Cyberpsychology

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Short description: Field of research

Cyberpsychology (also known as Internet psychology, web psychology, or digital psychology) is a developing field that encompasses all psychological phenomena associated with or affected by emerging technology.

Overview

Cyberpsychology is the study of the human mind and behavior and how the culture of technology, specifically, virtual reality, the internet, and social media, affect them.[1][2] Mainstream research studies focus on the effect of the Internet and cyberspace on the psychology of individuals and groups. Some hot topics include: online identity, online relationships, personality types in cyberspace, transference to computers, addiction to computers and Internet, regressive behavior in cyberspace, online gender-switching, etc. While much research in this field is based around Internet usage, cyberpsychology also includes the study of the psychological ramifications of cyborgs, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality. Cybersecurity is within cyberpsychology because it impacts the way that people live on a daily basis.[3][4]

Media Psychology is an emerging specialty and the Society for Media Psychology and Technology of the American Psychological Association, i.e., APA division 46 includes many cyber-psychologists among its members.[5]

It was around the turn of the millennium that the United States broke the 50 percent mark in Internet use, personal computer use, and cell phone use.[6] The relevance of human–computer interaction (HCI) research within the field of cyberpsychology may become more visible and necessary in understanding the current modern lifestyles of many people.

Social media and cyberpsychological behavior

Social media use is rapidly growing. What is its impact? That is what cyberpsychology seeks to find out.

Facebook, the leading online social media platform globally,[7] affects users' psychological status in multiple ways. Facebook follows the one-to-many communication pattern, allowing users to share information about their lives, including social activities and photographs.[8] This feature was enhanced in 2012, when Facebook Messenger was implemented to allow users more one-on-one communication merging with the Facebook Chat feature.[9] While Facebook users enjoy the sense of being connected,[10] frequent use of Facebook is threatening users' mental health.

Comparison and low self-esteem

Social media can be deceptive when the user sees only the joyous or entertaining experiences in a friend's life and compares them to their own lesser experiences.[11] Underestimating peers negative experiences correlates with greater loneliness and lower overall life satisfaction.[12] Inviting constant comparisons inevitably lowers self-esteem and feelings of self-worth; hence, Facebook and other social media accounts appear to exploit a vulnerability in human nature.[13]

Depression

Decreased self-esteem can increase depression.[citation needed] Facebook specifically is criticized[by whom?] for causing depression, especially among teenage users.[14] A study concluded that frequent Facebook use invoked feelings of depression and inadequacy. Social psychologist Ethan Kross, the lead author of the study, stated that the research tracked (on a moment-to-moment basis throughout the day) how a person's mood fluctuated during time spent on Facebook and whether or not they modified their Facebook usage.[15] Results suggest that as participants spent more time on Facebook, their feelings of well-being decreased and feelings of depression increased.[16] Another study found that participants in the highest quartile for social media site visits per week were at an increased likelihood of experiencing depression.[17]

Social isolation and ostracism

Excessive social media usage increases feelings of social isolation, as virtual relationships replace authentic social interactions.[17][18] Additionally, one study found that social rejection or ostracism in an immersive virtual environment has a negative impact on affect (emotion), in the same way, that ostracism negatively impacts emotions in real life contexts.[19]

The size of an individual's online social network is closely linked to brain structure associated with social cognition.[20] Because of the access people have had to internet technologies, some behaviors can be characterized as information foraging. Information foraging is the theory of how people navigate the web to satisfy an informational need. It essentially says that, when users have a certain information goal, they assess the information that they can extract from any candidate source of information relative to the cost involved in extracting that information and choose one or several candidate sources so that they maximize the ratio. [21] From a social standpoint, the internet is a breeding ground for creating a space for relationships, roles, and a new sense of self.[22]

Negative relationships

One survey found that a high level of Facebook usage is associated with adverse relationship outcomes (such as divorce and breaking up) and that these negative outcomes are mediated by conflict about high levels of Facebook use.[23] However, this was only true for those who are or have been, in relatively newer relationships of three years or less.

