques could analyze cells without interrupting cellular activity as well as provide a highly resolute spectrum.[6] This analysis method was first completed by Wightman in 1982. In this method of analysis, a carbon microfiber electrode is placed near the studied cell; this electrode can monitor the call via methods of voltammetry or amperometry. Before the measure can be taken, the cell must be stimulated by an ejection pipette to cause a cellular release. This can be cellular release can be measured via the aforementioned methods. From this method, it was seen that instrumental advances were needed in order to perform quality SEE measurements.[1]
Single-Molecule Redox Cycling
Single-Molecule electrochemistry is an electrochemical technique used to study the faradaic response of redox molecules in electrochemical environments. The ability to study singular molecules gives rise to the potential of developing ultra-sensitive sensors which are necessary in SEE. From the work of Bard and Fan, this technique has had large advances with the use of redox cycling.[7] Redox cycling amplifies a charge transfer by reducing and oxidizing a molecule multiple times as it diffuses between electrodes.[7] Specifically in this technique, an insulated nano-electrode tip is placed near a substrate electrode to form an ultra-small electrochemical chamber. Molecules will become trapped in this chamber where the redox cycling and charge amplification will occur, allowing for detection of single molecules. From this technique, the necessary tool of charge amplification of redox reactions helped improve SEE measurements. It has helped increase detection limits, which need to be high for SEE.[1]
Applications
Single-Cell Electrochemistry
With the advance of nanoscale electrodes, the resolution of SEE has advanced from being able to detect single cells to detecting single molecules within cells.[8] Nanoscale electrodes are small enough they can be inserted into the synapses between neurons, which can be used to detect neurotransmitter concentrations.[9] If the electrode is thin enough, it can be inserted directly into a cell and used to detect concentrations of intracellular molecules, such as metabolites or even DNA.[10]
Optoelectrochemical Imaging
Plasmonic nanoparticles can be individually analyzed through optoelectrochemical imaging (in which electrochemical processes are measured by optical means). When electrochemistry is performed on a nanoparticle, the refractive index of its environment will change resulting in a shift of the localized surface plasmon resonance. The spectral difference can be measured through characterization techniques such as darkfield microscopy to monitor electrochemical reactions at the surface of plasmonic nanoparticles.[11]
Plasmonics-based electrochemical current microscopy (PECM) measures the contrast that appears from the interference of localized surface plasmon scattered light and reflected light that, like above, is sensitive to changes in the refractive index. This can be used to quantify the electrocatalytic reactions occurring at Pt nanoparticles. Since nanoparticles are inherently heterogenous (which affects catalytic activity), SEE methods can provide more information than traditional methods that measure the average of an ensemble of nanoparticles.[12]
Single Enzyme Electron Transferring
At present, single entity electrochemistry is not sensitive enough to quantify the turnover of a single enzyme.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Baker, Lane (2018). "Perspective and Prospectus on Single-Entity Electrochemistry". Journal of the American Chemical Society (pubs.acs.org/) 140 (46): 15549–15559. doi:10.1021/jacs.8b09747. PMID 30388887.
- ↑ Baker, Lane; Long, Yi-Tao; Unwin, Patrick (2018). "Single‐Entity Electrochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications". ChemElectroChem (wiley.com) 5 (20): 2918–2919. doi:10.1002/celc.201801169.
- ↑ Sabaragamuwe, Shashika; Conti, Dylan; Puri, Surendra; Andreu, Irene; Kim, Jiyeon (2019). "Single-Entity Electrochemistry of Nanoemulsion: The Nanostructural Effect on Its Electrochemical Behavior". Analytical Chemistry (pubs.acs.org/) 91 (15): 9599–9607. doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00920. PMID 31260275.
- ↑ "Apparatus and method for measuring a dividing particle size of a particulate system". https://patents.google.com/patent/US3557352A/en. Retrieved December 12, 2019.
- ↑ Auerbach, Anthony; Sachs, Frederick (1984). "Patch Clamp Studies of Single Ionic Channels". Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering (Ann. Rev. Biophys. Bioeng.) 13: 269–302. doi:10.1146/annurev.bb.13.060184.001413. PMID 6331285.
- ↑ Zhang, Jingjing; Zhou, Junyu; Pan, Rongrong; Jiang, Dechen; Burgess, James D.; Chen, Hong-Yuan (2018-01-10). "New Frontiers and Challenges for Single-Cell Electrochemical Analysis". ACS Sensors 3 (2): 242–250. doi:10.1021/acssensors.7b00711. ISSN 2379-3694. PMID 29276834.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Fan, Yunshan; Anderson, Todd J.; Zhang, Bo (2018-01-01). "Single-molecule electrochemistry: From redox cycling to single redox events". Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 7: 81–86. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2017.11.002. ISSN 2451-9103.
- ↑ Chen, R.; Hu, K. K.; Yu, Y.; Mirkin, M. V.; Amemiya, S. Focused-Ion-Beam-Milled Carbon Nanoelectrodes for Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, H3032−H3037
- ↑ Li, Y. T.; Zhang, S. H.; Wang, L.; Xiao, R. R.; Liu, W.; Zhang, X. W.; Zhou, Z.; Amatore, C.; Huang, W. H. Nanoelectrode for Amperometric Monitoring of Individual Vesicular Exocytosis Inside Single Synapses. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 12456−12460.
- ↑ Ying, Y. L.; Hu, Y. X.; Gao, R.; Yu, R. J.; Gu, Z.; Lee, L. P.; Long, Y. T. Asymmetric Nanopore Electrode-Based Amplification for Electron Transfer Imaging in Live Cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 5385−5392.
- ↑ Jing, Chao; Reichert, Joachim (2017-12-01). "Nanoscale electrochemistry in the "dark-field"". Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 6 (1): 10–16. doi:10.1016/j.coelec.2017.06.008. ISSN 2451-9103.
- ↑ Fang, Yimin; Wang, Hui; Yu, Hui; Liu, Xianwei; Wang, Wei; Chen, Hong-Yuan; Tao, N. J. (2016-09-23). "Plasmonic Imaging of Electrochemical Reactions of Single Nanoparticles". Accounts of Chemical Research 49 (11): 2614–2624. doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00348. ISSN 0001-4842. PMID 27662069.
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