To cope with the uncertainty of a suspected romantic relationship, partner surveillance on Facebook is becoming more popular.[24] However, skepticism between couples may inevitably cause the end of a relationship.

It is important to note that these findings do not demonstrate causality: relationship maintenance behaviors, such as surveillance and monitoring, are indicators of current levels of trust within the relationship.[25] This suggests that certain behaviors on social media may be predicting negative outcomes, rather than causing them. When it comes to technology lot of people do not know when something has gone wrong until it goes wrong.[4] Further, Facebook can be a tool in strengthening and reaffirming a relationship, as it allows for positive expressions of trust, affection, and commitment.[25]

Fear of missing out (FOMO)

Main page: Social:Fear of missing out

A byproduct of social media use can be the "fear of missing out", or FOMO.[26] This fear develops from a user's repetitive and obsessive status-checking of "friend" status updates and posts related to social events or celebrations resulting in a feeling of being "left out" if these events are not experienced. There is also the closely related fear of being missed (FOBM), or the fear of invisibility.[27] This fear involves an obsessive need to provide constant status updates on one's own personal, day-to-day life, movements, travel, events, etc. unable to "un-plug". Evidence suggests this type of anxiety is a mediating factor in increased social media use and decreased self-esteem.[28]

Sleep deprivation

Social media at use can lead to lower quality sleep.[29]

A study commissioned by Travelodge hotels[30] concluded that Britain has become a nation of 'Online-A-Holics'. On average, Britons spend 16 minutes in bed socially networking with pals each night – the peak chatting time being 9:45 pm. This time spent social networking may be affecting Britons' sleep quota as, on average, respondents reported they are getting just six hours and 21 minutes of sleep per night.[clarification needed] 65% of respondents stated the last thing they do before nodding off at night is check their mobile phone for text messages. On average, Britons will spend around nine minutes every night texting before falling asleep,[clarification needed] and four out of ten adults reported they have a regular text communication with friends in bed every night.[31]

Addictive behavior

Studies have shown a connection between online social media, such as Facebook use, to addictive behaviors, emotion regulation, impulse control, and substance abuse.[32] This may be because people are learning to access and process information more rapidly and to shift attention quickly from one task to the next. All this access and vast selection is causing some entertainment seekers to develop the constant need for instant gratification with a loss of patience.[33][better source needed] Results from a survey of university undergraduates showed that almost 10% met criteria for what investigators describe as "disordered social networking use".[34] Respondents who met criteria for "Facebook addiction" also reported statistically significant symptoms similar to the symptoms of addiction, such as tolerance (increased Facebook use over time), withdrawal (irritability when unable to access Facebook), and cravings to access the site. "Our findings suggest that there may be shared mechanisms underlying both substance and behavioral addictions," Hormes added.[35]

The prevalence of internet addiction varies considerably between countries and is inversely related to the quality of life.[36] Many countries in Asia (particularly China, South Korea, and Japan) have raised public concern over the recent rise in internet addictions.[37]

Eating disorders

One study found that the more time teenage girls spend on Facebook, the higher their risk of developing negative body images and eating disorders.[citation needed] Other studies have also found a correlation between social media use and disordered eating.[38][39][40]

In women college students, social media use predicts disordered-eating symptomatology and other related variables (such as the drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction).[40] For men, media use predicted endorsement of personal thinness and dieting.[40]

Social media and ADHD

An emerging body of research suggests that internet addiction and unhealthy social media activity may be more prevalent in ADHD individuals.[41] Male college students are more likely than women college students to be screened positively for adult ADHD; however, the overall association between Internet addiction and attention deficit is more significant in females.[42]

Clinical psychologist Michelle Frank stated, "The ADHD brain is already one that struggles with motivation, activation, organizing behaviors, managing time, and maintaining focus...Technology, left un-managed, makes these struggles considerably more difficult. The unique challenges that result are prime vulnerabilities to the common pitfalls of technology use."[41]

Although many factors contribute to ADHD (including genes, teratogens, parenting styles, etc.), a sedentary lifestyle centered on television, computer games, and mobile devices may increase the risk for ADHD. In the view of Dr. Robert Melillo, founder of the Brain Balance Program, "When kids play computer games, their minds are processing information in a much different way than kids who are, say, running around on a playground... Recent studies have shown that playing computer games only builds very short-term attention that needs to be rewarded frequently."[43][clarification needed]

Positive correlates of social media use

Several positive psychological outcomes are related to Facebook use. People can derive a sense of social connectedness and belongingness in the online environment.[10][44] Importantly, this online social connectedness was associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety, and greater levels of subjective well-being.

Messaging can also be used to express trust, affection, and commitment, thus strengthening personal relationships.[25]

Social media and memes

Internet users sometimes relate to one another through seemingly ridiculous images and text: specifically, internet memes. Creating and using internet memes can help people to interact successfully with other people online and to build a shared experience.[45][46] While internet memes can appear to be simple pop culture references, they can also allow a glimpse into the formation of culture and language.[45]

Psychotherapy in cyberspace

Psychotherapy in cyberspace, also known as cybertherapy or e-therapy, is a controversial matter with a history of doubts related to efficiency, validity and effectiveness.[47][page needed] The first instance of this practice did not include interaction with a human, but rather a program called ELIZA, which was designed by Joseph Weizenbaum to answer questions and concerns with basic Rogerian responses.[48] ELIZA proved to be so effective that many people either mistook the program for human, or became emotionally attached to it.[49]

In today's most common computer-mediated form of counseling,[citation needed] a person e-mails or chats online with a therapist (online counseling). E-therapy may be particularly effective when conducted via video conferencing,[citation needed] as important cues such as facial expression and body language may be conveyed. At the same time, there are new applications of technology within psychology and healthcare which utilize augmented and virtual reality components—for example in pain management treatment, PTSD treatment, use of avatars in virtual environments, and self- and clinician-guided computerized cognitive behavior therapies.[50] The voluminous work of Azy Barak[51] (University of Haifa) and a growing number of researchers in the US and UK gives strong evidence to the efficacy (and sometimes superiority) of Internet-facilitated, computer-assisted treatments relative to 'traditional' in-office-only approaches. The UK's National Health Service now recognizes CCBT (computerized cognitive behavioral therapy) as the preferred method of treatment for mild-to-moderate presentations of anxiety and depression.[52] Applications in psychology and medicine also include such innovations as the "Virtual Patient" and other virtual/augmented reality programs which can provide trainees with simulated intake sessions while also providing a means for supplementing clinical supervision.

Many controversies related to e-therapy have arisen in the context of ethical guidelines and considerations.[53]

In popular culture

  • Lisa Kudrow's Web-based situation comedy Web Therapy, in which Kudrow's unaccredited and unscrupulous character Fiona Wallice conducts therapy sessions using iChat, explores many of the ethical and practical issues raised by the prospect of psychotherapy conducted via Internet video chat.[54]
  • Patricia Arquette recurs as FBI Special Agent in Charge Avery Ryan, a cyberpsychologist, in CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. She also headlines the spinoff series CSI: Cyber in the same role.[55]
  • Forensic anthropologist Dr. Temperance Brennan and Special Agent Seeley Booth in Fox Network's hit television series, Bones, practice cyberpsychology by collecting information from suspects' social media accounts to analyze personality, communications, and possible motives to help apprehend the criminal.[56]
  • Sketch comedy group Studio C pokes fun at different online personalities created by social media and how social media posting impacts dating relationships in sketches entitled "Facebook Friends Song" and "Don't Change Your Facebook Status".[57]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Blascovich, Jim; Bailenson, Jeremy. Infinite reality: avatars, eternal life, new worlds, and the dawn of the virtual revolution (1st ed.). New York: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0061809507. 
  2. ↑ Emond, Bruno; West, Robert L. (2003-10-01). "Cyberpsychology: A Human-Interaction Perspective Based on Cognitive Modeling". CyberPsychology & Behavior 6 (5): 527–536. doi:10.1089/109493103769710550. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 14583128. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/109493103769710550. 
  3. ↑ Debb, Scott M. (2021-09-01). "Keeping the Human in the Loop: Awareness and Recognition of Cybersecurity Within Cyberpsychology" (in en). Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 24 (9): 581–583. doi:10.1089/cyber.2021.29225.sde. ISSN 2152-2715. PMID 34534015. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/cyber.2021.29225.sde. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Debb, Scott M. (2021-09-01). "Keeping the Human in the Loop: Awareness and Recognition of Cybersecurity Within Cyberpsychology". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 24 (9): 581–583. doi:10.1089/cyber.2021.29225.sde. ISSN 2152-2715. PMID 34534015. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/cyber.2021.29225.sde. 
  5. ↑ "Society For Media Technology & Psychology". 2017. http://www.apadivisions.org/division-46/index.aspx?_ga=2.104574144.1503209566.1512589570-1547225490.1506141417. 
  6. ↑ Norman, Kent L. (2017). Cyberpsychology: An Introduction to Human-Computer Interaction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9. ISBN 978-1-107-10254-5. 
  7. ↑ "Global social media ranking 2017 | Statistic" (in en). https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/. 
  8. ↑ Pempek; Yermolayeva; Calvert (2009). "College students' social networking experiences on Facebook". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30:2 (2009): 227–238. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.010. 
  9. ↑ Burns, Kelli S. (2017). Social Media: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 18. ISBN 978-1-4408-4355-6. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Grieve (2013). "Face-to-Face or Facebook? Can social connectedness be derived online?". Computers in Human Behavior 29 (3): 604–6099. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.017. 
  11. ↑ Alexander H. Jordan, Benoît Monin, Carol S. Dweck, Benjamin J. Lovett, Oliver P. John, and James J. Gross (2011). "Misery Has More Company Than People Think: Underestimating the Prevalence of Others' Negative Emotions". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (1): 120–135. doi:10.1177/0146167210390822. PMID 21177878. PMC 4138214. http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~ajordan/papers/Jordan%20et%20al.%20(2011)%20-%20Misery%20Has%20More%20Company.pdf. 
  12. ↑ Jordan, Alexander H.; Monin, Benoît; Dweck, Carol S.; Lovett, Benjamin J.; John, Oliver P.; Gross, James J. (2010). "Misery Has More Company Than People Think: Underestimating the Prevalence of Others' Negative Emotions" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (1): 120–135. doi:10.1177/0146167210390822. PMID 21177878. 
  13. ↑ Copeland, Libby (26 January 2011). "The Anti-Social Network". http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2011/01/the_antisocial_network.html. 
  14. ↑ "Facebook Calls Links To Depression Inconclusive. These Researchers Disagree" (in en). NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/2021/05/18/990234501/facebook-calls-links-to-depression-inconclusive-these-researchers-disagree. 
  15. ↑ Westerholm, Russell (16 August 2013). "Facebook Use Bad For Self-Esteem No Matter Why You Log On". http://www.universityherald.com/articles/4230/20130816/facebook-use-bad-self-esteem-matter-why-log.htm. 
  16. ↑ Savastio, Rebecca (15 August 2013). "Facebook Cause Depression New Study Says". http://guardianlv.com/2013/08/facebook-causes-depression-new-study-says/#PzRdcP38KPwjLoxo.9. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Liu yi Lin, Jaime E. Sidani, Ariel Shensa, Ana Radovic, Elizabeth Miller (2016). "Association Between Social Media Use and Depression Among U.S. Young Adults". Depression and Anxiety 33 (4): 323–331. doi:10.1002/da.22466. PMID 26783723. 
  18. ↑ Molloy, Mark (2017-03-06). "Too much social media 'increases loneliness and envy' - study" (in en-GB). The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2017/03/06/much-social-media-increases-loneliness-envy-study/. 
  19. ↑ Matthew P. Kassner, M.S.; Eric D. Wesselmann, Ph.D.; Alvin Ty Law, M.S.; Kipling D. Williams, Ph.D. (2012). "Virtually Ostracized: Studying Ostracism in Immersive Virtual Environments". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 15 (8): 399–403. doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0113. PMID 22897472. 
  20. ↑ Kanai, R.; Bahrami, B.; Roylance, R.; Rees, G. (2011-10-19). "Online social network size is reflected in human brain structure" (in en). Proc. R. Soc. B 279 (1732): 1327–1334. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1959. ISSN 0962-8452. PMID 22012980. 
  21. ↑ Budiu, Raluca. "EInformation Foraging: A Theory of How People Navigate on the Web". https://www.nngroup.com/articles/information-foraging/. 
  22. ↑ Emond, Bruno; West, Robert L. (October 2003). "Cyberpsychology: A Human-Interaction Perspective Based on Cognitive Modeling" (in en). CyberPsychology & Behavior 6 (5): 527–536. doi:10.1089/109493103769710550. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 14583128. http://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/109493103769710550. 
  23. ↑ Clayton; Nagurney; Smith (2013). "Cheating, breakup, and divorce: Is Facebook use to blame?.". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 16 (10): 717–720. doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0424. PMID 23745615. 
  24. ↑ Marshall, Tara C.; Bejanyan, Kathrine; Di Castro, Gaia; Lee, Ruth A. (2013-03-01). "Attachment styles as predictors of Facebook-related jealousy and surveillance in romantic relationships" (in en). Personal Relationships 20 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01393.x. ISSN 1475-6811. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/6476. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Stewart, Margaret C.; Dainton, Marianne; Goodboy, Alan K. (2014-01-01). "Maintaining Relationships on Facebook: Associations with Uncertainty, Jealousy, and Satisfaction". Communication Reports 27 (1): 13–26. doi:10.1080/08934215.2013.845675. ISSN 0893-4215. 
  26. ↑ Rosen, Larry Ph.D.. "Always On, All the Time: Are We Suffering From FoMO?". Rewired: The Psychology of Technology. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/rewired-the-psychology-technology/201305/always-all-the-time-are-we-suffering-fomo. 
  27. ↑ Davis, Jenny. "From 'hyper' to 'in': on visibility". Cyborgology. http://thesocietypages.org/cyborgology/2012/12/05/from-hyper-to-in-on-visibility/. 
  28. ↑ Buglass, Sarah L.; Binder, Jens F.; Betts, Lucy R.; Underwood, Jean D.M. (January 2017). "Motivators of Online Vulnerability: The Impact of Social Network Site Use and FOMO". Computers in Human Behavior 66: 248–255. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.055. https://search.lib.virginia.edu/articles/article?id=edselp:S0747563216306902. 
  29. ↑ Garett; Liu; Young (2018). "The Relationship Between Social Media Use and Sleep Quality among Undergraduate Students". Information, Communication & Society 21 (2): 163–173. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2016.1266374. PMID 29628784. 
  30. ↑ "Bedtime Social Networking Causes Sleep Deprivation Epidemic Across Britain". 6 December 2010. http://www.travelodge.co.uk/press_releases/press_release.php?id=408. 
  31. ↑ "Addiction to Social Networking Leads to Sleep Deprivation". 18 February 2012. http://www.news-medical.net/news/20120218/Addiction-to-social-networking-leads-to-sleep-deprivation.aspx. 
  32. ↑ Hormes, Julia M.; Kearns, Brianna; Timko, C. Alix (2014-11-10). "Craving Facebook? Behavioral addiction to online social networking and its association with emotion regulation deficits". Addiction 109 (12): 2079–2088. doi:10.1111/add.12713. ISSN 0965-2140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.12713. 
  33. ↑ Jaclyn Cabral (2011). "Is Generation Y Addicted to Social Media?". The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 2 (1). http://www.elon.edu/docs/e-web/academics/communications/research/vol2no1/01Cabral.pdf. Retrieved 2015-02-08. 
  34. ↑ Hackethal, Veronica MD. (December 16, 2014). "Social Media Potentially Addictive, Linked to Substance Abuse". http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/836660. 
  35. ↑ Julia M. Hormes; Brianna Kearns; C. Alix Timko (2014). "Craving Facebook? Behavioral addiction to online social networking and its association with emotion regulation deficits". Addiction 109 (12): 2079–2088. doi:10.1111/add.12713. PMID 25170590. 
  36. ↑ Cheng Cecilia and Li Angel Yee-lam. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. December 2014, 17(12): 755–760. http://dx.doi:10[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}].1089/cyber.2014.0317.
  37. ↑ Block, Jerald J. (March 2008). "Issues for DSM-V: Internet Addiction". American Journal of Psychiatry 165 (3): 306–307. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556. ISSN 0002-953X. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556. 
  38. ↑ Elish, Jill (March 6, 2014). "Hungry for 'likes': Facebook use linked to eating disorder risk". Florida State University. http://fsu.edu/indexTOFStory.html?lead.facebook_study. 
  39. ↑ Rojas, Marcela (June 1, 2014). "Social Media Helps Fuel Some Eating Disorders". The (Westchester County, N.Y.) Journal News. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/06/01/social-media-helps-fuel-eating-disorders/9817513/. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 K Harrison; J Cantor (February 7, 2006). "The Relationship Between Media Consumption and Eating Disorders". Journal of Communication 47 (1): 40–67. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1997.tb02692.x. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Crowell, Grant. "Social Media and ADHD: Turning Distractions into Directions". http://www.add.org/?page=Social_Media_n_ADHD. 
  42. ↑ Yen, Ju-Yu (2009). "The Association Between Adult ADHD Symptoms and Internet Addiction Among College Students". CyberPsychology & Behavior 12 (2): 187–191. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0113. PMID 19072077. 
  43. ↑ Melillo, Dr. Robert (2015). Disconnected Kids. United States: Perigee. pp. 60–80. ISBN 978-0-399-53475-1. 
  44. ↑ Thumbs up: Facebook might actually be good for you
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Shifman, Limor (2014). Memes in digital culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 978-0262525435. OCLC 860711989. 
  46. ↑ Julien, Chris (2014). "Bourdieu, Social Capital and Online Interaction" (in en). Sociology 49 (2): 356–373. doi:10.1177/0038038514535862. https://zenodo.org/record/894539. 
  47. ↑ Ciccarelli, Saundra K.; White, J. Noland (2010-12-31). Psychology. ISBN 9780205832576. https://archive.org/details/psychology03edcicc. 
  48. ↑ Duggan, Geoffrey B. (2016-07-02). "Applying psychology to understand relationships with technology: from ELIZA to interactive healthcare". Behaviour & Information Technology 35 (7): 536–547. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2016.1141320. ISSN 0144-929X. 
  49. ↑ Suler, John R. (2000-04-01). "Psychotherapy in Cyberspace: A 5-Dimensional Model of Online and Computer-Mediated Psychotherapy". CyberPsychology & Behavior 3 (2): 151–159. doi:10.1089/109493100315996. ISSN 1094-9313. 
  50. ↑ See Technology and Psychology 2011
  51. ↑ Barak, A., & Suler, J. (2008). Reflections on the psychology and social science of cyberspace. In A. Barak & J. Suler (Eds.), Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 1–12). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN:9780521873017
  52. ↑ See August 2011 presentation by Kate Cavanaugh, author of "Hands on Help"
  53. ↑ John Suler's The Psychology of Cyberspace -Psychotherapy in Cyberspace
  54. ↑ "Web Therapy - Plasma Pool". plasmapool.org. http://plasmapool.org/2010/12/07/web-therapy/. 
  55. ↑ CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Laurence Fishburne, Marg Helgenberger, George Eads, https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0247082/, retrieved 2017-12-06 
  56. ↑ Bones, Emily Deschanel, David Boreanaz, Michaela Conlin, https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0460627/, retrieved 2017-12-06 
  57. ↑ "Studio C - BYUtv" (in en-US). https://www.byutv.org/studioc. 

Bibliography

  • The Psychology of Cyberspace by John Suler - July 2005
  • Gordo-López, J. & Parker, I. (1999). Cyberpsychology. New York: Routledge. ISBN:9780415924979
  • Wallace, P. M. (1998). The Psychology of the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN:9780521797092
  • Whittle, D. B. (1997). Cyberspace: The human dimension. New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN:978-0716783114

Journals

Books




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